PERFORMANCE AND EMISSIONS

CHARACTERISTICS ON SINGLE
CYLINDER – FOUR STROKE-DIESELS
ENGINE BY USING TRIANGULAR
SHAPE PISTON CROWN
ABSTRACT
 ABSTRACT

The in-cylinder air motion in internal combustion engines is one of the

most important factors controlling the combustion process. It governs the fuel-air
mixing and burning rates in diesel engines. In this present work the experimental
investigation of air swirl in the cylinder upon the performance and emission of a
single cylinder diesel direct injection is presented. This intensification of the swirl
is done by the cutting grooves on the crown of the piston, by different
configurations of Triangular shape and normal pistons are investigating
performance and emission characteristics. Also performance are predicted to
compare the previous model with new triangular piston crown model. Experiments
are carried out on a diesel engine using Modified different configuration piston
which is a four stroke single cylinder air cooled and constant speed
engine.Performance parameters such as brake power, specific fuel consumption
and Thermal efficiency are calculated based on experimental analysis of the
engine. Emissions such as carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and un burnt
hydrocarbons are measured.
 Chapter-1
INTRODUCTION
 Chapter-1

INTRODUCTION
Internal combustion engines have been a relatively inexpensive and reliable
source of power for applications ranging from domestic use to large scale
industrial and transportation applications for most of the twentieth century.Diesel
engines, having the evident benefit of a higher thermal efficiency than all other
engines, have served for both light- duty and heavy-duty vehicles.

Automobile components are in great demand these days because of

increased use of automobiles. The increased demand is due to improved
performance and reduced cost of these components. R&D and testing engineers
should develop critical components in shortest possible time to minimize launch
time for new products. This necessitates understanding of new technologies and
quick absorption in the development of new products. A piston is a component of
reciprocating IC-engines. It is the moving component that is contained by a
cylinder and is made gas-tight by piston rings.

In an engine, its purpose is to transfer force from expanding gas in the

cylinder to the crankshaft via a piston rod and/or connecting rod. As an important
part in an engine, piston endures the cyclic gas pressure and the inertial forces at
work, and this working condition may cause the fatigue damage of piston, such as
piston side wear, piston head/crown cracks and so on. The investigations indicate
that the greatest stress appears on the upper end of the piston and stress
concentration is one of the mainly reason for fatigue failure.

On the other hand piston overheating seizure can only occur when
something burns or scrapes away the oil film that exists between the piston and the
cylinder wall. Understanding this, it’s not hard to see why oils with exceptionally
high film strengths are very desirable. Good quality oils can provide a film that
stands up to the most intense heat and the pressure loads of a modern high output
engine. Thermal analysis is a branch of materials science where the properties of
materials are studied as they change with temperature.

HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF ENGINE

A brief outline of the history of the internal combustion engine includes the
following highlights:

 1680 - Dutch physicist, Christian Huygens designed (but never built) an

internal combustion engine that was to be fueled with gunpowder.
 1807 - Francois Isaac de Rivaz of Switzerland invented an internal
combustion engine that used a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen for fuel.
Rivaz designed a car for his engine - the first internal combustion powered
automobile. However, his was a very unsuccessful design.
 1824 - English engineer, Samuel Brown adapted an old new comen steam
engine to burn gas, and he used it to briefly power a vehicle up Shooter's
Hill in London.
 1858 - Belgian-born engineer, Jean Joseph Étienne Lenoir invented and
patented (1860) a double-acting, electric spark-ignition internal combustion
engine fueled by coal gas. In 1863, Lenoir attached an improved engine
(using petroleum and a primitive carburetor) to a three-wheeled wagon that
managed to complete an historic fifty-mile road trip
 1862 - Alphonse Beau de Rochas, a French civil engineer, patented but did
not build a four-stroke engine (French patent #52,593, January 16, 1862).
 1864 - Austrian engineer, Siegfried Marcus, built a one-cylinder engine
with a crude carburetor, and attached his engine to a cart for a rocky 500-
 foot drive. Several years later, Marcus designed a vehicle that briefly ran at
10 mph that a few historians have considered as the forerunner of the
modern automobile by being the world's first gasoline-powered vehicle
 1873 - George Brayton, an American engineer, developed an unsuccessful
two-stroke kerosene engine (it used two external pumping cylinders).
However, it was considered the first safe and practical oil engine.  1866 -
German engineers, Eugen Langen and Nikolaus August Otto improved on
Lenoir's and de Rochas' designs and invented a more efficient gas engine. 

1876 - Nikolaus August Otto invented and later patented a successful four
stroke engine, known as the "Otto cycle".

TYPES OF ENGINES

There are two major cycles used in internal combustion engines: Otto and
Diesel. The Otto cycle is named after Nikolaus Otto (1832 – 1891) who developed
a four stroke engine in 1876. It is also called a spark ignition (SI) engine, since a
spark is needed to ignite the fuel-air mixture. The Diesel cycle engine is also called
a compression ignition (CI) engine, since the fuel will auto-ignite when injected
into the combustion chamber. The Otto and Diesel cycles operate on either a four-
or two stoke cycle. Since the invention of the internal combustion engine many
pistons-cylinder geometries have been designed. The choice of given arrangement
depends on a number of factors and constraints, such as engine balancing and
available volume:

 in line
 horizontally opposed
 radial
 V
HEAT ENGINES

Any type of engine or machine which derives heat energy from the combustion of
fuel or any other source and coverts this energy into mechanical work is termed as
a heat engine. Heat engines may be classified as:

 External Combustion Engines

 Internal Combustion Engines

1. External combustion engines (e.c. engines)

In this case, combustion of fuel takes place outside of the cylinder as in case of
steam engines where the heat of combustion is employed to generate steam which
is used to move a piston in a cylinder.

2. Internal Combustion Engines (I.C. Engines)

In this case, combustion of the fuel with oxygen of the air occurs within the
cylinder of the engine. The internal combustion engines group includes engines
employing mixtures of combustible gases and air, known as gas engines, those
using lighter liquid fuel or spirit known as petrol engines and those using heavier
liquid fuels, known as oil compression or diesel engines. Even though internal
combustion engines look quite simple, they are highly complex machines. There
are hundreds of components which have to perform their functions satisfactorily to
produce output power. There are two types of engines

 Spark ignition engine (S.I engine)

 Compression ignition engine (C.I engine)

According to the cycle of operations again these engines are classified as

 Two-stroke engines
  Four-stroke engines

Two-stroke S.I engine

Dugald Clark invented the two stroke engine in the year 1878. The two strokes are
literally “suction” and “exhaust”. In two stroke engine the cycle is completed in
one revolution of the crank shaft. The main difference between two stroke and four
stroke engines is in the method of filling the fresh charge and removing the burnt
gases from the cylinder. In the four stroke engines these operations are performed
by the engine piston during the suction and exhaust strokes respectively. In a two
stroke engine, the filling process is accomplished by the charge compressed in the
crankcase or by a blower. The induction of the compressed charge moves out the
product of combustion through exhaust ports. Therefore no piston strokes are
required for these two operations. Two strokes are sufficient to complete the cycle,
one for compressing the fresh charge and the other for expansion or power stroke.

The cylinder/piston fit is one of the most important factors governing the
success of a home-built model engine. Material selection wise, the home
constructor has a number of choices but each has their own characteristics,
advantages, and disadvantages. The most common choices, in ascending order of
experience required, are:

 Steel liner, Cast Iron piston

 Cast Iron liner, Cast Iron piston
 Steel liner, Steel piston
 Steel liner, Aluminium piston, Cast Iron ring(s)

The normal temperature of gasoline engine exhaust is approximately 650ºC

(923ºK). This is also approximately the melting point of most aluminium alloys
and it is only the constant influx of ambient air that prevents the piston from
deforming and failing.

FOUR-STROKE ENGINE

The engine is an air-cooled one-cylinder 4-stroke Diesel engine. Front and side
views of the engine respectively. The engine is mounted on a base plate which is
installed in the seat of the internal combustion engine basic module. The speed of
the engine is set with a controller. To measure the exhaust temperature, the engine
is equipped with a temperature sensor, which is installed in the area of the exhaust
muffle. The connection for the exhaust hose is also located at the exhaust muffler
the engine can be started with a recoil starter. A pulley is mounted on the output
shaft of the engine, which is used to couple the engine to the dynamometer in the
brake unit.

CONSTRUCTIONAL FEATURES OF ENGINE:

The cross section of IC engine. A brief description of these parts is given below.
Cylinder

The cylinder of an IC engine constitutes the basic and supporting portion of the
engine power unit. Its major function is to provide space in which the piston can
operate to draw in the fuel mixture or air (depending upon spark ignition or
compression ignition), compress it, allow it to expand and thus generate power.
The cylinder is usually made of high-grade cast iron. In some cases, to give greater
strength and wear resistance with less weight, chromium, nickel and molybdenum
are added to the cast iron.
Piston

The piston of an engine is the first part to begin movement and to transmit power
to the crankshaft as a result of the pressure and energy generated by the
combustion of the fuel. The piston is closed at one end and open on the other end
to permit direct attachment of the connecting rod and its free action. The materials
used for pistons are grey cast iron, cast steel and aluminium alloy. However, the
modern trend is to use only aluminium alloy pistons in the tractor engine

Piston Rings

A ring groove is a recessed area located around the perimeter of the piston that is
used to retain a piston ring. Ring lands are the two parallel surfaces of the ring
groove which function as the sealing surface for the piston ring. A piston ring is an
expandable split ring used to provide a seal between the piston an the cylinder
wall. Piston rings are commonly made from cast iron. Cast iron retains the integrity
of its original shape under heat, load, and other dynamic forces. Piston rings seal
the combustion chamber, conduct heat from the piston to the cylinder wall, and
return oil to the crankcase. Piston ring size and configuration vary depending on
engine design and cylinder material. Piston rings commonly used on small engines
include the compression ring, wiper ring, and oil ring. A compression ring is the
piston ring located in the ring groove closest to the piston head. The compression
ring seals the combustion chamber from any leakage during the combustion
process. When the air-fuel mixture is ignited, pressure from combustion gases is
applied to the piston head, forcing the piston toward the crankshaft. The
pressurized gases travel through the gap between the cylinder wall and the piston
and into the piston ring groove. Combustion gas pressure forces the piston ring
against the cylinder wall to form a seal. Pressure applied to the piston ring is
approximately proportional to the combustion gas pressure.

A wiper ring is the piston ring with a tapered face located in the ring groove
between the compression ring and the oil ring. The wiper ring is used to further
seal the combustion chamber and to wipe the cylinder wall clean of excess oil.
Combustion gases that pass by the compression ring are stopped by the wiper ring.
An oil ring is the piston ring located in the ring groove closest to the crankcase.
The oil ring is used to wipe excess oil from the cylinder wall during piston
movement. Excess oil is returned through ring openings to the oil reservoir in the
engine block. Two-stroke cycle engines do not require oil rings because lubrication
is supplied by mixing oil in the gasoline, and an oil reservoir is not required.
Piston rings seal the combustion chamber, transferring heat to the cylinder wall and
controlling oil consumption. A piston ring seals the combustion chamber through
inherent and applied pressure. Inherent pressure is the internal spring force that
expands a piston ring based on the design and properties of the material used.
Inherent pressure requires a significant force needed to compress a piston ring In
addition to inherent pressure, a piston ring seals the combustion chamber through
applied pressure. Applied pressure is pressure applied from combustion gases to
the piston ring, causing it to expand. Some piston rings have a chamfered edge
opposite the running surface. This chamfered edge causes the piston ring to twist
when not affected by combustion gas pressures.

The piston acts as the movable end of the combustion chamber and must withstand
pressure fluctuations, thermal stress, and mechanical load. Piston material and
design contribute to the overall durability and performance of an engine. Most
pistons are made from die- or gravity-cast aluminum alloy. Cast aluminum alloy is
lightweight and has good structural integrity and low manufacturing costs. The
light weight of aluminum reduces the overall mass and force necessary to initiate
and maintain acceleration of the piston. This allows the piston to utilize more of
the force produced by combustion to power the application. Piston designs are
based on benefits and compromises for optimum overall engine performance
Connecting Rod

The connecting rod is a major link inside of a combustion engine. It connects the
piston to the crankshaft and is responsible for transferring power from the piston to
the crankshaft and sending it to the transmission. There are different types of
materials and production methods used in the creation of connecting rods. The
most common types of connecting rods are steel and aluminum. The most common
type of manufacturing processes are casting, forging and powdered metallurgy.
The connecting rod is the most common cause of catastrophic engine failure. It is
under an enormous amount of load pressure and is often the recipient of special
care to ensure that it does not fail prematurely. The sharp edges are sanded smooth
in an attempt to reduce stress risers on the rod. The connecting rod is also
shotpeened, or hardened, to increase its strength against cracking. In most high-
performance applications, the connecting rod is balanced to prevent unwanted
harmonics from creating excessive wear. The most common connecting rod found
in production vehicle engines is a cast rod. This type of rod is created by pouring
molten steel into a mold and then machining the finished product. This type of rod
is reliable for lower horsepower-producing engines and is the least expensive to
manufacture. The cast rod has been used in nearly every type of engine, from
gasoline to diesel, with great success.
Crankshaft

This is connected to the piston through the connecting rod and converts the linear
motion of the piston into the rotational motion of the flywheel. The journals of the
crankshaft are supported on main bearings, housed in the crankcase. Counter-
weights and the flywheel bolted to the crankshaft help in the smooth running of the
engine. The crankshaft is the part of an engine which translates reciprocating linear
piston motion into rotation. To convert the reciprocating motion into rotation, the
crankshaft has crankpins, additional bearing surfaces whose axis is offset from that
of the crank, to which the “big ends” of the connecting rod from each cylinder
attach. It typically connects to a flywheel, to reduce the pulsation characteristic of
the four stroke cycle, and sometimes a torsional or vibrational damper at the
opposite end, to reduce the torsion vibrations often caused along the length of the
crankshaft by the cylinders farthest from the output end acting on the torsion
elasticity of the metal
Camshaft

Camshaft is frequently called “brain” of the engine. This is so because its job is to
open and closed at just the right time during engine rotation, so that the maximum
power and efficient cleanout of exhaust to be obtained. The camshaft drives the
distributor to electrically synchronize spark ignition. Camshafts do their work
through eccentric "lobes" that actuate the components of the valve train. The
camshaft itself is forged from one piece of steel, on which the lobes are ground. On
single-camshaft engines there are twice as many lobes as there are cylinders, plus a
lobe for fuel pump actuation and a drive gear for the distributor. Driving the
camshaft is the crankshaft, usually through a set of gears or a chain or belt. The
camshaft always rotates at half of crank rpm, taking two full rotations of the
crankshaft to complete one rotation of the cam, to complete a four-stroke cycle.
The camshaft operates the lifters (also called tappets or cam followers) that in turn
operate the rest of the valve train. On "overhead valve" engines the lifters move
pushrods that move rocker arms that move valve stems.

Lifters can be of several types. The most common are hydraulic, mechanical
and roller lifters. Hydraulic lifters fill with oil that acts as a shock absorber to
eliminate clearance in the valve train. They are quiet and don't require periodic
adjustment. Mechanical lifters are solid metal and require scheduled adjustment for
proper valve clearance. These are used in high-rpm applications. Roller lifters use
a roller device at one end and can be hydraulic or mechanical. They are used in
applications where a very fast rate of valve lift is required.

Overlap is the point in crank rotation when both the intake and exhaust
valves are open simultaneously. This happens at the end of the exhaust stroke
when the exhaust valve is closing and the intake is opening. During the period of
overlap, the intake and exhaust ports can communicate with each other. Ideally,
you want the scavenge effect from the exhaust port to pull the air/fuel mixture
from the intake port into the combustion chamber to achieve more efficient
cylinder filling. A poorly designed cam and port combination, however, can cause
reversion, where exhaust gases push their way past the intake valve and into the
intake tract. Several factors influence how much overlap is ideal for your engine.
Small combustion chambers typically require minimal overlap, as do engines
designed to maximize low-rpm torque. Most current stock car racing engines
depend on high rpm to take advantage of better gear ratios, so more overlap is
normally helpful. When the revolutions per minute increase, the intake valve is
open for a shorter period of time. The same amount of air and fuel must be pulled
into the combustion chamber in less time, and the engine can use all the help it can
get to fill the chamber. Increasing the overlap can help here. Duration: The amount
of time (in degrees of rotation of the camshaft) that the lobe holds the valve off its
seat. Duration also affects the total lift of the valve because of the inherent
limitations to the rate-of-lift of the lifter itself. Duration is generally the most
important thing to consider when choosing a camshaft.

The point where the intake valve opens is critical to an engine's running
properly. If it opens too early, exhaust gases can get forced into the intake
manifold. This causes soot buildup on the intake runners, low engine vacuum and
low power. If the valve opens too late, less of the fuel/air mixture gets into the
combustion chamber and exhaust gases won't be as efficiently removed. If the
exhaust valve closes too early the desired "scavenging effect" will be less and
some exhaust gases can get trapped in the cylinder. If the valve closes too late an
excessive amount of fuel/air mixture will escape into the exhaust port and the
combustion chamber will not be optimized. The camshaft material should combine
a strong shaft with hard cam lobes. The most widely used material at present is
chilled or forged cast iron.

MAIN COMPONENTS OF THE ENGINE

SELECTION OF PISTON

Piston is one of the main parts in the engine. Its purpose is to transfer force from
expanding gas in the cylinder to the crankshaft via a connecting rod. Since the
piston is the main reciprocating part of an engine, its movement creates an
imbalance. This imbalance generally manifests itself as a vibration, which causes
the engine to be perceivably harsh. The friction between the walls of the cylinder
and the piston rings eventually results in wear, reducing the effective life of the
mechanism. The sound generated by a reciprocating engine can be intolerable and
as a result, many reciprocating engines rely on heavy noise suppression equipment
to diminish droning and loudness.

To transmit the energy of the piston to the crank, the piston is connected to a
connecting rod which is in turn connected to the crank. Because the linear
movement of the piston must be converted to a rotational movement of the crank,
mechanical loss is experienced as a consequence. Overall, this leads to a decrease
in the overall efficiency of the combustion process. The motion of the crank shaft
is not smooth, since energy supplied by the piston is not continuous and it is
impulsive in nature. To address this, manufacturers fit heavy flywheels which
supply constant inertia to the crank. Balance shafts are also fitted to some engines,
and diminish the instability generated by the pistons movement. To supply the fuel
and remove the exhaust fumes from the cylinder there is a need for valves and
camshafts. During opening and closing of the valves, mechanical noise and
vibrations may be encountered. The piston is a vital component of a cylindrical
engine. It reciprocates inside the cylinder bore. The piston acts as a moveable end
of the combustion chamber. The cylinder head is the stationary end of the
combustion chamber. piston head is the top surface (closest to the cylinder head)
of the piston which is subjected to pressure fluctuation, thermal stresses and
mechanical load during normal engine operation. By the forces of combustion,
piston reciprocates inside the cylinder bore. In order to increase the efficiency of
operation and better functionality, the piston material should satisfy the following
requirements

Light weight Good wear resistance Good thermal conductivity High strength to
weight ratio Free from rust Easy to cast Easy to machine Non magnetic Non toxic
Piston should be designed and fabricated with such features to satisfy the above
requirements A recessed area located around the circumference of the piston is
used to retain piston ring. These rings are expandable and split in type. They are
used to provide a seal between piston and cylinder wall. Three such rings
employed in a diesel engine are

 Compression ring
 Wiper or second compression ring
 Oil ring

A piston is a component of reciprocating engines, reciprocating pumps, gas

compressors and pneumatic cylinders, among other similar mechanisms. It is the
moving component that is contained by a cylinder and is made gas-tight by piston
rings. A forged steel piston rod is bolted to the underside of the piston.The other
end of the piston rod is attached to the crosshead pin. Pistons are cooled either
using water or the crankcase oil. Water has a better cooling effect than oil, but
there is a risk of leakage of water into the crankcase

PISTON DESIGN

 Parts of a piston
 Piston head or Crown
 Piston rings
 Piston barrel
 Ribs
 Piston skirt
 Gudgeon pin
TECHNICAL TERMS RELATED TO PISTON

Bore

The diameter of an engine cylinder.

Stroke

The distance the piston moves from bottom dead center to top dead center.

Displacement

The measurement of an engine’ size It is equal to the number of cubic inches the
piston displaces as it moves from bottom dead center to top dead center, multiplied
by the total number of cylinders. Displacement = A x S x N Where A = area of the
piston (in square inches)

S = stroke (in inches)

N = number of cylinders

Compression ratio: the extent to which the combustible gasses are compressed
within the cylinder. It equals the volume existing within the cylinder with the
piston at bottom dead center divided by the volume within the cylinder when the
piston is at top dead center.

PISTON CROWNS

Piston crowns have multiple functions

 Convert the pressure developed in ignition stroke to a downward force -

carry that force to the piston rod.
 Sustain pressure waves generated by occasional knocking.
 Act as a thermal barrier between cylinder and crank area.
 Introduce swirl in the fuel - controls knocking and helps more uniform
combustion.
 Proper design would reduce the piston weight and cost.
 The piston crown is machine to provided channels and cavities for the
favourable reception and redirection of jets of flame issuing from the pre
combustion chamber.
 Chapter-2
LITERATURE REVIEW
 Chapter-2

LITERATURE REVIEW

Foltz and Charles (1991) have presented various matrix alloys, reinforcements
and their applications in defence, space, automotive and electronic packaging.
They focused on the applications of MMCs in making automotive components like
cylinder sleeve, pistons, brake discs and connecting rod In the area of aerospace,
defense and light vehicles manufacturing, the applications of metal matrix
composites have been reported by Rittner (2001). She has concluded that the scope
for MMC in all the above areas were optimistic and further suggested
improvement in processes, selection of reinforcement selection of alloy, and
selection of components to reduce the cost of end product. Robert (2001) has done
a survey on the growth of aluminium alloys where he has presented various forms
of aluminium alloys and their applications and he concluded that 32.2 % of the
aluminium was consumed in transport industry in different forms

Many Researchers (Suresh et al. 1993; Kevorkian 1999; Rohatgi 1991;

Nakanishi et al. 2002) have presented the applications of MMCs for manufacturing
the automotive components materials. An overview of aluminium matrix
composite material systems on aspects of relating to microstructure, processing,
properties and applications was presented by Surappa (2003). The metal matrix
composites are used for developing and producing simple economical high quality
and low cost reinforcements, and portable non-destructive kits to quantify
undesirable defects, developing re-cycling technology and also developing less
expensive tools for machining and cutting.
 Uthayakumar et al. (2013) found that, an interesting handling technique for
creation, which is generally modest and offers wide determination of materials and
preparing conditions is the traditional mix throwing system. Stir casting give better
grid molecule holding because of blending activity of particles into melts. in the
course of stir casting procedure Aluminum matrix strengthened with 5, 10, and 15
wt.% fly ash powder was effectively arranged.

As compared to cast iron, aluminium composites have better thermal

conductivity and lower density, and this has been profitable in disc brake rotors. In
the context of heat dissipation, it is to note that Al–Si alloys are the most widely
used matrix alloys for Al MMCs. Though aluminium is a good thermal conductor,
silicon is not, and automotive manufacturers (e.g., Honda) did not utilize
hypereutectic (high silicon) alloys. Second, control of composition and
reinforcement content allows thermal management of the expansion behaviour of
the MMC. Extensive tests on SiC/Al composites for brake rotors have been done,
and over a million miles of satisfactory performance has been achieved in rear
brake rotors. These rotors have been specified for Lotus Elise, Chrysler Plymouth
Prowler, and General Motors EV-1. Aluminium composite brake rotors provide up
to 60% weight reduction when compared to cast iron. Under both sliding and
abrasion wear, MMC displays lower wear rate which decreases as the
reinforcement content increases. Depending upon the particle loading, abrasive
wear rates are reduced 55–90% when compared to the wear rate of unreinforced
Al, and at approximately 20 vol. %. SiC in Al, Al composite brake rotors have
lower wear rate than cast iron (Clyne& Withers, 1993; Guiellermo et al., 1995;

It is well known that in DI diesel engines swirl motion is needed for proper
mixing of fuel and air. Moreover, the efficiency of diesel engines can be improved
by increasing the burn rate of fuel air mixture. This can be achieved in two ways;
one by designing the combustion chamber in order to reduce contact between the
flame and the chamber surface, and two by providing the intake system so as to
impart a swirl motion to the incoming air. The swirl ratio and resulting fluid
motion can have a significant effect on air-fuel mixing, combustion, heat transfer,
and emissions. During compression stroke, swirl ratio decreases with the decrease
of angular momentum. When the piston moves close to the top dead centre [TDC],
the variation of swirl ratio depends on the shape of the combustion chamber.

For combustion chamber bowl-in piston, the gases are squished in to the
piston bowl when the piston moves close to TDC. The momentum of inertia of
gases decreases abruptly, leading to the increase of swirl ratio [Belair et al.,1983].
This increase in large scale flow speed contributes to the fuel spray being spread
out which accelerates the processes of the fuel-air mixing and rate of combustion
in diesel engines. The effect of swirl on combustion and emissions of heavy duty-
diesel engines has been investigated by Benajes et al. and suggested that optimum
level of air swirl that minimizes soot depends on engine running conditions.
Timothy has recognized that over-swirling causes centrifugal action which directs
the fresh air away from the fuel, resulting in complete combustion and there by
soot formation. The interaction between the swirl motion and the squish flow
induced by compression increases the turbulence levels in the combustion bowl,
promoting mixing and evaporation of fuel. In diesel engine, fuel is injected at the
end of compression stroke, followed by the entry of compressed air tangentially
into the injected fuel spray and then it mixes with air. The influence of the
injection pressure on the performance of the diesel engine is studied. Considering
various bio diesel blends but the cotton seed methyl ester blended fuel is not
considered [GBR etc].
 Pearson et al., (1990) have reported computationally efficient simulation
technique. This technique is based on the linearised one-dimensional conservation
equations. These equations are suitable for distributed parameter systems and are
suitable to the requirements of the designer in assessing the relative merits among
different types of manifold configurations. Volumetric efficiencies of measured
and predicted are compared to understand the importance of variable geometry
induction systems. Aita S et al., (1991) have reported the analysis for the flow in
an intake port-valve-cylinder assembly of a DI diesel engine. The simulation was
carried for both steady state and transient motored situations during the suction and
compression strokes. Generation of angular momentum flux and the induced in-
cylinder flow motion were predicted for a helical port under steady state condition.
The predicted results were correlated and compared with the experimental results.

Taylor et al., (1997) have developed a computational methodology (3D

model) for predicting the losses in the intake regions of IC engines. In order to get
accurate results, the following tasks were implemented in the present methodology,
they are: (i) appropriate modelling of flow physics, (ii) quality of the geometry,
(iii) discretization schemes applied at low viscosity regions and (iv) turbulence of
higher order. This methodology was tested and validated against the data of a
variety of complex 2D and 3D laminar and turbulent flow conditions. The
predicted pressure losses in the intake region of a caterpillar diesel engine are
compared with the experimental data. The analysis was carried out in detail that
could describe the locations of the loss pockets that are associated mechanisms
which are contributing for the losses and the other sources for the losses.
Simulations were carried out for large scale, viscous and for all the turbulent flow
situations. From the results it was observed that there is good agreement between
the predicted and the measured values.
 Chapter-3
MATERIAL SELECTION
 Chapter-3

MATERIAL SELECTION

PISTON MATERIAL AND SELECTION

Piston head is exposed to heavy pressure when the engine is operating under
load. The expanding gases of combustion apply forces on the piston head. At the
same time, the flame front crosses the piston head also exert forces with higher
magnitude. The force differentials caused by the expanding combustion gases and
the flame front crossing exert forces the piston head can reach two to three times
this force. Due to the reciprocating movement of the piston from Top Dead Centre
(TDC) to Bottom Dead Centre (BDC) and high temperature fluctuations during
operation, this can be called as thermal cycle loading. The temperature of the initial
flame front during combustion exceeds 2200oC. When the piston is subjected to
this temperature for a short span of time, the thermal stress and expansion of the
piston head are to be considered as serious factors. In addition to these forces and
thermal fluctuations incurred by the piston, the piston changes its direction inside
the cylinder bore. Design, 4 material selection and manufacturing of piston are to
be considered to satisfy these operating conditions. Aluminum silicon alloy is used
as a piston material. The addition of silicon in aluminum improves the following
properties (Rosenthal et al 1997).

 Reduces solidification and hot cracking

 Increases fluidity
 Improves corrosion resistance

Typical functional variation of increase in silicon content Al-Si is presented. From

the figure it can be understood that 12% of silicon improves the durability and
strength. If the percentage of silicon exceeds 13% then the alloy exhibits extreme
difficulties in machining.

PISTON CROWN

Piston crown forms the lower part of the combustion chamber in a marine diesel
engine. It seals the cylinder and transmits the gas pressure to the connecting rod.
Below considerations should be taken designing a piston. As per the engine
requirement, different types of crowns are used. The Piston comprises of two
pieces, the crown and the skirt. The crown is subject to the high temperatures in the
combustion space and the surface is liable to be eroded/burnt away.

For this reason, the material from which the crown is made must be able to
maintain its strength and resist corrosion at high temperatures. Steel, alloyed with
chromium and molybdenum is used, and some pistons have a special alloy welded
onto the hottest part of the crown to try and reduce the erosion caused by the
burning fuel. The crown also carries the 4 or 5 piston ring grooves which may be
chrome plated. Modern engines have oil cooled pistons. The piston rod is utilized
to carry the oil to and from the piston. The rod is hollow, and has a tube running up
its center. This gives an annular space which, with the central bore, allows a supply
and return. The MAN B&W piston has an 8 mm thick heat resisting layer of a hard
nickel-chrome alloy called Inconel welded to the hottest part of the crown to resist
the "burning" of the piston crown.

TYPES OF PISTON CROWN

1) Flat head
2) Concave head
3) convex head
PISTON CROWN MAINTENANCE

On the morning of October 11, 1994, a 33,037 dead weight ton, 12-year-old, bulk
cargo vessel lost propulsion while inbound in Admiralty Inlet. The vessel was
forced to shut down her main engine because of low lube oil pressure and high
exhaust gas temperature. A crack developed in the crown of piston number two,
allowing the lube oil that was cooling the piston, to leak into the cylinder. The
vessel was 2,880 yards from Foul weather Bluff when the engine was shut down.
She was towed to Seattle, Washington for repairs. Once the number two piston was
removed and cleaned, a small crack in the piston crown was found. Close
observation of the piston crown in the area where the forward injector spray pattern
impinged on the crown surface revealed thermal corrosion.

The corrosion was in the form of etching and grooving that created a pitted
surface with small local cavities. During the casualty investigation, the
preventative maintenance schedule and maintenance procedures for the pistons
were discussed with the Chief Engineer. The piston overhaul procedures appeared
to be limited to visual checks of all exposed surfaces.

A dye checking procedure is not used unless abnormalities are seen first.
Furthermore, the piston crowns were not removed for inspection during the piston
overhaul periods. Measures have been introduced by Mitsubishi to improve the
performance of piston crowns. These measures will reduce thermal corrosion and
wear on the flame side of crowns. However, if carbon is allowed to build up and
adhere to the cooling surface side of the piston crown, the build-up will decrease
the cooling effect of the cooling oil and may result in failure of the crown.

To prevent thermal corrosion caused by accumulated carbon sludge on the

cooling side surfaces of the piston crown, Mitsubishi recommends that the piston
crowns be removed and cleaned every two to four years depending on initial
inspection observations. If the first inspection reveals considerable buildup of
carbon sludge, then a shorter inspection period is warranted. In addition,
Mitsubishi recommends two other measures to prevent thermal corrosion. The first
process requires the build-up of the crown surface with a special steel alloy; and
the other measure is a jet cooling system that enhances the cooling of the piston
crown. The jet-cooling system replaces the existing piston innerpiece and piston
rod inner pipe. This system directs part of the cooling oil to the cooling surface at a
right angle jet stream, making the adhesion of carbon to the cooling surface
difficult. The jet-cooling system can be installed relatively easily during a piston
overhaul period. Ecology strongly urges each company to review their preventative
maintenance policies and procedures for piston overhauls. Piston crown failures
due to thermal corrosion can be prevented by using one or more of the engine
manufacturer's recommendation

SELECTION OF PISTON CROWN

TRIANGULAR SHAPED PISTON

WORKING ON PISTON CROWN

Engine pistons are one of the most complex components of marine industries. The
engine can be called the heart of a ship and the piston may be considered the most
important part of an engine. There are lots of research works proposing, for engine
pistons. The purpose of this project is to performance and characteristics of a
piston crown for a large two-stroke diesel marine engine.

They are used in railroad, marine or stationary services. Our aim to achieve,
the optimal shape of the piston crown to obtain maximum performance. The crown
takes a very important part in the whole process. It is the upper most part of piston
that supports most of the loads and heat. Now the main reason behind these shapes
for better combustion of fuel. When the chemical reaction takes place at the time of
combustion a flame front will produce which will affect the knocking factor. If this
flame front does not generate properly than that will not count as a complete
combustion. Due incomplete combustion sometimes unburnt fuel expel through
exhaust pipe with exhaust gases.

The other reason is when fuel comes inside the cylinder due to low pressure,
It'll have some kinetic energy. So the triangular type shape onto the piston will
absorb most of fuel's kinetic energy and try to settle down the situation.

Also the shape helps in reducing the overall weight of the piston because
some amount material has been reduced and reducing weight in automobiles is
always advantageous.

The main reason behind different shapes of piston heads is to allow proper
distribution of the fuel-air mixture around the cylinder through turbulence and a
phenomenon known as swirl.

It is important to facilitate proper distribution of fuel-air mixture to prevent

pre-ignition and knocking.

Knocking is a phenomenon in which the fuel-air mixture entering through the

intake valve of an internal combustion engine develops a secondary flame front,
other than the primary flame front near the spark plug (in case of an SI engine).
This leads to collision of the two flames, considerably increasing the pressure
inside the cylinder and leading to striking of products of combustion on the
cylinder with a very high velocity, which produces a knocking sound.

Piston heads prevent such a phenomenon by allowing more fuel-air mixture

to accumulated near the spark plug and lesser fuel near the walls and other places
inside the cylinder.
EXPERIMENTAL TESTING
 Chapter-4
EXPERIMENTAL TESTING
PERFORMANCE AND EMISSION TEST

TESTING PROCEDURE

Before starting the engine, the fuel injector is separated from the fuel system. it is
clamped on the fuel injection pressure tested and operates the tester pump. Observe
the pressure reading from the dial. At which the injector starts spraying. In order to
achieve the required pressure by adjusting the screw provided at the top of the
injector .This procedure is repeated for obtaining the various required pressures. As
first said, diesel alone is allowed to run the engine for about 30min, so that it gets
warmed up and steady running conditions are attained. Before starting the engine,
the lubricating oil level in the engine is checked and it is also ensured that all
moving and rotating parts are lubricated.

The performance test was conducted in a single cylinder four stroke diesel
engine. Complete experimental setup for determining the effects of Honne oil
blend on the performance and emission characteristics of compression ignition
engine. It consists of a single cylinder four stroke water cooled direct injection
diesel engine connected to an eddy current dynamometer. The fuel injection
pressure can be varied from 200 bar and 220 bar. It is provided with temperature
sensors for the measurement of water jacket, calorimeter water, and calorimeter
exhaust gas inlet and outlet temperature. It is also provided with pressure sensors
for the measurement of combustion gas pressure and fuel injection pressure. An
encoder is fixed for crank angle record. The signals from these sensors are
interfaced with a computer to an engine indicator to display and fuel injection
pressure. The provision is also made for the measurement of volumetric fuel flow.
The built in program in the system calculates indicated power, brake power,
thermal efficiency, and volumetric efficiency. The procedure followed during the
experiments is given below.

 The Experiments were carried out after installation of the engine

 The injection pressure is set at 180 bar for the entire test.
 Precautions were taken, before starting the experiment.
 Always the engine was started with no load condition
 The engine was started at no load condition and allowed to work for at least
10 minutes to stabilize.
 Initially engine was run with the pure diesel with the injection pressure of
180 bar.
 Engine was run from no load to full load condition with an increment of
20% of load in each run.
 Engine was then run on blends of Honne oil and diesel mixed in 50% by
volume represented by B50, respectively. Performance parameters and the
emissions were noted.
 Whole set of experiments were repeated for fuel injection pressure 200 bar
and 220 bar.
 After completion of test, the load on the engine was completely relieved and
then the engine was stopped.
 The results were calculated as follows. The above experiment is repeated for
various loads on the engine.
The experimental procedure is similar as foresaid. While starting the engine, the
fuel tank is filled in required fuel proportions up to its capacity. The engine is
allowed to run for 30 min, for steady state conditions, before load is performed.
APPLICATION
 Chapter-5
APPLICATION

Using automobile components

CONCLUSION
 Chapter-6
CONCLUSION

Comparing performance testing using by different configurations of the cutting

grooves on the crown of the piston triangular shaped and normal pistons was
investigated. By analyzing the theoretical and practical results, the obtained
performance test using brake power, specific fuel consumption and Thermal
efficiency are calculated. So, far the taken crown shape obtained results, are within
the standard and design is safe. Finally piston head changing the triangular indent
piston crown is having better design using automobile application.

 The maximum increase in brake thermal efficiency for triangular indent

piston compared to normal piston was found to be respectively.
 The reduction in the brake specific fuel consumption for triangular indent
piston compared to normal piston was found to be respectively.
 The maximum increase in Volumetric efficiency for triangular indent piston
compared to normal piston was found to be respectively

From the above conclusions, the triangular indent piston configuration can be
suggested on diesel engine compared with the other piston configurations .
REFERENCE
 Chapter-7

REFERENCE

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Arturo de Risi, Teresa Donateo and Domenico Laforgia (2003),
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Blair G P (1999), “Design and Simulation of Four-Stroke Engines”, SAE,
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Corcione F E, Annunziata Fusca and Gerardo Valentino (1993), “Numerical
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Ganesan V (2004), Internal Combustion Engine, 2nd Edition, Tata-McGraw
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