Apollo’s Lyre Greek Music and Music Theory in Antiquity and the Middle Ages Ancient Greek music and music theory has fascinated scholars for cen- turies not only because of its intrinsic interest as a part of ancient Greek cul- ture but also because the Greeks’ grand concept of music has continued to stimulate musical imaginations to the present day. Unlike earlier treatments of the subject, Apollo's Lyre is aimed principally at the reader interested in the musical typologies, the musical instruments, and especially the historical development of music theory and its transmission through the Middle Ages. The basic method and scope of the study are set out in a preliminary chapter, followed by two chapters concentrating on the role of music in Greek society, musical typology, organology, and performance practice. The next chapters are devoted to the music theory itself, as it developed in three stages: in the treatises of Aristoxenus and the Sectio canonis; during the period of revival in the second century C.E.; and in late antiquity. Each theorist and treatise is considered separately but always within the context of the emerging traditions. The theory provides a remarkably complete and coherent system for explaining and analyzing musical phenomena, and a great deal of its conceptual framework, as well as much of its terminology, was borrowed and adapted by medieval Latin, Byzantine, and Arabic music theorists, a legacy reviewed in the final chapter. Transcriptions and analyses of some of the more complete pieces of Greek music preserved on papyrus or stone, or in manuscript, are integrated with a consideration of the musico- poetic types themselves. The book concludes with a comprehensive bibliography for the field, updating and expanding the author's earlier Bibliography of Sources for the Study of Ancient Greek Music. Thomas J. Mathiesen is David H. Jacobs Distinguished Professor of Music and Director of the Center for the History of Music Theory and Litera- ture at Indiana University.Publications of the Center for the History of Music Theory and Literature Thomas J. Mathiesen, Director Indiana University volume 2Avouro ’S LYRE ae GREEK MUSIC AND MUSIC THEORY IN ANTIQUITY AND THE MIDDLE AGES Thomas J. Mathiesen University of Nebraska Press Lincoln and London© 1999 by the University of Nebraska Press All rights reserved Manufactured in the United States of America ® Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Mathiesen, Thomas J. Apollo's Lyre : Greek music and music theory in antiquity and the Middle Ages / Thomas J. Mathiesen. P. cm. — (Publications of the Center for the History of Music Theory and Literature : v. 2) Includes bibliographical references (p._) and indexes. ISBN -8032-3079-6 (cloth : alk. paper) 1. Music, Greek and Roman—History and criticism. 2. Music— Theory—To 500. 3. Music—Theory—500-1400. _I. Title. IL. Series. ML160.M428 2000 99-35248 780'.938—de21 CIPUxori carissimae sacrum nepigpov IInveRSneia repicoot yovoikOv el36c te péyebc ve 188 gpévas Evbov Hous. Odyssey 18.245-249BLANK PAGEContents Preface ... xi I. Introduction .... 1 Overview and Sources 6 Literature Graphic and Plastic Art Archaeological Remains Notated Musical Compositions Methodology .. IL. Musical Life in Ancient Greece ... Music and Melos ... Types of Music and Their Function . Music for the Gods . Hymn Paean 6. Nomos Dithyramb Prosodion Partheneia Hyporcheme Music in the Theatre Music for the Mortals Hymenaios and epithalamion Threnody .. Epinikion and encomium . Skolion and sillos .. Miscellaneous types, military music, 126 131 135, 141 151 and folk song Ill. Musical Instruments .... Idiophones and Membranophones Krotala .. Kroupezai or Kroupala viiviii Kumbala or Krembala Seistron and Rhombos Rhoptron and Tumpana . Aerophones Aulos Origin and history Construction and types Reeds ... Reconstruction and performance practice « Syrinx Hydraulis .. Salpinx and Horn Chordophones . Origin, History, and Types Lyres .. Chely: Construction ... Tuning and the number of strings .. Performance practice and the plectrum Social function . Barbitos .. Phorminx Kithara Psalteria Psalterion and epigoneion Magadis, pektis, and phoenix Trigonon and sambuke ... The Apulian instrument . The pandoura and skindapsos IV. Music Theory I: The Sources, Aristoxenus, and the Sectio canonis Overview of the Sources .. Aristoxenus Harmonica De principiis Elementa harmonicaRhythmica .... The Sectio Canonis .. V. Music Theory I: The Revival Plutarch Cleonides .. Nicomachus of Gerasa Manuale harmonices Manuale harmonicum Theon of Smyrna . Claudius Ptolemy .. VI. Music Theory II: Late Antiquity Gaudentius ... Porphyrius .. Aristides Quintilianus Bacchius Alypius VIL. The Tradition in the Middle Age: Bibliography .. Index of Name: Index of Places and Subjects.BLANK PAGEPreface ars for centuries, as the vast quantity of literature published since the fifteenth century readily attests. But why should this be so? Unlike the other art forms of ancient Greece, the actual sounds of ancient Greek music are forever lost. All that remains are a few notated compositions—most of which are many cen- turies younger than the Greece of Plato and Aristotle, Sophocles and Euripides—and a very small number of archaeological frag- ments of musical instruments. Nevertheless, none of the other ancient Greek art forms was held in such high esteem by the ancients themselves, whose painters and sculptors never tired of showing the Greeks making music, and none could claim such exceptional powers as were commonly attributed to music by the poets, playwrights, and philosophers, in whose work music and musical matters are employed for literary purposes, described, or treated as a subject of technical or scientific inquiry. Surely, then, the task of recovering this lost art and all that pertained to it was worth the effort, as it seemed to early generations of scholars, and there can be little question that they were motivated by the goal of discovering a kind of musical philosopher's stone. As more and more material was published and studied, later generations began to discover in it useful models for the development of their own theories of music, aesthetics, musical forms, musical psychology, and so on. Thus, the study of ancient Greek music and music the- ory developed not only because of its intrinsic interest as a part of ancient Greek culture but also because the Greeks’ grand concept of music has continued to stimulate musical imaginations to the present day. A number of monographs on ancient Greek music have been published over the years, including several since 1990. The reader might therefore reasonably wonder why another is needed. In A ncient Greek music and music theory has fascinated schol- xixii Apollo's Lyre response, I can only say that the present volume reflects the method and perspective of a musicologist, aimed principally at the reader interested in the musical typologies, the musical instruments, and especially the historical development of music theory and its transmission through the Middle Ages. By contrast, the treatments by Martin West, Warren Anderson, and most recently John G. Landels were written from the perspective of the classicist; their interests, assumptions, aims, concentration, critical perspective, and conclusions are fundamentally different from mine. While I do not agree with all their conclusions, I certainly recommend their works to the interested reader. No single disci- pline or method can claim sole authority in this field. Apollo’s Lyre has had a long and somewhat fitful gestation. I first outlined it in 1979 and sent the outline in 1981 to Dr. Willis Regier, then Associate Editor at the University of Nebraska Press, marking the beginning of a productive association with him of more than fourteen years’ duration as he subsequently became Editor-in-Chief and then Director of the Press. Later in 1981, the Press accepted the book for publication, and I projected its comple- tion for sometime in 1986, by which time I had expected to see two prior commitments—a translation of the treatise of Aristides Quintilianus and my catalogue raisonné of Greek manuscripts for the Répertoire International des Sources Musicales (RISM)— through to publication. Such was not to be. Aristides Quintilianus was published in 1983, but as I worked on the catalogue, it grew ever larger as I found more and more manuscripts, each of which had to be separately described. Eventually though, the work was completed, and the catalogue was published in 1988. Meanwhile, Dr. Regier and I decided to establish at the Univer- sity of Nebraska Press a new series of critical texts with facing-page translations. This new series, Greek and Latin Music Theory, was launched under my editorial direction in 1982, with the first two volumes published in 1984. Over the next ten years, ten volumes were published. Much of the 1980s was devoted to all these proj- ects, but along the way, I continued to gather material for Apollo’s Lyre, and it gradually began to take shape. In 1990, I was awarded a Guggenheim Fellowship to work on Apollo's Lyre. For the first time, I was able to devote nearly my full attention to the book. The first three chapters and most of the fourth were completed during this year, and I anticipated complet-Preface xiii ing the rest of the book within the following year. Once again, however, unanticipated projects intervened. In late 1989 and early 1990, a group of scholars began discussing the possibility of forming a full-text database of the entire corpus of Latin music theory, ranging from the De musica of Augustine through the sixteenth century, discussions that eventually led to the establishment of the Thesaurus Musicarum Latinarum (TML), with the project center under my direction at Indiana University and associated centers at Louisiana State University, Ohio State University, Princeton University, the University of Colorado- Boulder, and the University of Nebraska-Lincoln. During the first couple of years, the TML grew rather slowly, but in 1992 and 1994, the project received two generous grants from the National Endowment for the Humanities, and by the end of 1998, the TML included nearly five million words of text accompanied by more than four thousand graphics, all fully searchable and available to scholars free of charge worldwide on the Internet. This project, together with work on the new editions of the New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians and Strunk's Source Readings in Music History, had to take precedence, it seemed to me, and Apollo’s Lyre accordingly languished for a time with only four of its strings. Over the last two and a half years, with other commitments largely fulfilled, I was at last able to turn most of my attention to this book. The first four chapters were completely revised and three more were added: Apollo’s Lyre now has its full comple- ment of seven strings, in which I hope readers will find a harmo- nious presentation of the endlessly fascinating subject of ancient Greek music and music theory. Throughout the long gestation of this book, the University of Nebraska Press has remained patient and supportive. It is there- fore a special pleasure to acknowledge in the first place its former and long-time Director, Dr. Willis Regier (now Director of the University of Illinois Press), without whose vision and enthusi- asm over the years, neither this book nor the many others with which I have been involved at the Press would ever have seen the light of day. My long association with him has been a great privilege and pleasure.Apollo's Lyre I should also like to take this opportunity to acknowledge the many who have been unfailingly generous with their advice, assistance, correction, and encouragement, especially my friends and colleagues at Indiana University, Professor Malcolm H. Brown, Professor George J. Buelow, Dr. John W. Clower, and Dr. Andreas Giger; and at other universities, Dr. André Barbera (St. John’s University), Professor Calvin Bower (University of Notre Dame), Professor Edward N. O'Neil (University of Southern California), Professor Claude V. Palisca (Yale University), and Professor Jon Solomon (University of Arizona). I remain very grateful to the John Simon Guggenheim Memo- rial Foundation for my Fellowship in 1990, during which the first part of this book was written. For advice and assistance in acquiring the illustrations for this book, I am very much indebted to two further friends and col- leagues: Professor Steven Bule and Professor Martha Maas. In addition, I am most grateful to the following institutions and individuals for granting me permission to reproduce the various illustrations of works of art and artifacts that appear on the follow- ing pages: Brussels, Musées Royaux d’Art et d’Histoire (Mrs. Viviane Xhignesse); Copenhagen, National Museum, Department of Classical and Near Eastern Antiquities (Mrs. Bodil Bundgaard Rasmussen); Essen, Ruhrlandmuseum (Dr. Charlotte Triimpler); Frankfurt am Main, Stadtische Galerie Liebieghaus (Brigitte Gaebe); London, British Museum; Munich, Staatliche Antiken- sammlungen und Glyptothek (Dr. F. W. Hamdorf); Naples, Soprintendenza Archeologica delle Province di Napoli e Caserta (Stefano de Caro); New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art; New York, Art Resource (Diana Reeve); Paris, Bibliotheque Nationale; Paris, Musée du Louvre, Département des Antiquités Grecques, Etrusques et Romaines (Brigitte Tailliez); Schwerin, Staatliches Museum, Kunstsammlungen, Schlésser und Garten (Dr. Karin Moller); Taranto, Soprintendenza Archeologica della Puglia- Taranto (Dr. Giuseppe Andreassi); and Wurzburg, Martin von Wagner Museum (Dr. Irma Wehgartner). Finally, I could never adequately acknowledge or express the enormous debt I owe to my wife, Penelope, for her assistance in countless ways (including the preparation of yet another index to one of my books), her selfless patience and ability to dispel every worry and discouragement, and her invariably sensible advice.Preface She has been and always will be my inspiration, and this book is lovingly dedicated to her. It is a pleasure to share with all these individuals and institu- tions whatever praise may be due this book. I reserve to myself, of course, whatever errors and inadequacies may be perceived here, which I nevertheless hope, following the model of Aristides Quintilianus, will stimulate others to improve upon my efforts and “lay down complete in one treatment the things that pertain to music.” Thomas J. Mathiesen April, 1999 xvBLANK PAGEI Introduction architecture, town planning, and the various associated sciences, was also a student of ancient Greek music theory— especially the tradition known as “harmonics.” This was a trying subject, even for a polymath of the first century B.C.E., as his remarkable treatise De architectura reveals: “Harmonics is an obscure and difficult musical subject, particularly for those who do not know Greek letters.”! Vitruvius was writing about a music theory still current in his own time, and there would be others after him who would write extended treatments, until the music and its theory were largely forgotten in the fifth and sixth centuries of the present era. All of these writers recognized the “difficulty” of this subject, even though it was not remote from their own time. When the Renaissance humanists began to rediscover the for- gotten cultural treasures of antiquity,? they were intrigued by the legendary powers and quality of the music of ancient Greece, but they were frustrated by the special difficulties that presented themselves in recapturing the music of an earlier time. Sculpture, architecture, and literature all exist in tangible and more or less permanent form. But music, as a sounding medium, is evanes- cent. It can be described, it can be made the subject of theory, but it remains elusive. The humanists were also hampered by an V itruvius, one of the most learned men of his day in “Harmonica autem est musica litteratura obscura et difficilis, maxime qui- dem quibus graecae litterae non sunt notae.” De architectura 5.4.1. The treatise was written sometime in the first century B.C.E. Unless otherwise noted, all translations are mine. 2Forgotten at least in the West. Byzantine and Arabic scholars, however, had continued to study this material in an almost unbroken line. See chapter 7.Apollo's Lyre absence of notated pieces of music, incomplete or imperfect manuscripts of texts they wished to read, and only a limited knowledge of other valuable pieces of evidence, iconographic and archaeological. Still, they worked at their studies with great inten- sity, experiencing some illumination but also considerable frustra- tion with this “obscure and difficult musical subject.” One of the most learned of these musically inclined humanists, Girolamo Mei, wrote to his mentor Piero Vettori, on 21 February 1562: “I had to turn completely around more than twice in trying to find out the truth for myself. I swear to you that I have passed more than ten nights without sleeping because of these trifles.”> In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, more and more of the theoretical and literary sources that speak of ancient Greek music began to appear and be widely circulated in published form. Perhaps the most important of these publications was Marcus Meibom’s Antiquae musicae auctores septem, an edition of seven Greek treatises with parallel translations in Latin, a book of some 800 pages published in 1652 when Meibom was only twenty-two years old.4 Meibom’s edition complemented Athanasius Kircher’s famous Musurgia universalis, published in 1650, and both of these influenced John Wallis’s 1682 and 1699 editions of two trea- tises Meibom had not included in his collection: the Harmonica of 3”... ho creduto pid di due volte aver a girare nel voler rinvenirne il vero, e vi giuro che delle notte piti di dieci ho passate senza sono intorno a queste taccole.” The letter is preserved in London, British Library, Additional 10268, ff. 224r- 225r. See Donatella Restani, L’Itinerario di Girolamo Mei dalla «poetica» alla musica, con un’ appendice di testi (Firenze: Olschki, 1990), 178-81; and Claude V. Palisca, Girolamo Mei, Letters on Ancient and Modern Music to Vincenzo Galilei and Giovanni Bardi, Musicological Studies and Documents, no. 3 (n.p.: American Institute of Musicology, 1960), 180-82, where the transcription differs in a few details. This quotation and that of Vitruvius were drawn to my attention by Claude V. Palisca, “Introductory Notes on the Historiography of the Greek Modes,” Journal of Musicology 3 (1984): 221 4Antiquae musicae auctores septem, Graece et Latine, Marcus Meibomius restituit ac notis explicavit, 2 vols. (Amsterdam: Elzevir, 1652). The collection includes the Sectio canonis (attributed to Euclid) and the treatises of Aristoxenus, Cleonides (attributed to Euclid), Nicomachus, Alypius, Gaudentius, Bacchius, and Aristides Quintilianus, as well as Book IX of Martianus Capella’s De nuptiis Philologiae et Mercurii. A reprint is available as volume 51 in the series Monu- ments of Music and Music Literature in Facsimile, second series (New York: Broude Bros., 1977).Introduction Claudius Ptolemy and Porphyrius’s commentary.5 These substan- tial and highly technical publications provided eighteenth-century scholars with a wealth of material that, on the one hand, appealed to their antiquarian and historical interests and, on the other hand, offered rallying points for arguments about the purpose and meaning of music. Lorenz Christoph Mizler and Johann Matthe- son, for example, drew on ostensibly divergent trends in the Greek sources to bolster their own aesthetic differences, while his- torians such as F. W. Marpurg, G. B. Martini, and Sir John Hawkins tried to develop coherent historical surveys.¢ To some, however, the work of these centuries seemed only to add to the obscurity and difficulty of the subject. At the beginning of the nineteenth century, Raphael Georg Kiesewetter would write in his Geschichte der europiiisch-abendlindischen oder unserer heutigen Musik: “The ancient Greek music may be described as having died in its infancy, a lovely child indeed, but incapable of reaching maturity; and so far as mankind was concerned, its decay was not a loss to be deplored.”” 5Athanasius Kircher, SJ., Musurgia universalis, 2 vols. (Romae, ex typographia hzredum Francisci Corbelletti, 1650). John Wallis, ed., KAAYAIOY TITOAEMAIOY APMONIKQN BIBAIA I. Ex codd. MSS. undecim, nunc primum Graece editus (Oxonii, e Theatro Sheldoniano, 1682); reprinted with a Latin translation in Wallis’s Operum mathematicorum, 3 vols. (Oxoniae, e Theatro Sheldoniano, 1699), 3:i-xii, 1-152. This latter publication also includes (3:185- 355) his text and translation for Porphyrius: “Topevpiov eic tk &ppovicd Titokeuciov bxbyvnua. Nunc primum ex codd. mss. (Graece et Latine) editus.” In addition to the several sections devoted to Greek notation and Greek the- ory, the Musurgia (1:541-42) contains the famous forgery of the music for Pindar’s Pythian 1.1-8, as a “musicae veteris specimen.” See Egert Pohimann, Denkmiiler altgriechischer Musik, Erlanger Beitrige zur Sprach- und Kunstwissenschaft, vol. 31 (Niirnberg: Hans Carl, 1970), 47-49. ©Mattheson allied himself with the progressives by using the pseudonym “Aristoxenus the Younger” in his Phthongologia systematica (Hamburg: Martini, 1748). On the conflict between Mattheson and Mizler, see Lukas Richter, “Psellus’ Treatise on Music’ in Mizler’s ‘Bibliothek,’” in Studies in Eastern Chant, vol. 2, ed. MiloS Velimirovié (London: Oxford University Press, 1971), 112-28. Major sections on ancient Greek music appear in Marpurg’s Kritische Ein- leitung in die Geschichte und Lehrsiitze der alten und newen Musik (Berlin: G. A. Lange, 1759); Martini’s Storia della musica, 3 vols. (Bologna: Lelio della Volpe, 1757-81); and Hawkins’s A General History of the Science and Practice of Music, 5 vols. (London: T. Payne and Son, 1776). 7*Die altgriechische Musik starb in ihrer Kindheit; ein liebenswiirdiges Kind, aber unfahig je zur Reife zu gelangen. Fur die Menschheit war ihr Unter-Apollo's Lyre In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, still greater control of the literary sources was accomplished, and a fair amount of actual music notated on stone and papyrus and in manuscripts began to be discovered.8 Two of these pieces are extended paeans to Apollo, leader of the Muses and patron of music. In the first, an anonymous composition dating from the late second century B.CE,, the poet writes: The shrill roaring lotus plays a song with coiling mele, and the golden kithara, the sweet-sounding kithara, accompanies the hymns. And all the artists, dwellers in Attica, hymn your glory, god, famed for playing the Kithara, son of great Zeus .... The discovery of actual pieces of music with such evocative texts excited scholars and musicians all over Europe with the prospect of understanding the legendary powers of Greek music, heighten- ing an enthusiasm for the subject that had been growing through- out the nineteenth century. Friedrich Nietzsche’s Basel lecture gang kein Verlust.” Geschichte der europiiisch-abendlindischen oder unserer heutigen Musik: Darstellung ihres Ursprungs, ihres Wachstumes und ihrer stufenweise Entwickelung; von dem ersten Jahrhundert des Christentumes bis auf unsere Zeit (Leipzig: Breitkopf und Hartel, 1834); translated by Robert Miiller as History of the Modern Music of Western Europe: From the First Century of the Christian Era to the Present (London: Newby, 1848), 1. 8See especially Karl von Jan, Musici scriptores graeci. Aristoteles. Euclides. Nicomachus. Bacchius. Gaudentius. Alypius et melodiarum veterum quidquid exstat (Leipzig: Teubner, 1895; reprint, Hildesheim: Olms, 1962); and J. F. Bellermann, Die Hymmnen des Dionysius und Mesomedes (Berlin: Forstner, 1840). ‘Those known by 1970 are examined in PéhImann, Denkmiiler. Brief discussions of many of the pieces appear as well in Giovanni Comotti, Music in Greek and Roman Culture, trans. Rosaria V. Munson (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins Univer- sity Press, 1989), 99-120; and Martin L. West, Ancient Greek Music (Oxford: Clarendon, 1992), 283-326 (preceded by an updated list of the pieces). Some of the extant pieces of music will be transcribed and discussed in the following chapters. 9... huyd BE Aotods Bpénov aciddorois ulEJAeaw Grdadw Kpéxer xpucéc 8° G560pov[c] [xi]Papic tnvorow dvapéAnetar. ‘O St [texvi]twdv xpdrag topd¢ "A08iSa Acxd[v] [tov KBapiJoer KAvrdv naida ueyidov [Atde duvodat oe .... Delphi Inv. Nr. 517, 526, 494, 499. See Pohlmann, Denkmiiler, 61. A revised date and a composer for this piece have recently been proposed by Annie Bélis, “A pro- posito degli «Inni delfici»,” in La musica in Grecia, ed. Bruno Gentili and Roberto Pretagostini, Storia e societa (Roma-Bari: Laterza, 1988), 205-18; and idem, Les deux hymnes delphiques a Apollon: Etude épigraphique et musicale, Corpus des inscriptions de Delphes, vol. 3 (Paris: de Boccard, 1992), 54-55.Introduction “Das griechische Musikdrama”!? found a receptive audience in Richard Wagner, who was particularly interested in ancient Greek drama and the pervasive use of music in the theatre of the Greeks. His conception of Der Ring des Nibelungen was pro- foundly influenced by his understanding of Greek Musikdrama. Not everyone, however, shared in the enthusiasm. Giuseppe Verdi, with reference to the paean to Apollo, offered the laconic remark: “I saw it, but understood nothing”; and concluded: “Research into the art of Greek music is pointless.”11 All the discoveries of the previous centuries, not to mention the ever-growing body of secondary literature on the subject, made Vitruvius’s remark a classic understatement. When Wilfrid Perrett addressed the Royal Musical Association in England in 1932, he recalled: The only professor of Greek I have ever known who was also a musician always refused on principle to give me any help with a stiff passage from a Greek author on music. His reply was always the same: “Put that stuff away. Nobody has ever made head or tail of Greek music, and nobody ever will. That way madness lies." While the study of ancient Greek music and music theory may at times be maddening indeed (we might say this of any music), it ultimately reveals a relatively complete view of a complex musi- cal culture—a culture that has exerted a profound influence for more than two thousand years. Though we may never be able to reconstruct every detail of the music of the ancient Greeks, by pro- ceeding in a careful and methodical way, as free from preconcep- tions as possible, we can develop the quite complete picture of 10The lecture was originally delivered at the University of Basel on 18 January 1870. Nietzsche read the lecture to Wagner during a visit to his home on 11 June 1870. See Martin Gregor-Dellin and Dietrich Mack, eds., Cosima Wagner's Diaries, volume 1, 1869-1877, trans. Geoffrey Skelton (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1978), 231-32. See also Richard Giinther, “Richard Wagner und die Antike,” Neue Jahrbiicher 16 (1913): 323-37. 11The remarks are recorded in two separate reminiscences: the first in Italo Pizzi, Ricordi verdiani inediti (Turin: Roux e Viarengo, 1901); the second in Arnaldo Bonaventura, Ricordi ¢ ritratti (fra quelli che ho conosciuto), Quaderni dell’ Accademia Chigiana, vol. 24 (Siena: Ticci, 1950). Both are quoted in Marcello Conati, Interviews and Encounters with Verdi, trans. Richard Stokes (London: Gollancz, 1984), 285 and 347. 12Wilfrid Perrett, “The Heritage of Greece in Music,” Proceedings of the Musical Association 58 (1931-32): 85.