Mane Galarraga’s RQsMane Galarraga’s RQs

1-Bacteria use adherence fimbriae (pili) to overcome the body’s defense

mechanism and cause disease. Pili are small hairs that enable some
pathogens to attach and adhere easily to cell surface particularly mucous
membranes

2-Dextran: 1. Glucose polymer 2. Insoluble 3. Highly adhesive 4. Important

in smooth surface caries Important role in forming the bulk of the plaque,
which gives the plaque its diffusion limiting properties, thus allowing the
retention of acids on the tooth surface. Levan:1. Fructose polymer 2. Water
soluble 3. Less adhesive 4. Act as a store of carbohydrate
Dextrans are polysaccharides of glucose produced extracel lularly by
bacteria and yeast. The enzyme used to produce dextrans is glucosyl
transferase (dextran sucrase), and the substrate is sucrose. A side product
of dextran production is fructose which is formed into I evans (fructans) and
stored intracellularly as reserve nutrients.

3-Lipid A is a lipid component of an endotoxin held responsible for

the toxicity of gram-negative bacteria.
M protein: is a virulence factor that can be produced by certain species of
Streptococcus. Viruses, parasites and bacteria are covered in protein and
sugar molecules that help them gain entry into a host by counteracting the
host's defences. One such molecule is the M protein produced by certain
streptococcal bacteria.
Protein A is a surface protein originally found in the cell wall of the
bacteria Staphylococcus aureus.

4-Rickettsia prowazekii is a species of gram-negative, alphaproteobacteria,

obligate intracellular parasitic, aerobic Bacillus bacteria that is the etiologic
agent of epidemic typhus, transmitted in the feces of lice

5-Myasthenia gravis is a chronic autoimmune neuromuscular disease that

causes weakness in the skeletal muscles, which are responsible for
breathing and moving parts of the body, including the arms and legs. The
name myasthenia gravis, which is Latin and Greek in origin, means
"grave, or serious, muscle weakness.
-One of the most common causes
of hyperthyroidism is Graves' disease, an autoimmune process in which
the patient's immune cells make antibodies against the thyroid stimulating
hormone (TSH) receptor on the thyroid gland cells.

6-Clostridium is a genus of Gram-positive bacteria, They are obligate

anaerobes capable of producing endospores. rod-shaped, inhabitant of the
healthy lower reproductive tract of women.

7-Clostridium tetani: inhibitory neurotransmitter,The clinical manifestations

of tetanus are caused when tetanus toxin blocks inhibitory impulses, by
interfering with the release of neurotransmitters,
including glycine and gamma-aminobutyric acid.

8-✓Measles and mumps viruses belong to the Paramyxovirus Family and

are enveloped, non- segmented, negative-sense RNA viruses with helical
symmetry. (Rubella virus is a member of the Togavirus Family and is an
enveloped, non- segmented, positive-sense RNA virus with icosahedral
symmetry).

9-Acetaminophen overdose. Taking too much acetaminophen (Tylenol,

others) is the most common cause of acute liver failure in the United
States
10-MOA:Fluorouracil used to treat cancersm A pyrimidine analog that is an
antineoplastic antimetabolite. It interferes with DNA synthesis by blocking
the thymidylate synthetase conversion of deoxyuridylic acid to thymidylic
acid.

11-MOArifampicin : Used to treat tuberculosis in combination with other

antibiotics
Rifampicin inhibits bacterial DNA-dependent RNA synthesis by inhibiting
bacterial DNA-dependent RNA polymerase.
Sulfonamide MOA: antimicrobial action involves competitive inhibition of
folic acid synthesis which prevents the growth and reproduction of
microorganisms.Due to this mechanism of action,sulfonamides belong to
the group of bacteriostatic agents.

12-What is the intracellular element of glucagon

cAMP ** Binds with g protien
AMP
ADP
ATP

13-Squamous metaplasia is a benign non-cancerous change (metaplasia)

of surfacing lining cells (epithelium) to a squamous morphology
Common sites for squamous metaplasia include
the bladder and cervix. Smokers often exhibit squamous metaplasia in the
linings of their airways. These changes don't signify a specific disease, but
rather usually represent the body's response to stress or irritation. Vitamin
A deficiency or overdose can also lead to squamous metaplasia0

14-Thrombin: It is a serine protease with essential functions in blood

coagulation and in numerous other regulatory processes. Know
natural substrates for thrombin include coagulation factors V, VIII, XI and
XIII, protein C and fibrinogen.

15-Heptan: a small molecule which, when combined with a larger carrier

such as a protein, can elicit the production of antibodies which bind
specifically to it (in the free or combined state)

16-Umami represents the taste of the amino acid L-glutamate

17-Apoptosis: Apoptosis is a process of programmed cell death that occurs
in multicellular organisms
 Autolysis:
 degradative reactions in cells caused by indigenous intracellular
enzymes – usually occurs after cell death
 Irreversible (along with Coagulative necrosis or infarcts) –
reversible: fatty degeneration, & hydropic degeneration
 Autolysin:
 Ab causing cellular lysis in the presence of complement
 Autolytic enzymes produced by the organism degrade the cell’s
own cell wall structures
 In the presence of cephalosporins & penicillins, growing bacterial
cells lyse
 W/o functional cell wall structures, the bacterial cell bursts
 Heterolysis: cellular degradation by enzymes derived from sources
extrinsic to the cell (e.g., bacteria)
 Necrosis: sum of intracellular degradative reactions occurring after
individual cell death w/in a living organism.

18- Hydroxylation of proline: The most frequently hydroxylated residue in

human proteins is proline. This is due to the fact that collagen,and need Vit
C

19- The periosteum consists of dense irregular connective tissue. It is

divided into an outer "fibrous layer" and inner "cambium layer" (or
"osteogenic layer"). The fibrous layer contains fibroblasts, while the
cambium layer contains progenitor cells that develop into osteoblasts.

20- Difficult to move thumb due to which nerve? Median N

21- The esophagus is a 25-cm long muscular tube that connects the
pharynx to the stomach. ... The esophagus extends from the lower border
of the cricoid cartilage (at the level of the sixth cervical vertebra) to the
cardiac orifice of the stomach at the side of the body of the 11th thoracic
vertebra.

22- Meisseiner’s corpuscle responsible for? Fine touch, sensitive to light

touch.
23- Keratohyalin is a protein structure found in granules in the stratum
granulosum of the epidermis, which may be involved in keratinization, and
in Hassall's corpuscles in the thymus. In H&E stained sections, they are
large deeply stained granules found in the cytoplasm of epithelial cells in
keratinized oral mucosa.

24- IgA: Saliva.

25- The muscles of the larynx adjust the length and tension of the vocal
folds to ‘fine-tune’ pitch and tone.
26- Alcoholic: Mallory bodies.

27- Most frequent form of varicosities. Sup. Vein leg.

28- Secreting endometrium: Luteal phase.

29- Seminiferous tubules are located within the testes, and are the
specific location of meiosis, and the subsequent creation of male gametes,
namely spermatozoa.

30- Ligamentum teres = umbilical vein=ligament of the liver.

31- Inferior parathyroid = 3-4 pouch.

32- Origin of pons and medulla = Rhombencephalon.

33- A man of 40 years with increased level of acid phosphatase: prostatic

cancer.

34- How do you diagnose cystic fibrosis: Cl and Na.

35- Tay-Sachs is caused by the absence of a vital enzyme called

hexosaminidase-A (Hex-A). Without Hex-A, a fatty substance, or lipid,
called GM2 ganglioside accumulates abnormally in cells, especially in the
 nerve cells of the brain. This ongoing accumulation causes progressive
damage to the cells.

36- Most common cause of infract brain

A- lipohyalinosis.
B- non control hypertension.
C-restricted blood supply.

37- Diabetes insipidus (DI) is a condition characterized by large amounts

of dilute urine and increased thirst. The amount of urine produced can be
nearly 20 liters per day. Reduction of fluid has little effect on the
concentration of the urine. Complications may include dehydration or
seizures.

38- GI cancer = villous adenoma.

39- Most common type of anemia: deficiency of iron.

40- There are six types of necrosis:

 Coagulative necrosis. Common type.
 Liquefactive necrosis.
 Caseous necrosis.
 Fat necrosis.
 Fibroid necrosis.
 Gangrenous necrosis.

41- Crypts of Lieberkuhn. The epithelia of the villi extend down into the
lamina propria where they formcrypts. Many important cells reside in
the crypts, including those involed in host defense and signaling. In
addition, stem cells that replenish the epithelial cells further up the villi are
also found in the crypts.
Where are the crypts of Lieberkuhn located?
Intestinal glands of the small intestine contain a base of replicating stem
cells, Paneth cells of the innate immune system, and goblet cells, which
produce mucus. In the colon, crypts do not have Paneth cells.

42- Segmentation involves contractions of the circular muscles in the

digestive tract, while peristalsis involves rhythmic contractions of the
longitudinal muscles in the gastrointestinal tract.
Unlike peristalsis, segmentation actually can slow progression of chyme

through the system.

43- The lining of the jejunum is specialized for the absorption,

by enterocytes, of small nutrient particles which have been previously
digested by enzymes in the duodenum. Once absorbed, nutrients (with the
exception of fat, which goes to the lymph) pass from the enterocytes into
the enterohepatic circulation and enter the liver via the hepatic portal vein,
where the blood is processed.[7] The jejunum is involved in magnesium
absorptio

44- Centroacinar cells are spindle-shaped cells in the exocrine pancreas.

Centroacinar cells are an extension of the intercalated duct cells into each
pancreatic acinus.[1] The intercalated ducts take the bicarbonate
to intralobular ducts which become lobular ducts. These lobular ducts
finally converge to form the main pancreatic duct.[1]
These cells are commonly known as duct cells, and secrete an
aqueous bicarbonate solution under stimulation by the hormone secretin.
They also secrete mucin
45- The vagus nerve supplies motor parasympathetic fibres to all the
organs (except the adrenal glands), from the neck down to the second
segment of the transverse colon. The vagus also controls a few skeletal
muscles, including:

 Cricothyroid muscle
 Levator veli palatini muscle
 Salpingopharyngeus muscle
 Palatoglossus muscle
 Palatopharyngeus muscle
 Superior, middle and inferior pharyngeal constrictors
  Muscles of the larynx (speech).
 The inferior ganglion gives off two branches: the
pharyngeal nerve and the superior laryngeal nerve. The recurrent
laryngeal nerve branches from thevagus in the lower neck and upper
thorax toinnervate the muscles of the larynx (voice box). ...

46- Rapid depolarization occurs when fast‐opening Na + channels in

the sarcolemma open and allow an influx of Na + ions into the cardiac
muscle cell. The Na + channels rapidly close.

-A plateau phase occurs during which Ca 2+ enters the cytosol of the

muscle cell.

47- Glycoprotein hormones (or gonadotropins) are protein hormones,

that includes the mammalian hormones follicle-stimulating
hormone (FSH, also known asfollitropin), luteinizing hormone (LH, also
known as lutropin), thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH, also known
as thyrotropin) and human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)

48- lumbar puncture (L3/L4)

49-

50- Seven steps to understanding DNA fingerprinting:

 Extracting the DNA from cells

 Cutting up the DNA using an enzyme
 Separating the DNA fragments on a gel
 Transferring the DNA onto paper
 Adding the radioactive probe
 Setting up the X-ray film
 Yes - we've got the result!

51-

52- no wait.

53- The enamel rods at the cervix slope occlusally instead of gingivally as
in the permanent
teeth. Primary maxillary 1st molar and mandibular 1st molar? Prominent
cervical ridge

54- Which posterior teeth is most likely to be missing? Third molars,

maxillary third molar Second most congenitally missing tooth (next to
mandibular third molar).

55- b –ML-DL

56-after 5 y

57-

58- synovial fluid.

59-

60-ICP.

61- 1-3mm.
62-

63- posterior fibers of temporalis muscle.

64- oblique group.

65- I think only emergency treatment with Complete precautions for non-infection.

66 penetrate the parotid gland, and the facial nerve effected.