Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
GRAMMAR
MODERI{JAPAI\TESE
including
Lists of Words and Expressions
with English Equivalents
for Reading Aid
trffi8+T?XffiH
g ifi& LNrlJffifJ)
( B#ffi ww#fr, L t o>t{;g4H
by
1981
THE HOKUSEIDO PRESS
Tokyo
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
as koto ni suru a & l'C?-6 " to decide." This variation also depends
I on writers. Although the Japanese government has on several oc-
casions issued guidelines concerning the use of kanji and hana as
I rvell as the readings of kanj i, it seems that even at present no
uniformit,"* exists, and convention in some cases persists, and in
others gives way. Words which are often written in hiragana, but
I sometimes in kanji, depending on the writer, are first transcribed
in hiragana, then followed by the corresponding hanji in parentheses.
I The bool< nolv begins lvith verbs and then goes to adjectives, a
special class of verbs in Japanese. It then proceeds to particles,
nouns, and the remaining parts of speech. f have adopted this
I order because I believe that verbs and particles are the most im-
portant grammatical elements in Japanese, lvhile nouns and other
I parts of speech, though they have tlieir olvn peculiarities, are less
complex than verbs and particles. fhe worK rs conlplete with
cross references and two indexes,one for verb- and noun- following
I expressions, and tire other for grammatical points.
My sincere hope is that this book will prove to be a useful
I
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I
I
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t
I
CONTENTS
PREFACE
PARTS OF SPEECH
YERBS 3
Dictionary Form of JapaneseVerbs 3
Three Categoriesof JapaneseVerbs 3
f. Vowel-stemverbs 1. -IRU verb 3
2. -ERU verb 3
verbs,ending with -iru or -eru 4
Exceptions-Consonant-stem
II. Consonant-stemverbs 4
1. Stem consisting of one or more syllables plus a
consonant 4
2. Stem consisting of one or more syllables plus the
consonant-IV . 4
3. Stem consistingof one or more syllables plus the
consonant-T 4
4. Stem consisting of one or more syllables plus the
consonant-S 4
UI. Irregularverbs 1. surt(, ...,............ o... o..... 4
2. huru ..o... 4
3. nasarutype,.r..o............,. 4
4, gozaru ....r................... 5
Verbs ...............
C o n j u g a t i o n so f J a p a n e s e r.... ......... r 5
F u n c t i o n so f S i x B a s e s 1 . F i r s t B a s e . , . . . . . . ....,... 5
2 . S e c o n dB a s g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . 5
3 . T h i r d B a s g. . . . . . . o r . . . . . . . . . . . 6
x CONTENTS
4. Fourth Base 6
5. Fifth Base 6
6. Sixth Base 6
ConjtrgationCharts . . . . ., . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ., . . . . . . . . 6
I. Vowel-stem verbs ...........r.,.r....o.......o.rt.... 6
i l . C o n s o n a n t - s t evm erbs ................................ 8
I I I . I r r e g u l a rv e r b s . .. .............. r.................. 10
C o n j u g a t i o no f S u f f i x M a s t t , . r . . . . . . . o . . . . o..........o........ 13
C o p u l a s ,D a a n d D g s t t , .................................... 13
C o n j u g a t i o n so f D a a n d D e s u ............o........,.. 15
H o w t o f o r m T a - f . o r ma n d T e - f . o r mo f V e r b s . . . . . o . . . . . . . . . . 16
I. V o r v e l - s t g mv e r b s . . . . . . . . o . o . . . ' . . . . . . . r . r . . o . . . . . . . . . LT
II. Consonant-stem
verbs ......ro,o...................... L7
III. Exception .......o.................................... 18
ry. I r r e g u l a rv g r b s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . r . . . . 18
T e n s g so f J a p a n e sV e e r b s. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . o r . . . . . . . . . . . . 1B
Specificity of JapaneseVerbs in Describing an Action . . . . 19
Transitive Verbs (Tadoshi) and Intransitive Verbs (Jidosh) 2T
L i s t o f T a d o s l t ai n d J i d o s h i.. o ., . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
D i r e c t i o n aVl erbs .,.. .,.. . . . , . . . . . . . . ?A,
I . k u r e n l ,k u c l a s a r r l . . . . . . . . . . . o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
II. )'artt, ugcru 25
III. ?norau,itadahu............. or . . . . , r o . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
D i r g c t i o n aVl e r b sa s A u x i l i a r i e s. . . . . . . . , . . . . . . , , . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
I. Yr, hureru, leudasaru,..........,.. r t . . . . . r . . . . . . o . . o . . . 27
II. Y t, )/artt,, agertt 27
t
I
t
COI{TENTS xi
YERB-FOLLOWINGEXPRDSSIONS 39
I. Expressionswhich follow the Ffrst Base of the Verb 39
II. Expressionswhich follow the Sacond Base of the Verb. . 47
III. Expressionsrvhich follow the Third Bose of the Verb . . 60
ry. Expressionswhich follow the Fou.rtltBase of the Verb.. 81
V. Expressionsrvhich follow the Fifth Base of the Verb 82
\/I. Expressionswhich follow the Sixth Base of the Verb 82
VII. Expressionswhich follow the Stemsof the Adjectiues E3
\/III. Expressionswhich follow the Copu,larNouns . . . . . . . . . . 86
K u - f . o r mo f A d j g c t i v e s. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 9
Kute-f.orm o f A d j e c t i v e s., . . . . , . . o . . . . . . . . . . . . . o .o . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 0
C o m m o nA d j e c t i v a T l e n s e s. r . . . . . . . o . r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . r . . . . . . . 90
COhITENTS xl
TTT \T
IlI. \ to,ra a a a a . a o a a t a a o . . . . . . . . o . a a a a. . a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a . . . . 31
IV. Va nAfA .. o................... f ................ o... r.. 31
U s e o f T o h i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . r . . . . . . . o . . . . . . . . . . . . . o o. . . . . r . . . 32
Subjunctive a a a a a a a a e a a a a a a a a a a l a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a r a a a o o a 33
I. u if" 1 . H y p o t h e t i c a l. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2 . C o n t r a r yt o f . a c t . . . . . . . . . . o . . . 33
II. "f wish . . ." lVish o r D e s i r e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . r o.......... 34
MiscellaneousConditional Patterns 34
u
35
36
36
37
AUXILIARY YBRBS a a a . . a a I a a . a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a o a a a a a a . a . a a a
?R
\,rU
YERB-FOLLOWII{G EXPRDSSIONS 39
I. Expressionswhich follow the First Base of the Verb 39
II. Expressionswhich follow the SecondBase of the Verb. . 47
III. Expressionsrvhich follow the Third Base of the Verb . . 60
ry. Expressionswhich follow the Fou.rtlt.Base of the Verb. . 81
V. Expressionsrvhich follow the trifth Bose of the Verb 82
VI. Expressionswhich follow the Sixth Base of the Verb 82
VII. Expressionswhich follow the Stemsof the Adjectiues 83
VIII. Expressionswhich follow the C o p u l a rN o u n s. . . . . . . . . . 86
A D J E C T I Y E S ' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . | . . . r . . . . . . . . 87
C o n j u g a t i oonf A d j e c t i v e s1 . - a i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . o . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
2. -ii 8B
3. -ui a 88
a a a a o a a I t . a a a a a a a a a a . o a a t a .
4, -oi 89
K u ' f . o r m o f A d j e c t i v e s . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . ' . . . . . . ' . . . r o . . . . r . . . r . . 89
K u t e - f . o r mo f A d j e c t i v e s ,. . . . . . . . . . . o . o . . . . . . ! . o . . . . r . . . . . . r . . 90
C o m m o n A d j g c t i v a lT e n s e s . ! . . . . . . . r r . . . . . . . ! . . o . . . . r . t . . . . . 90
xii CONTENTS
C o m p a r a t i v ea n d S u p e r l a t i v eD e g r e e so f A d j e c t i v e s . . . . . . . , . . 9l
NON-COI{JUGATIYE
ADJECTIVBS. ... 92
NOUI{S
I. ;;;;.;;;,.;;;.;;;;;;;n;;
:::::::::::lil
II. V a r i o u sF o r m so f J a p a n e s N
e ouns .... ........150
1 . N o u n u s a g es i m i l a r t o E n g l i s hu s a g e. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 5 0
2. Nouns used as adverbswithout changing in form . .150
3. Nouns which are modified not by (verbal) adjectives
but by adverbsor non-conjugativeadjectives. . . .151
4. Nounswhich can be used as adjectivesas well as
a d v g r b s. . . . ....o.......I52
5 . N o u n sw h i c h a r e u n i q u et o J a p a n e s e .....r....o.,.L52
Copularnouns (Adjectival nouns) . . . . . . . . ., . .153
P s e u d o - n o u (nNs o u n si n f o r m ) . . . . . . . . . . . o . . . . 1 5 3
III. D e r i v a t i o no f N o u n F o r m s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . l i l
1. Tnrg nouns ........o... ....................154
2 . N o u n sd e r i v e df r o m o t h e r p a r t s o f s p e e c h . ! . . . . . . 1 5 4
3 . C o m p o u nn
d o u n s. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . o . . . . . . . . . . 1 5 4
4 . A b b r e v i a t endo u n s . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . o . . . . . . . . . . 1 5 4
t
COI{TENTS xllt
F O R I V I A L E Y E L O F W O R D SA I { D E X P R E S S I O T.' {oS. . . . . . , . 2 T 5
Lgvgls of Formality in Japangse....... r..... r. !.......... .,..215
CONTENTS xv
It
il*
,
iI
PARTSOF SPEECH ffi;E<LhA,L>
that trvo English parts of speech are missing, namely, articles and
prepositions. Articles, either definite or indefinite, do not exist in
Japanese. Prepositions are sometimes expressedby particles in
Japanese,but particles are always post-positionalrather than pre-
positional as in English. Moreover, Japaneseparticles have a much I$
broader usage than English prepositions, as explained in the sec-
t
tion "Particles" (pp. 93-140).
$
H
it
x
I
i
$
i
I
r
f
i
r.
n
,.
{?
$
x
^
I
I
-l_
I
VERBS Wr;A<E5L>
L Vorvel-stemverbs
1. -I RU verb (Stem consisting of one or more syllables rvith
the final vorvel -I) _,b,-ffiifi,,ffi(r.4! ''f2ff Lfi'cl , )
e.g.miru (milru) nA "to see"
iru. (i/ru) ! .,6 "to be," etc.
2. -ERU verb (Stem consisting of one or more syllables with
Three Categoriesof JapaneseVerbs
lI. Consonant-stem
verbs fi,&ifrH(4ff Lfi'cf 5)
1 . Stem consistingof one or more syllablesplus a consonant
e.g. aru (ar/u) ha "to be," "to exist," "to have"
kahu (kaklu) ;li ( "to write"
yor?tt((yom/u) *=tlr "to read," etc.
I Stem consistingof one or more syllablesplus the consonant
-Il (This - trtrlis missingfrom the dictionaryform. Thus the
final u, is precededby another vorvel.)
e.g. itt (iw/ ) e't "to say"
ttarau (nararvz/) iI 5 "to learll"
3 . Stenr consistingof one or more syllaltlesplus the consonant
-'I (Dictionaryform of this group of verbs ends - fSU.)
e.g. ntcttsu,(nat/ t 1:i.> "to lvait"
tatsu (tat/ ) -::-c "to stand"
4 . Stem consistingof one or more syllablesplus the consonant
.S
e.g. dasu,(das/u) tilf "to take out," "to mail"
l
I
F
g
Six Basesof JapaneseVerbs
CONJUGATIONSOF JAPANESEVERBS
COI{JUGATIONS
OF JAPANESEVERBS
t
I. Vowel-stemverbs
t
F
F i
il
Conjugationsof JapaneseVerbs
-masu Continuative
-tai
-sugiru
-yasui, -nikui, etc.
.,1
t. Conditional
t I m perative
Tentative
Fi "*i *"t,
"*
Negative
[i ,*;
-masu, etc. Continuative
Iti-l * a-GeshO d
"-)
Conclusive
(Dictionary Form)
l- ig' I re
*
-ba Conditional
Imperative
I'l'"0'l
,"u.
yo
Tentative
[a i I
Exceptions: Some verbs, though ending lvith -iru or -eru, belong to
the consonant-stem verb group. For some examples,see p. 4.
*For complete suffix list, see pp. 39-83.
8 Conjugationsof JapaneseVerbs
lI. Consonant-stem
verbs
1. kaku,(kak/u) g < ,,to write"
-masu Continuative
-tai, etc.
Conditional
lmperative
Tentative
1. lw
formative
a
| -nai,etc.
%
for base
Negative
I --l
2. |-
I I l - m a s ue, t c . C"",t***-
I %
3. I u d"rcD Conclusive
"-r,deshr, I (Dictionary liorm)
b. Noun
4.
--_l -i r \ t t r i b u t i v e
%
I e C o n di t i o n a l i
5.
6.
I
I
e
o
I
I Imperative
I
I Tentative
I
t
*For complete suffix list, see pp.
39-83.
**In modern ;
Japanese,the sound representedin transliteration bv
"w" disappearsbefore all vowels except "a."
-
l, .t
T
Conjugationsof JapaneseVerbs
Conditional
Imperative
Tentative
das Conclitional
das Imperative
das Tentative
*For completesuffix list, see pp. 39-83.
Note: The negativesuffix nai is the negativeof the verb a/u, but
nai is in an adjectivalform, and thus conjugateslike an ad-
jective (see pp. 88-89). There is no such word as aranai.
Regardingthe verb aru (consonant-stem verb) and iru (vowel-
stem verb):
Both aru and iru mean "to be" in the sense of "to exist,"
but aru is usedwith an inanimateobject for its subject,while
iru is used with an animate object for its subject.
e.g. Koko ni hon ga arimasu. E : t:# rtib A * t. "There
is a book here (A book exists here)."
10 Conjugationsof JapaneseVerbs
1. suruta
arbitrary term
for base
i Negative
e
a
-seru, -su, etc.
I -masu Continuative
-tai
-nikui, -yasui, etc.
Imperative
Tentative
*For complete suffix list, see pp. 3g-83.
r Ik o -nai Negative
I -rareru
_t_
I -saseru,-sasu,etc.
I b. Noun Attributive
ff
6
t
yO
Imperative
'fentative
luo
rFor complete suffix list, see pp. 39-83.
H
t
s
t
F.
?
t
T
t2 Conjugations of JapaneseVerbs
t
The character * should be read ho, hi, hu, accordingto
e.g. tfrt,., (&onai),**
the varied forms of its conjugation,
f (imasu), *A (huru),Xhll (krreba),*!., (koi), X I ,
T
(koyo).
Noie : The verbs iku and kuru are sometimes used in a different way
T
from the English verbs "go" and "come." When one uses ikzr,
the direction of the action is always away from the location
of the speaker, while with kuru the direction of the action is
T
always towards the speaker. Therefore, while in English one
can ask, "May I come to your house tomorrow?", in Japanese
one has to say, Ashita otaku ni itte mo ii desu ka, and never
i:
t"
&
I
$
t
h,
t
Ashita otaku ni kite mo ii desu Aa, unless one is at the listener's
house, and asks, "May I come here again tomorrow ?" Ashita
*
t'
r
E
lr
T
mo kie n desu ka. (See also p.55 for Yu ileu, pp.56-57 f.or
t
F.
"F
L
Y j" kuru)
fi
Li
l&_
3 . nasaru tf 3 6 (honorific form of.suru)
stem base suffix* arbitrary term
I
F
ilr
F;
ii
T
formative F
t
for base il
I
1':
nasar -nai, zu, etc. Negative i
I
I
t
p
nasa*x -masu Continuative
nasar -tai
-yasui,nikui, etc.
Conditional
t
IIasa*'F
nasar
Imperative
Tentative
!
I
.l::: :ffiff:'J.:ffll:,:':,'T;i'il1imper form
ative !
4. gozaru i56
In modern Japanese,
(polite form of aru)
only tJrefollowing forms are used: I
g o z a i m a s ui 5 t ' t f ; o z a i m a s h i t ja3 1 . , * L t : ; g o z a i m a s e n
g
ggt.,*t,L:
beftlre .ntasu,.)
g o z a i m a s h dC E L , t L r r . U is dropped T
T
I
Conjugation of Suffix ntaszt. l3
1. mas e -n Negative
5. mas e Imperative
mash i
6. mash o Tentative
Note : Te-f.orm (masltite) and Imperative (mase, mashi) are used only
in a very polite level of speech. Attributive (maar before
noun) and Conditional (masureba)are seldom used in modern
Japanese. The forms masen (negative present), nnshita (per-
fective), masl(.(present), mash| (tentative), ntascn deshita (nega-
tive perfective) are very common.
*
f
H
I
's
I
.B
'
I
ift,g&ii*s*'-'
E.
P" F'
[i
G
t
I
.l
6
*.
H
E
I*
*.
I F.
F
f:
at'
;ls
Conjugationof Copula,da ls
!
e.g. Kare wa mO sugu Amerika e iku dard, 'r<t
F,
, f
ii
F
(H) ( z ,x r) )t t/ft ( f: b , . "He will probably go
&
I ti
&
Ir
r
to America soon."
dar, (deshD after Vs or Vla also indicates a lieht question,
t, when the statement ends with a rising tone.
I
i!
i.,,.
$;
n
e . g . A s h i t a i r a s s h a r ud e s h i ' E E F L .b - : L + 6 - C L r , .
lr "Y ou are going tomorrow, aren't you?"
I
l:,
&
'i
t'
s
r;
6
s OF COPULAS,DA AND DESU
CONJUGATIONS
I
i
Conjugations of both da and desu are highly irregular.
;
ii
k
1. da ff
t
I
fi,
v
It
$
stem I base suffix arbitrary term
rj, formative for base
t
de Continuative
t dat
Conclusive
II
Ii
(Dictionary Form)
{t:
Attributive
r:
I
Conditional
I
-' Tentative
I
I'
-
4 da- de zru
present perfective tentative
.:
-' f
i
I =4
i!
_i
r
16 Conjugation of Copula, desu
2. desu, tf
stem base suffix arbitrary term
formative for base
desh Continuative
des Conclusive
(Dictionary Form)
(na) Attributive
( n a r at Conditional
desh Tentative
*Te-form (deshite) is not commonly used. De often takes its
place.
desu: de orirnasu
I
I
I
I Formation of ta-f.orm and te-f.orm 1i
shin
irv *
D c h a n g e st o z :
add r/a or dc
,t remains:
add r{o or clc
shinda
yondr.
1,,., yonde
shinde
I
I
iu ;i())
matsu mat
ru changes t o t :
a d d t a or tc
I remains:
itta
matta
itte
matte
1
t
\2 r-/ \-2 L/
i:io) add la or tc
wakaru waknr r changes t o / : wakatta rvakatte
't (6) adci tu or te
III. Exception
TEI{SES OF JAPAI.IESEVERBS
Japanese verb forms have tlvo main tenses, the present and the
perf ective (which denotes completion of action and often equals
the past tense in English). There is no future tense form, and the
present tense form servesthat f unction. F or example,such English
t
expressionsas "I eat," "I shall eat," "I will eat," and "I am going
to eat," can all be expressed in Japaneseby lVatahushi wa talte-
ntosu.. trdltft-.i * f. though in actuality such expressions as
t
Tabeyd to otrtottc irrtosu. f,X^iIi&,U.c{.t.'*f.
otrtointasu,. ff < 7; .
L,'J.L *
-f.
or Taberu to
are more likely to be used. The
t
Japrnese present tense also expresseshabitual action: .Ii undd shita
ato dr: u)e itsunto yoliu tobemasu. !',!..[EO;l-f:ikTt*.!'p
( t'r^i*f. "After exercising well, we ahvays eat a lot."
({'1tt6;{ I t
Onc has to keep in rnind, however, that the present tense of the
Japeneseverb often implies an instantaneous acticn of the presnt
t
rather than a prolonged action. F or example, rvhile in English we
can use a simple present tense and say, "f live in Tokyo norv," in
Japaneseone has to use Y,, iru form and s?y, lVatakushi LUaima
I
Tolryo ni sttnrlc imosu. t?t-+lil;ilc.,H L-CL':I*f. as long as some
duration is involved in the action of the verb. The form Y,, iru
I
(ita) is mainly used for the tense equivalent to the English (1)
present (past) progressive (for an action occurring at the moment),
and (2) present (past) perfect (for an action that began in the past
!
and continues into the present). There are several other verbs
besides suntu rvhich are usually used in the V,. iru. form.
I
e.g. motstt,"to have" Okane o motte imasu ka. *"'#tfr z(!'
t fr.. "Do you have money?"
Specificity of Japanese Verbs r9
Note : As shown in the above examples, the form daro Qlesho)is usually
used for the probability of the action of the third person. F'or a
sentence rvhosc subject is first person, such as "I'll probably
go ton:crrorv," one rvill most lil<ely say in Japanese, ilshito tou
tabun i!;u to orttoinirtsu.li)JnIl*tt'fr -i-. or sirnply Asltitu
< e,U.L. *
ua taburt iliimasu,UAgft|fttl3 * f . rvitirout dar| (desho) at the
end.
"Peopleare
ri "
gatherecl.
j.
Machigaiga noottcintostt.fltljst',rlL{L cA.t', t f. "Mistakes
I'
-: are corrected."
-L
rr'.
l
2. Madoga ahctcorimasu.Ehib (liil)fJ<*>D t-c-.. "The rvindorv
is open." (The rvinclorvh'.rsbeen openeclby someone,and is
f;* i still open.)
'futl0slti-tc
follorvedby the auxiliary verb oru is
used in descriptivesentences.
-'
-;1:
aheteis a te-f.ormof alieru (taCOshi,meaning "to open")
- i
: More examples:
"The
4
r; i:
tF
- t
I ]
- l
22 Tadoshi-l id0shi
k
sn
Tanaka-sanga kite intoshita. m4' S rtrift(1. * L/c.
t
"lt'Ir. Tanaka was here."
Gakko ni itte inzasu. '+tt\.:fr cT.!'* f.
(motion verb*iru) "He is at school. (He rvent to school
I
$
I
I
,
t
?:.
Ir t
(motion verb*iru) "He is home. (He came home and F.
is still home.)"
5
!
ft
It
n
Tarloshi Jidoshi
;
$
ts
r:
T
ria
*
t
ageruL.G#,+)W 6 "to raise"
akeru b(W1,F,nry6"to open"
agaruLGk, #) ri 6 "to rise"
aku f', (fifl,Fn)< "to be open"
t
F
&
tl
I
{iihlrarr'rl';'*-""'
Tadoshi Iidoshi ?3
Tadoshi Jidoshi
amasu *f "to save, to leave amaru* 6 "to remain,to be left
over" over"
ateru g(6 "to hit" ataru 5 /:6 "to be hit"
atsumeru *b> 6 "to gather" atsumaru f€t b "to be gathered"
azukeru ffid b "to entrust to azukaru mrtr} "to take charge
somgone" of"
dasu Hf "to put out, to serve, deru H 6 "to comeout, to appear"
to take out"
fuku 4< "to breathe" fuku FA< "to blow" (sameas ta-
doshi)
fuyasu nftf "to increase" fueru ffii_6 "to be increased"
hajimeru ffib56 "to begin" hajimaru*h*.4 "to begin"
horobosuSiiff "to defeat" horobiru ifrtN6 "to perish, to be
#
& ruined"
$.
fi: ireru x*Lb "to put in, to insert" hairu xA "to enter, to be put
t:
&
J
l; in"
I.
i. kaesu :E (lti) f "to give back, to kaeru tr (iiil)zr "to return"
h,
ll
F return"
?: kudaku fF < "to break" kudakeruHfW6 "to be crushed"
machigaerutllliftk-7a "to err" machigaufiilit , "to be in error"
magenr tlit'f 7a "to ltend" magaru tllriib "to be bent"
masu ff/f "to increase" masu tiY/f "to increase" (same
as tad6shi)
mazeruijir"fz; "to mix" mazaruili.Y6 "to be mixed"
rnitsul<cruj,l ? ({.J')
6- 7; "to looli mitsul<aru\Lc ({.J') rt'7c "to be
for, to find" found"
moyasuflii-':j- "to burn" moeru 'plS*-b "to be burnt"
',
mukeru [i';jf 6 " to turn tolards" muku frl ( "to turn one'shead"
nagasutilf "to let flow" nagarerufr,tLb "to flow"
naosudtf "to correct" naoru ffi-A "to be mended"
natsukeruftc (lrt)Vt6 "to make natsuku k2('tt{) < "to become
someoneattached attachedto"
to oneself"
nokosu yL.i "to leave" nokoru T*,7a"to be left"
okosu f!: f "to raise" okiru €*a "to get up"
otosu 'ftt "to drop" ochiru Wbb "to fall"
oeru /* *^a "to finish" owaru **a "to end"
sageruT lj'6 "to lower,to hang" sagaruTri 6 "to go down, to be
hanged"
24 Tadoshi-l idasli
Tacloshi tidoslzi
(f*fi)b>6 "to close,"
shimeru Fi-l shimaruffi (f;ffi)
f 6 "to beclosed,"
"to tighten up" "to be tightened up"
shizumeru Ft}($A)b>4 "to calm" shizumaru t'#Gf\)t 6 "to calm
dorvn"
shizumerutrt,&5 6 "to sink" shizumu itt-r "to sink"
sodateruH<a "to bring up" sodatsuHc "to grow up"
sugosu E C=f "to pass" sugiru ,& 5 6 "to pass by"
susumeru i9b>6 "to advance" susumu E"t-r "to advance"
tateru li (€)<6 "to erect, to tatsu li (€) : "to stand, to be
build" built"
tomeru &(g) b54- "to stop" tomaru Jt (tr) t A "to stop"
tsukeru ?(ff')Wa "to attach, tsuku ? ({i') < "to stick to, to be
to light" Iit"
tsumeru ifb>6 "to stuff" tsumaru €t*.6 "to be stuffed"
tsunageru ctrVJ 6 "to connect" tsunagaru ">ftrl\b "to be con-
(tsunagu) nected"
tsutaeru IAk-b "to convey" tsutarvaru {ib 6 "to be trans-
mitted"
ukaberu l-Y-rJ.d6 "to float" ukabu iY-r.$ "to float"
umerLrl\!-bb "to bury" umaru jlll* z; "to be lturied"
watasu ilfrjf "to pass over, to ryataru ik7">"to go over, to cross
hand over" over"
yaku ,lJ[< "to bake, to roast" yalreru 'IJ1O
zo "to be baked" F:
I
p
b
I
ft
DIRECTIONAL VtrRI]S V!
ti
I
There are six verbs (three pairs) f or "giving" and "receiving." it
[:
Thc correct usage of these depends on the interrelationships h
$
(superior t?teueH -f-inferior meslrita tJT relationship according I
;t:
tJ
f. .lkureru
{ 1fua
\'::__ I
,, .,_ ? ?, \ f " t o gu
ive"
lkudasaruTB 6 (honorificform of kureru))
Su.bject(Giuer) Verb Inclirect object (Reci|ient)
you give(s) me (us)
I lro
he(thev)f { ,o the one rvho is close to me
I
Neaer I (we) [to you who are close to me
1. When the giver is inferior to the recipient,use kureru.
Ot,otoga uatahushi ni kuremoshita. ffirt\fLlc < h* L/:.
''My younger brother gave it to me."
2, When the giver is superiorto the recipient,usekudasaru.
Sertseiga uatakuslti ni kudosaimasltita. ft'.k-fi\tLl.Tg
!.,* L/:. "The teachergave it to me."
Senseiga ruatahushin0 otdto ni kudasaintashita. ft+.
nif/.DffilaT8 U.'* L/:. "The teachergave it to my
brother."
Se.rseiga anata ni ktedasairnashita ka. Sbtk-h\*>fr/:l:
T* !'* L/:i.. "Did the teachergive it to you?"
Senseiga tuatakushino haha ni hudasairnashita.fr,*.
,ifl o tll:T 3 L ',* L /c. "The teachergave it to my
mother."
3 . lVhen the giver is a direct family member, and one is
speakint to a non-family person, use liureru.
Chichi ga uataleuslti ni hurernashitn. Xh\TLl: < *t* L
/:. "My father gave it to me."
W h e n t h e g i v e r i s a d i r e c t f a m i l y m e n t b e r ,b u t o n e i s
speaking to another member of the family, e.g. to one's
sisters or brothers, one may say :
O tO-san ga uataltushi ni hutlusaimashita. *"'|3 ,t rt\tL
lcTE L,'* L/:. "Father gave it to me "
II. [)'aru f zc I "to give"
laseru LVt b (honorificof yardl
Subiect (Giuer) Verb Indirect object (ReciI ient)
I (rve) I
fto you
you I give(s)
t,o him (them)
he (thev)J
1, yant.
The verb yan( should be used with discretion, since this
26 Directional Verbs
T il.lr:h?ff1:t
mother."
b L ' t L f t , . " I r e c e i v e dt h i s f r o m m y
t f
n
t.
J'
t,
tr
F
same as in the caseof the independent
I. Yrc lhureru <tLa
I
directionalverb.
lkudasaruT3 6
T
fr
$
i:
(Implication-Someone is kind enough to do something
;
h.
:
t for someoneelse)
t
r:.
a
i
fIaha ga zuotohushini kono hon o hatte leurentashito. Fl
, i T l r : : D 4 : t t T t c - c< i L * L / c . "M;t mother bought
this bool<for me. (MV mother was liind enough to
buy this booli for me.)"
Scnsciga ruataltushino otdto ni hon o yondc huclasoi-
musltitn. )'a,*rt',tLD'|ri:;['k ,t'il" -C-F$ U.':j: L /c. " iVIy
teacher read the book to my younger ltrother. (h{y
teacher was l<ind enough to read the book for my
youngerbrother.)"
II. Y,, [yaru f 6
.t
la.gerrt -Ltdb
(Impiication-Someone is doing somebodyelse a favor.)
I
I. l
Watakushiwa intdto ni lton o yontle larimasltito. f/.lt
-,
tfrt:'4.t"ffiL"Ct 0 *. Ltc. "I read a book to my younger
sister. (I did a favor for my sister by readinga book.)"
I Senseiga Yontamoto-kurt, o tetsu.dattcagetnashita. it*.rt\
tJt;F.&tt+l7.T,kW * Lfu. "The teacher helped Mr.
Yamamoto. (The teacherdid a favor for Mr. Yamamoto
r; by helpinghim.)"
!
l' t
$
I
28 CausativeVerb te-f.ormplus a Directional Auxiliary Verb
I I i . Y ' , f m o r a ut b ( H ) 5
J
[itactakuL.,i:fi (4t, ]E) <
(Implication-someone is the recipientof someone
else's
kindness. Usually someone asks tor someone else,s
favor before he receives it.)
Imdta ni yofuku o tsukutte n?oraintashita. f*lcp;e
tffc
( t b L ,'t L fu. "f lvas fortunate that my younger
sister made a dress for me."
Watakttshi ?t'o otdto wa sensei ni hon o yoncle itaclaki-
ruashita.tLD#1t fr,*U:+ 2ffiLt[ ,foff 5 t L /:.
"My younger brother was fortunate that the teacher
read a book to him."
"
bicycle.
Senseiga lvatakushi ni benkyd o tsuzukesasete
F
f'
rnctshita.Jt*-n\fLt:ftlJ4frxb7vrs
httdasai-
{rrcTs L,t L /c.,,Mv
teacherpermittedme to continuemy studies.,,
$
&
T
c
I
I
F
Im6to ni b6ru o ?ra,qesosete
yarimashita. f*lc.rti_ tu*tg $
F
t
t
Verbs of Directional Restrictioiis 29
-
F, e..9.Ano r6jin wa kono machi de hijO ni tattobaretcintastt. *,
rj - i,:
At,^t:: DtnI-C)f,
respectedin this town."
iifl:*I.tf *t( L. * J'. "'f hat old man is highly
, t _ t
I:
I
30 Conditionals
I. V3 to type conditional
(In most cases the resultant part is an objective state-
ment.) The verb before to is always in the dictionary
form, and its tense always follolvs that of the principal
clause.
1. "when"
a. habitual occurrence
Natsu ga huru.to yoku yama ni ikimashita.
EriXA LI < r!t:ft39 L/:. (not inter-
changeablewith -ba, -tara, or nara) "When
summer came, we often went to the
mountains."
b. specificoccurrence
Macloo alzeruto (- aketara)yuki ga futte ima-
shita. "8.X*>ffiiltlt6 LEfi\WcT! .'* L/c.
(not interchangeable with -baor naro) "When
I openeclthe rvindow,it was snowing."
Note: The clausefollorvingVs lo conditional is often
unexpected.
((if"
2.
Kore o nal:usrc to (:nakushitara) taihen desu. :*t,
2tt < f Lx'A'C-f-, (not interchangeablewith -ba
or rtara) "lf I lose this, I'll be in trouble."
II. -ltcttype conditional
(ln most cases tire resultant part involves one's lvill or
d e t e r m i n a t i o n ,o r i s a n i n e v i t a b l e occurrencc to the con-
ditional part.)
"if "
Anata ga iheba(:ihu nara) watakushimo ikimasu.
&>tr./crt\'filj{f fl 6 fT3 t f. (not interchangeable
rvith either to or -tara) "lf you go, I lvill go too."
Takakereba (:tahahattorn, tahoi nara) kaimasen.ffi
fJ tud H ! ',* t rL. (not i nterchangeablervith to)
"If it is expensive,I rvon't buy it."
Ashita yul<i nora (:dattara) ikimasen. gXg *trb
'fr (not interchangeable with da to) "If
t E+,1.
it snows tomorrow, I won't go." (Nara (ba) is
the conditionalof the copula da; seep. 15for con-
jugations of copula.)
Conditionals 3l
TOKI ffi
"rvhen"
1. Span of time
Yasumi no tohi, benkyo shimasen. (Noun+?to tohi) I 4
DWtAMLt'ltrL. "When it is a holidal',I don't stucly."
Isogashiitoki, konai de kudasai. (Adj,*tolti) ,l'tLt.,ti$X
/r!',tT81.'. "Pleasedon't come rvhen I am busy."
'l'ol<yo
Chiisakattotoki (-chiisaix toki) (Adjn/Adj, *tohi)
ni sundeimashita. ,J.3 fi'c /:ti$Itiif:,f L L-C1.,* L/:.
"I lived in 'lokyo when I was little."
Hana ga kirci rta tolti koen ni ikimasho. (Copularnoun*
,xa toki) 4tfi\$*tt.'(fiT[[) frn.?, *FHt:f13 t L "t 5 .
"Let's go to the park rvhen the flolvers are pretty."
Chichi ga genki na (- datta) tohi, yoku issho ni clekake-
mashita.'tfi\fr.r\ /cl]lr, .t < -frE't:"rc'r.hi
* L/c. "When
my father was well, we often went out toilether."
Nihon ni ir u'F ( - ita) toki Nihongo o naraimashita. (Y ,/Y to
toki) E #tcu' 6F+ H 4i3',E X{o'L . t L/c. "When I rvas in
Japan, I iearne:l Japanese. "
2. Specific tirne
Tegami o kaku toki pen ga irimasu. (V, * tohi) +;'JtX#
s
g
f,
:{
*fi. Gohan o tabete ita toki, tomodachi ga kimashita. (Y,o+
w"
fi.
toki) :'[t LftfifrnaA.^r(L'/:ffi, x]snixt L/:.
* "When we were eating, our friend came."
llr
fi
.il:
Note : Specialattention should be paid when the verb rvhich
F,
precedestoki is a motion verb such as iku, kuru, or kaeru.
.1.
I
ti
r:
Nihon e ihu tok,i iomodachi ni aimasu. Eflffi ( ffiX€
f.
l:*L', 9 -d-. "On the way to Japan, I'll see my friend."
Nihon ni itta to,bi, tomodachi ni aimasu. E*Ia'fr2l:Fg
fr.&i:*t', * f . "When I go to (After I arrive in) Japan,
I'll see my friend." Use the perfective form even it
the action will occur in the future.
Nihon ni iku. toki, tomodachi ni aimashita. E4l:ffi ( r+
e$t:*t't L /:. "On the way to Japan, I met my
friend."
Nihon ni, itta tohi, tomodachi ni aimashita. E4r lafrct:
B+Aj*l:*t,,* L/:. "When I went to (After I arrived
in) Japan, i met my friend.
SUBJUNCTIVE
I. "if "
1. Hypothetical
(suru,to -f6L
)
tn )shitara Lt:b \
ev
\ surcbo f*rtf (
lr,rru nura tztfcb I
Iiyoto ni iltu,lo suru to itsu ikimasukKa. (vs t o suru
to) i{#t\lcfT< & f 6 LL .? ({',JttS) ci +
frrJ" -ft' f r/ ).. " I f you
'ou ,,
were to go to Kyoto, lvhen \,vould :y( u ggc : o?! ' '
Kind Nihon o dcta to shitara ima wa rm( I O; AAr.merika n i
iru hazu desu. (Y t,, to shitara) W F THI i/ F tt iIl/: & L
i E
..If (pre-
t c b , + t t 6 5 r t t ) f i t l ! . 6 t t f ( ?!4)) ( .:'f-L
' 9.
ri
I sumably)he left Japanyesterday,h, 1 e SI shro uld be i n
I
4 the UnitedStatesalready."
F
: 2. Contrary to fact
I
1 a. present
..
B Yasui mono nara (: dattara) kau no ni (kau
-
- n ' d e s ug a ) . . . * V , Y h k . b H ) o > l : . . . " f f i t
I
r were a cheap thing, I would buy it (but I
*
t
r,
!,
I
34 Subjunctive
II. Obligation
1. nakerebaihemasen. " Yot( must do " (literally,"if
you don't..., it can'tgo").
Ky6 benliyo shinakerebaikemasen. (Yttakereba
iherna-
sen) # g f{JtfrLtr O furdt',lt t +},L. "You must
study today."
Akaku,nakereba ikemasen. (Adj"anereba ikemosen) fr
1 tdrJ ttt{u ''h1t .if &. "It must be red."
2. nokereba nArintasen. " f must do . . . " (literally, "if I
don't..., it won't become").
36 IliscellaneousConditionalPatterns
may go home."
negative-Iie, kaette wa ikemasett. \,r
! ''.i-, lfr cA.ftL .VJ*t,t.
"No, you may not go home."
Chiisakutemo ii desu. (Adjr, mo ii deszt) ,J.8 < (
t!.,1.'(..f. "It's all right if it is small."
Chiisai uchi de mo ii desu. (Noun de mo ii desu)
,J.81.fit{>L''!.'(*f. "It is all right even if it is
a small house."
V. Suggestion(not a conditional pattern)
' ',''
ho ga ii clesu.."It is better that you do.. . "
Sono hon o yonda ho ga ii desu yo. (Yto hd ga ii
dcsu) t D4;t i'tLtifrfiiu',1 '-c'f I. "It is better
to read that book."
Sorosorokeklion suru ( : shita) hd ga ii dcsu yo.
(Yt/Y to ho ga ii desu) + bZ bf.li{tff 5fifi\L ,,!'-C
f f . "It is better to marry soon."
Ot<iiho ga ii desu yo. (Adj, ho ga ii dest) t 3 r.'
hn|-L',!'('f .|. "It is better to have a big one."
Note : Ho ga ii is not e conditional pattern, but it is easy to
remember it rvith other conditional patterns. H0 ga ii
can be precededeither by the third base or the ta-f.orm
of the verb.
AUXILIARY VERBS ffiE\;A<D J E, L>
J -
ra
tr
appearin mcdern Japaneser,vriting.
Informal endingsof the verb (Dictionaryform) are usedfor the
headingsof the verb-follorvingexpressions, but in the accompany-
f
I T
ing examples,both polite (ntosu,clesutype of endings)and informal
(de Aru, da, rniru, taberu,yont.u,hahu type of endings)are used.
$'
f;
tr
$
r
n
t,
I
-r
train."
,' -nai to ua hagiranailtL.&ttpflblrU'
l'
r
;f F
/|
I
42 -nai uchi ni V,-following Expressions
3i
hon tua yomanakute nxo ii desu,. ZD+tttffit /r ( ( 6 !',1.,t.f.
{i
g "You don't have to read that book." See pp. 36-37 for more ex-
amples.
-nahuto mo fc ( & t :-nahute mo
-neba naranoi *aif frbkL. :-naleerebo naranai (-neba is the con-
ditional form of rtu.)
-nut R (negative suffix) frequently contracted to -n as in arinxasen.
-rareru btLA this form is attached to vorvel-stem verbs, e.g.
taberareru,and to the irregular verb huru, *6 horareru, and has
three separate f unctions. It will generally be clear f rom the
context lvhich meaning is intended.
1. sign of passive,€.9. Watahushi wa hyl haha ni shikarare-
mashita. tLIt+ El[]l:nvbtL*. Lft. "I was scolded by my
mother today (and I suffered frorn it)." In Japanesepas-
sive voice, the sub;ect often suffers f rom the action
expresseclby the passive verb. The agent lvhich takes
"by" in English is expressedby the particle ni in Japanese
(See p. 122).
Note: a. Dircctional verbs are not made into passiveforms.
b. Intransitive verbs can be made into passiveforms in Japanese.
Kyo isogashii no ni totnodachi ni korarete homatta. /.i F t1i
Lu',Ol:frjf lc)KbtL<iEc/:. "I was busy today,but my
friend came and I had trouble."
I
f
s
44 -saserareru V1-follorving Expressions
I
V,-following Expressions -sete ageru 45
-enai *-(H lxL. is not possible, e.g. Sonna hoto LUaarienai. Zlv
/r$ltE D19ftL.. "Such a thing can't be possible." positive of
-enai, u,rtt.,p. 59.
-gachi nif2 tend to. . . , e.g. Amari atsui no de namahegachi ni.
narimasu. t)t (*) D Ev.otRff rt\+>l=tt? tf. "Becauseit is
toc hot, w€ tend to get lazy."
-gai ryt worth . . . ing, e.g. Ano ko ua nan' de mo yoku oboeru
Ieara,oshiegaiga aru,. *>o>+1t,1'"It6 r < H k-brt,b*.LF*riF)
6. "Becausethat child can learn everything well, it is worth
teaching him.'t , '' ;' :
-gatai ii/: (ffi) t,. difficult to: nikui (-gatai is more literary)
-ge Vf seaming condition of others, e.g. Totemo imi arige na hao
o shitewatahushi
o mirnashita.L<6H*b 0WtrffitL<tL?n
, t Llc. . "He looked at me with a face :that seemed to hold some
meaning.ii
-hajimzru ffia>6 start . . . ing, e.g. Tabehajirnemasu. A{fi6b t f.
"We start eating.'
-hatasu jftfuf finish, . . .llpe e.g. Ohane o suhhari tsuhaihatashita,
*"'AAt crt, Dfru'R/c Llc. "I used up all my money."
-hateru X,< 6 end uF, be finished, €.9. Kyo u)a. isogashikute
tsuharehatete shimaimashita.+ Ett,ftL < <{EtLXrC(L*U'* L
/c. "I was so busy that I was exhausted."
o-itasu *c V, fft humble form, e.g. Odenwao ohaheitashimashita.
*d€ffit*"'n',Vf*L * L/c. "f called you." (Seep. 218)
-haesu;Ef re- . . .ing, do again, e.g. Yomihaeshimashita.ffi,Art.
k-Lt L/c. "I read it again." Iikaesu Efu.,i..i-f. "talk back."
Note: kaesumeans to return (taddsftl,see pp.2t-24), (cf. Vz naosu, p.50).
-haherufirfb start. . .ing [but soon interrupted], €.8. Benley0
shihaketatohoroe tomodachiga kimashita. fuffiLrt,Wtc & E'5^.
I
A.*tt*t L/c. "When I startedstuclying,my friend came."
-haneru#*aA be hard to, e.g. Mdshikanemasu ga... F L#iat
t
f r i . . . " I t ' s h a r dt o s a y ,b u t . . . "
-hata fr manner, way, how to, e.g. Ano hito no Nihongo flo I
hanashihata
L*ci.Lt.tf.
wa suhoshiohashiidesu. *>o>XDE*AScffil-fr&r,
'iHis way is a little funny."
.o{speakingJapanese I
it
Shihataga nai. trfirtiffLi "Nothing can be done aboutit." "It
can't be helped." (cf. Y, l!6, p.-.60)
Vr-following Expressions -nagara 49
-hireru W|LA run out of, e.g. Kind uridashita no ni, md u,rihire-
te shimaimashita.
FFgfr,\ HUlcDp=, 6 , fr DTJJfiL<LtL.,t
L
/c. "Although they just started selling it yesterday,it is already
sold out."
-hiru 5 a be through, completely, e.g. Kyo wa ichinichi-jfi. iso-
gashikutetsukarekitteshimaimashita. iAlt-E +1tL < (trtr*
cT L*L'* L/c. "I was so busy all day today that I am now
all tired out."
-homu[fu
f. in, into,e.g. Hon ni hakihomimashita.
*lcg$;trAt Lft.
"f wrote in the book." Pilru ni tobihomimashita. / - )vla-
ftU[4t Lfr. "I jumped into the pool."
2. to settle firmly in the state of preceding yr, e.g. Kare wa
soho ni suwarikonda. '{RW? C-}c& 0 :/,LtC. ,,He sat down
there (and did not move)."
o-hudasoih' vz T3 t,. polite imperative, e.g. onomi hudasai. *o-
*4T* !'. "Pleasedrink."
o-hudasaimase *.; V, T8 L. * t more polite imperative than above.
Ohahe hudasaimase.*dr.hlT 8 U't € "Would you please sit
down."
-masu.*f (polite suffix), see p. 13. €.g., Ihimasu. {T5 tf. ,,1
will go."
'mo...mo suru t, ... tf 6 do both... and..., e.g. Ano hitowa
Nihongo o yomi mo haki mo shimas*. *>o>xlt F +a# xffi,4d "#
8' {, L * f. "He reads Japaneseand writes it as well."
-mo shinai 6 U lf,L. don't even do, e.g. Mi mo shinakatta.
F, d
Lft.rt'z t. "She didn't even look at it."
- m o s u , r e bY a2 m o s u r t ( { f h l t ' V z 6 f A d o b o t h . . . a n d. . . , n o t
o n l y . . . b u t a l s o . . . , e . g . A n o h i t o u a y o h u t. a b em o s u r e b an o m i
mo shitnAsu. *>0>xlt J < A'{ 6 fhtt ffi.46 L * f. "He not only
eats a lot, but drinks a lot, too."
-mono f)71thing, e.g. tabemonolt,+rJ "thing to eat,,, "food"
-nagara trrt\b simultaneousstate or action of the same person
(cf. V3 aida, p. 60)
1. while, e.g. Rajio o kikinagara tabahoo nomimasr!,. 2 i*t
ffi*fxri bl ^ I (tgH)tDA*f. "While I am listeningto
the radio, I smoke."
t
I
50 -naoszt V2-following Expressions
I
2. though, €.9. Shitte inagara nani mo iimosen deshita. ffi cT
L'frii bfq 6BL. t rf ^,t L/c. "Although he knew, he didn't
tell me anything."
t
-naostt,Hf f€-..., e.g. Kahinaoshimasu.g$trUt9'.
write it." (naosu means "to correct," cf. V z haestt., p. 48)
"I'llre-
I
-nareru {Htr 5 get used to . . . ing, e.g. Kahinareru to kanji mo
yasashihu narimasu. gF ttll-6 LiH" 6hL ( tr 0 tf.
you get used to writing, Kanji gets easy, too."
"When I
-nasai fr*L', imperative, e.g. Kakinasai. gSkEL'.
Often attach honorific o before the verb, Oyominasai. *"ffi4.tr
"'W'rite." t
8 u., "Read!"
-ni tc + verb of motion, indicates purpose, e.g. Eiga o mi ni iki- t
mashd. ERIEt n](?afr8t L r , . "Let's go to see the movie."
-ni kakaru ?3i.i.6 start . . . ing, [with some effort] e.g. Kare wa
sassohuhahaoya o nagusarlreni hakatta. 'isal!+tr&*f,Affiblcir
t
hr->fc. "He started comforting his mother right away."
o-ni naru. *; Vz lSfr6 honorific form. e.g. Senseiga ohahi ni nari-
t
mashita. tr&ri*$gSlclf D t Llc. "Teacherwrote." (Seep. 218)
-nikui ?r.< (S&)u.' difficult to, e.g. Kono hon wa yominihui desu.
I
a o)*ttffiAl: < !.,tf.
nihui hon.ffi,41: < !',f
"This book is difficult to read." yomi-
"a book which is difficult to read." (Op-
,l
posite of -yasui, p. 60)
-otosu I&f fail to, e.g. Machigai o miotoshintashita. f"1i€!.tn#
L* L/:. "I failed to see the mistakes."
t
-oluoruWA finish. . .ing, e.g. Iiowaru. E U'f46. "I finish say-
;
ing." Though the verb ou)ar?,c is a jidoshi (p. 23),as a suffix it is
used like a taddshi.
-sae sureba 8 *-f*t,lf emphatic, if only, e.g. Ohane ga ari sae l
str.rebahotoshi Nih,on e ihu n' desu ga. . . *d$nib D 8 L-ffuff.
++g 6^fl I ,ttfri
Japan this year,
. . . "If only I had money, I would go to
but . . . "
t
-shidai kffi as soon Ers,e.g. Tabeshidai ikimashl. A{nffiff*
* L r 5 . "Let's go as soon as we finish eating."
-sd da Z , ti, -so-na ? J tt, look as if it will (seemsimminent),
e.g. Ame ga furisd desn. FffiriWD Z ) tf. "It looks like raln."
t
Ame ga furisT na soramoyddesu. NniEF0 + ) /r$,Hffi-ef.
"The sky lookslike it will rain." ;
T
T
T
T Vr-following Expressions -ta(-da)bakari ni Sl
!
T /
52 -ta (-da)ga saigo V2-following Expressions
-ta (-da) ga saigo fcfi\ffith. :-tara saigo once you do..., e.g. Itta
ga saigo,kaettekimasen. 'fr.f:h\ffi1k|fr. (Xg€,L. "Once he
goes,he'll never come back."
- t a ( - d a )k i r i / c F t 2 j u s t d i d . . . , a n d . . . ( i m p l i e s f i n a l i t ye) . g . O k a n e
o karita hiri mada haesanai. *;#tffi 9 f:.8 D * ftEE fc!.'. "He
just borroweCmoney and has not returued it yet."
-ta (-do) koto ga aru /:L &ri*>6 experience up to the present,
e.g. Nihon ni itta hotoga arimasu.ka. F,6U.afrctc:. &nib 0 t,
fr'. "Have you ever been to Japan?" For Y3 hotoga aru, p.66.
-ta (-da) hoto ga atta fu : & ,i b c lc past experience, e.g. Sore
made Nihon ni itta koto ga arimasen deshita. ZtL*t'H#U:'fr.
/: L Lh\*> D t € Lt Lfo. "Until then I had never beento Japan."
For V3 hoto ga atta, p. 66.
-ta (-da) koto ni suru /:C LUtg6 assume,€.9. Koho ni ita hoto
n i s h i m a s h O .a : l C L ' / : L & l : L t L f 5 . " L e t ' s a s s u m et h a t w e
were here." For V3 koto ni suru, p. 66.
-ta (-da) mama /c * t ({ift) as it is, e.g. O motta mama o itte huda-
sni.,Ez/:t t"F c(.T*!'. " P l e a s et e l l m e j u s t a s y o u t h i n k . "
-ta (-da) mono da fu 6 Dfi habitual occurrencein the past, e.g. :T
fight rvith my littie brother rvhen I was little." For V3 mono ..$
,'',"
da, see p. 68. 'i:
t"'
I
I
54 -tara (-dara) saigo V2-following Expressions
-te f-d4 irai <D)* since. . ., e.g. I{ihon ni itte irai Nihon ga suhi
ni narimashita. F #tt6 ->T,D)*H#rt\W I fc k 0 * L /:. "Since
I went to Japan,I came to like Japan."
-te (-de)iru (1.6
1. taddsh;*te iru progressiveform, continuative action, doing
something,e.g. Tegamio haite imasu. +ftft?#!.(!.tf.
"f am writing a letter." See p. 22.
2. jiddshi*te iru descriptivemeaning, e.g. Mado ga shimatte
imasu. finiFFt c(L',tf. "The window is closed." See
p. 2r.
*-te (-de)itadahu -iCt.fuff(ffi, lH) < (to be fortunate) to receive
someone'sfavor, e.g. Senseini eigo o oshiete itadahimoshita.
fc$3:Xi*X#.*_<1 ./:ff8 * L/c. (I am fortunate that) my teach-
er taught me English." (cf. -te ntorat(,p. 58).
-te (-de) hara <rt'b after, e.g. Gohan o tabete hara, gahkd e
ikimasu. ittl, (ffifrntA{:c rt,b#tf :nft* t f. "After eating
a meal, I go to school."
-te (-de) hoso<a+ only when, e.g. Sonna muzuhashiikyohu ga
utsuhushihuhihetehoso,idai na ongahuha to ieru. kr+frffiL!.
ffiri* L < tifki( :' +&X.frff#N & E *-6. "Only when he can
play such diftrcult music beautifully, can we say he is a great
musician."
-te (-de)hudasai(T3 u' mild imperative, e.g. Yonde hudasai.
ffiLfTS!' "Pleaseread." -nai de hudasai,p. 40.
*-te (-de)hudasaru(T3 6 (he)is kind to do somethingfor (me),
e.g. Senseiga uatakushi ni hon o hashite hudasaimashita, ,U*.
/r\tLl.#t ft L (T3 L. * L /c. "My teacher was kind enoughto
Iend me a book." (cf. -te hureru, see below)
-te (-de) kure ( < h abrupt imperative used by men, Kore o shite
kure. L *t X V'C < lt,. "Do this (for me)."
*-te hureru ( < tLb same as -te kudasaru e.g. Imdto ga yi/uku
o tsuhuttehuremashita.ffirii$nt.XrccT. < tt,* L/:. "My younger
sister made a dressfor me. (My youngersister was kind enough
to make me a dress.)"
I
-te (-de)kuru (*6
1. verb of motion* te huru direction of the action when it is T
towards the speaker, €.9. Heya ni haitte himashita. Str
lc,l. c(.*,* Llc. "He came into the room." (cf. -te iku,
p. 55).
I
I
v2'following Expressions -te (-de)mo kamawanai s7
-baai WA when, in the caseof ..., e.g. Nihon ni iku baai, hihdhi
de ihimasu. EI*lt6<W*, tt{ffi,ffifffi**f. "When we go to
Japan,we'll go by airplane." For Y to baai, see p. 51.
-bakari (Ii. D
1 . only, e.g. Taberu bakari de shigoto wa shimasen. ft-{ 6l{
rt, D (.'ff #lt L t "$rt. "He only eats, and doesn't do the
work."
2. be about to..., e.g. Taberubahari no tokoro e Toda-sanga
himashita.A'{bttfi'} 0>&: b-.-FH8 furt\X* L/:. "Mr.
Toda came just at the time when we were about to eat."
For Y to bahari, p. 51.
3. to the extentthat . . . , practically,almost, €.9. Kanashikute
1l
$l
munega saherubaharideshita. tHL < (fi@r\l{c?6.tt'-fi. t tL/:. +i
'?,I
"f was so sad that my heart almostbroke." +,r
'1' I
1
;,
-baharide wa nai tIi. D fltk!. not only that . . . , e.g. Nihon e $'
i$
itta bakari de wa nahu Taiwan e mo ihimashita. E 4^{T a /cf f '{'.
*
rt,Otlt,lr ( 6i4^6{T* t Llc. "Not only did he go to Japan, ,#
i
but he also went to Taiwan." I
s:
*'.
s;
! {'*."
I
I Vs-following Expressions -dohoroka 6I
T -daheti\ (t)
1. as much 4s, e.g. Taberarerudahetabetehudasai. A,{ btL6
til,tA{(T31.. "Pleaseeat as much as you can eat."
I 2. only,just, e.g. Taberudahedeshigotowa shimasen. A.{ 6 ff
WttLt.Ftt L t t /u. : Taberubakari de shigotowa shintasen.
I "He only eats,and does no tvork."
-daheatte f:Whc\ :-dake ni
No, he wouldn't!"
3.uncertainty, e.g. Tanaha-sanga itsu huru ha shirimasen.
E+E A,iit,?(,1'"1ffi)X6i.H 0 t tL. "f don't know when
Mrs. Tanaka will come."
-ha dO ha firE 5 fi, :-ha Yr", ha whether or not, e.g. Ihu ha d0
ha shirimasen. ffi < i. &' J r1,ffi0t + /-. "I don't know whether
he is going or not."
-ha dO ha ni yottei.&'5rt'?cl cA. :-ha Yro; ha ni yotte
'ha ftto shirenai fi. { LhhL '. : -ha rno shirenu DZIY, possibly,
literally, cannot know even whether, e.g. Ashi,ta ihu ha mo shire-
tnasen. gng 'fr < i.6 VtLt tl". "I may go tomorrow."
-ha mo shirenu i.d Lhn :-ha mo shirenai
-ka Yno;ha fr V irf ',i. :-ha d0 ha lku ha ihanai ha shirimasen.
'fr "f don't know whether he is going
<rt,afrh.ft1'i.fi1, tt,t.
or not.tt
- h a Y n o ;k a n i y o t t e i . V l g L . f r | : J z ( d e p e n d i n go n w h e t h e r . . .
or not, e.g. Ano hito ga ihu ka ihanai ha ni yotte himemAsu.
hDLrri?1 < /r,'frrt./r!'i.lc I : (I*b t f. "f will decide,depend'
ing on whether or not he goes."
-ha shiraln) rtrLb I wonderif ..., e.g. Ano hito u)a Nihongo
ga yohu hanaseru,ha shira(n). &>o>XltE #t$ri I ( ff&+f6fi'U b,
"I wonder if he can speakJapanesewell ?" (Used by women,)
ka to omou to fi,LE ) & :-k,a to omottara when I thought that
. . . , as soon ?S,e.g. Kita ka to omou to md itte shimaimashita.
* t : h . & , u . , & i , ) ' f r c a . L t ( 7 ) r , . , * L / : . " A s s o o na s h e c a m e ,
he left."
-kagiri h,* 0 as f,ar ?s, e.g. Watahushino shitte iru hagiri hare.
wa shdjihimonodesu. tLr)fucA.1.6i.5 D, 4&ttEH#<t. "As
f.ar as I know, he is an honestman."
-hanheijo Ht{-L, due to the fact that . . . , e.g. Koho wa natsu de
mc kihd ga sanuri hanhei j0, shohu.butsu ga yohu sodachimasen.
:: (ftt&)ttErtxEri*r,.'ffif*Ih1+hh\r
<Hb*t,L. "Dueto
the fact that it is cold here even in summer,plants do not grow
wgll."
-hara firb because,since (placesemphasison the result, cf. -no
de, p. 72) e.g:. Md su,guihu hara matte ite hudasai. 6 ) ? (H)
+{1 ( r. b'ft2(u'(T3[.. "Pleasewait for rr€, becauseI will
Vr-following Expressions -koto 65
I
: L/:L & ltlt!'. "There is nothing like trying it." "It is best
to try doing it."
-rti mo kahawarazu, ?:6 li'fi..b(fiI bt in spite of the fact that...,
e.g. Isshokenmeibenkyoslcru ni mo hakawarazu,ano gakusei wa
amari yoku dehinakute,hinodohu desu. -4,mf,p'ffi1e-f b!:ti.r.
*)bt, *>D-#trt1t)*(*) DJ < H*/r ( rx,o>firtf. "ln spite I
of the fact that he studies hard, that student does not do too
*'ell, and I feel sorry for him."
-ni oyobi ?:*"'J (&)Lt: :-ni oyonde:ni atatte
Irl
-ni shihu.t/)a nai ?cftE ( ttfr!' nothing like, nothing as good ds,
e.g. Yojin suru ni shiku wa nai. ,H,L.f 6rcAp( ltlx!.,. "It is
best to be cautious."
I
I
-rti shinobinai lcd.tli/t!,, do not have the heart to..., cannot al-
lorv oneself to . . . , e.g. Miru ni shinobinai. n5l:d.tNk! '. "f
don't have the heart to look at it."
-ni shiro iral-b even if, e.g. Nihon ni iku. ni shiro sonna ni sugu
rti toa ihimasen.B#t 'fr ( l: LbZ,+tctcf (H) (.r:&:fr* trl,L. I
"Even if I go to Japan,I won't go that soon."
-ni shiro Ynoini shiro l=l-b V trL.lc Lb whether.. . or, e.lT. Iku
ni sltiro ikanai ni shiro tomohahu shirasete hudasai. 'tt<l.Lb
'frn'fxL.lC
L b L (tr,)6 i. < (A)*E(fub) e(TS u.. "Whether
you
II
t
Vs-following Expressions -no 7L
desu. h0> l..rtfE +;S fi\ffib>6 b L L ,ff. "ft seems that he can
read Japanese."
-sa 3 (sentence-endingparticle) indeed, you know, e.g. Sonna
hoto wa shitte iru. sa. t A,fCi & ttfu cA,U'6 3. "f certainly
know such a thing." Used by men.
-sai ffi when, e.g. Sonoshigotoo suru sa'i lwa) watahushi ni rno
rnae mottesddanshite kudasai. +DttF-?tbHfa}ltHf 6 r(DJ)
<ffi;ft.L(T*L'. "\Yhen you do that work, please also consult
me ahead of time."
-saichn ni &.f lc in the midst of, e.g. Niwa de shohuji o shite iru
saichfi ni ame ga futte kimashita. trtAStU'iCL.6FFlcffiti
W.(X* L/c. "In the midst of eating dinner in the garden,it
started raining."
-sei da €1. (EF#$) ff it is because. . . , €.9. Ano hito no seisekino
warui no wa chittomobenhyoshinai'sei desu. br>XDFXffi,O,€!'
Ott b c & 6 ffi\eL trt '€L .?f. "ft is becausehe doesn't study
at all that his grades are bad."
-seiha €L'(FFre)r. perhapsbecause :-hara ha e.g. Kyo ichinichi-
jil isogashikattasei ha totemotsuharemashita. 1A-El +,[t Lfi,c
/ctL.i. L< {f;h* Lfo. "Perhaps becauseI was busy all day,
I got very tired."
-shi L not only, but also, and, e.g. Nihongo mo yotneru shi,
Furansugo//tolomemasu. E#E*6ffiO 6L7 , > KAStffiO*?.
"Not only can he read Japanese,but he can also read French."
-sd'da +, f: I understandthat. . ., e.g. Tanaka-sanwa Furansu-
go ga hanaseru,so-desu^ EFg <z 7 > xF$riffit+b + , Tf.
"I understandthat Mr. Tanaka can speak French."
-tabi ni /cU (E) lc each time, e.g. Haha ga uchi ni huru tabi ni,
ohashio motte hite hu.remasu.&riXl:X6l;Ulc*dHTXftcT
*( <*t,tf. "Every time my mother comes to our house,she
brings us cakes."
-tame ni /cb (.K)lc
1. purpose,in order to, e.g. Hon o lomu tame ni toshokanni
ikirnasu. #tffitr/caDlcgg;ffi166* tf. "In order to read
books, I go to the library."
2. reason,because,e.g. Ame ga futte iru tame ni uchi ni imasu.
NriE cTL,blc4llcfilCl .tf. "I am stayinghomebecause
it is raining."
Vg-followingExpressions -to iu hoto da 75
-to L
1.. (conditional)if, when, e.g. Miru to wakarimasu. nb LL)rt,
6) 0 t f. "If you see it, you'll understand."
2. Whenever,if a certain condition occurs,something happens,
e.g. Haru ga huru to atatahakunarimasu. #rift b LIE2.
( ir D *.t. "Whenever spring comes,it gets warm."
3. (time sequence)e.g. Uchi e hoeru to haha ga hite imashita.
LEnit:CL'* L/c. "When I returned home, rny
7^......{fr6
mother was there." (The part after lo conditionalwas not
expected.)
For a more detailed explanation on conditional forms, see pp.
29-32.
4. (sign of closing quotation) no clear distinction is made in
Japanesebetween indirect and direct quotation. -to may
be separatedby several other words from the verb of
speakingor hearing, or thinking (examplesbelow).
-to iebaieru &Eitt$ k-6 if you want, you can s?y..., e.g. Ano
hito wa benhy0hada to ieba ieru. desh6. hl>Xl''fdrlfrXtj&E *-
lt'E *-6t L r , . "If you want, perhapsyou can say that he is
a hard worker."
-to iu L€,
L. say that..., €.g. Sumisu-sanga Tohyoni ihu to iimashita.
z i x * ,Lni*Hl.'fr < & E L.,* L/c. "He said that Mr.
Smith would go to Tokyo," or "Mr. Smith said that he
rvouldgo to Tokyo."
2. which is called, who is called, e.g. Yamamoto-santo ite
h i t o o s h i t t ei m a s uk A . d J f * r t & ! . ' r Xffic\!.*-7-.rt..
"Do you know Mr. Yamamoto (a man who is called Mr.
Yamamoto) ?"
3, definedas, e.g. 'Hdken-jidai' to iu kotobao shitte imasu ha?
flf€ffiftj L L. , E # Uffic(.1 . * fi.. "Do you know the
word definedas 'feudalism'?"
-to iu hanashi da & L. (E ) J ffiti : -to iu koto da
- t o i u h o t od a & ! . t : & r u I h e a r t h a t . o . , I u n d e r s t a ntdh a t . . . ,
e.g. Ano hito wa muhashi gahkOno senseidatta to iu hoto desu.
'oDNrf+fr Dfr,*tiz fc& !' , c LTf. that he
"r understand
was a schoolteacherbefore."
76 -to iu koto dakede wa Vs-following Expressions
-to iu koto dahe de wa & U.,, a Lffl-t (;f) (..0t :-to iu dake no
hoto de ua if it is only because. . . , €.g. Atama ga ii to iu koto
dake rlewa nahanahashusseLua muzuhashii. EHtiu.,1.& L .,t : &
ffklt"tt/ri.ki. (#,t ) Htrltffi L L',. "If it is only becauseone
has (one has nothing but) a good brain, one can't succeed.in life
easily."
- t o i u y d n i & ! . ' ) I ) l c i n s u c h a m a n n e rt h a t . . . , e . g . A n i g a
ikeba otdto ,no iku to iu yd ni ano hyodai wa noka ga ii desu.
tff ( &u.,) J 5 u:5Dn#tt{+niL.,L.<'.f.,,Those
nh\'frvJtt'#
brothers are close in such a manner that if the older brother
goes, the younger one goes,too."
-to iwan bahari (ni) &L''b,rtt'i. D (lc) as if to s&y, e.g. Mo kon-
gori (da) to iwan bahari ni atama o futte ita. 6 ) c. D { D (rj)
LEb'LtIi. D UtFF'kffi.c(,L.lc. "He was shaking his head as if
to say that he had had enough."
-to ha Lfi. followed by verbs such as iu, hiku
1. something to the effect, e.g. Sumisu-sanga Nihon ni iku to I
ha hihimashita. x i xg L7J\861.'fr< Lfi.,lfl** L/c. "r
heard Mr. Smith is going to Japan,or somethinglike that."
2. ...or...; e.g. Kd suru to ha d surtr.to ka nani o itte iru no
I
ka uakarimAsen.: ) f b Lrt,*>btb Li.f'TX*J cA,L'6 Dh,*trt,
(ft) D t.t L. "Doing this, doing that-I don't understandwhat
I
he is saying. (He had better make up his mind what he is go-
ing to do.)"
- t o h i h u & F f l ( I h e a r t h a t . . . , e . ! I . Y o m a m o t o - s a n u a k ybdy o k i d a
to hihimashita. dI+ S ,ttt+ E fififf & EA3 * L ft. "I heard that
Mr. Yamamoto is sick today."
-to mieru L n*-b it looks as if, e.g. Yamada-sanu)a totemo
tsuhareteiru to miete kaoiro ga amari yoku arimasen deshita. IIJ
H*,tlt L< 6tr*r(!',6 Lnk-<!H@,t',*0I
<b D*t&tL/c.
"It looked as if Mr. Yamadawas very tired, and his complexion
was not very good."
-to rno & t
1. (conjunction)even if..., €.9. Ikani taku,sanhon o lomu to
/n0, sore o konasu hoto gd dehinaherebayahu ni tatanai.
u.i. (fnf{)t:iRdJavffitr& t +tLt: tcf : &rit* (H*) tr
WtLlt'&l:il/cfxt... "Even if you readlots of books,unless
Va-followingExpressions -toki lni) zT
'tokorolda) L.b
1. location,the place where, e.g. Koho wa gohan o taberutohoro
desu. : : tta'tt/L (ffifrnAA^ 6ffiac? "This is the place
where we eat our meals."
2. point of time, the time when, e.g. Ima uchi o deru tohoro
desu. +, X{r'Hb & : bft. "'We are about to leave
home." For Vro tohoro, see p. 52.
3. situation, in the situation, e.g. Ima benhyoshite iru tohoro
desu. +, ffitfrL:C1.5 & : btt. "I am studying now
(Norv I am in the situation of studying)."
4. extent, so f.ar as : -hagiri e.g. Watakushi no shitte iru
tokoro de wa ano hito wa hehkonshite imasen. tLDfucA.
!'5 & : baclt.*roAltffiMV( !'t €,L. "As far as I know,
he is not married."
5. thing, e.g. Anata no iu toleorowa mottonto desu.. btttcD
A 5 L :- bI}-6 , L (fr) t "ie?. "What you say is reasonable."
-tokoro no & : b o> (relative pronoun) used mainly to translate
relative pronouns in f oreign languages into Japanese,it often
sounds awkward, e.g. Kore wA ima jibun ga yonde irct,tokoro no
hon de aru. c,fi,lt+ Aftrt\ffi,Ltt ,6 L a b D#th6. "This is
the book rvhich I am now reading." See also p. 189.
-tdri i8 D :-flafi just 2s, e.g. Senseino iu, tdri ni shinasei. fr,
tt D-3 ) & *; D t:L fr S ! .. "Do as your teacher says."
-totan ni & /:,I (6ffi) l: no sooner than, e.g. Ano hito ua toho ni
tsu,ku(tsuita) totan ni nete shimaimasu,. fcDL|tffil.if < &t,t
I
1ga*XL t L
asleep."
.'* -|.. "No sooner does he go to bed than he falls
t
-tsr,tide
ni ?1.,t (t) ll while doing A, [we] will also do B. e.g.
Toshokan de rehishi no hon o yornu,tsuide ni chiri no hon mo
trgHBtm-*,D#xffifuau .,tlctrry D+6 ffiA * L/c.
yomimash,ita.
t
"While at the library to read a history book,I also read a geog-
raphy book."
t
-tsumorilda) ":6 (ffi) D showsintention,e.g. Ashita iku tsumori
desu. gf g fr <p 6 Dtf. "f intend to go tomorrow." For Vro
t
tsumori,see p. 53.
-uchi ni 5 bl= while, while A is in progress,B will occur, I
t
I
I
Vs-following Expressions -ya lina ya) Z9
to bed."
-yara S b expressesuncertainty, e.g. Shimizu-san wa itsu Nihon
ni haeru yara waharanai. HzK* ,tltL .= (FIffi) F 4 U.lfrA t b*2
fi"(ft) bkL',. "We don't know when Mr. Shimizu will go back
to Japan."
-yara...yara fb....pb w h a t w i t h . . . , e . g . B e n h y ds u r u y a r a ,
uchi o hirei ni suru yara, anata wa zuibun isogashiidesu ne. ffi
ffit 6 + bNA 3 *t L' (ffiffi) lc? 6 t b fl.tr/ctt ffift 'ltL !',t-fia.
"What with studying and cleaning the house too, you are pretty
' busy, aren't you ?
'y0 da I , (ffi) ru, -N na I ) (ffi) fr for attributive form; it looks
like, as if (but is not necessarily) ; yo means appearance,e.g.
Ame ga futte iru yd desu. ffiriK c(,U'5J , (.'f. "It looks like
rain." Dare demo dehiru yd na yasashii shihen deshita. ;Ef {
t5 (H*) 6 I J tt& Lt',E{,mtL/c. "It was an easy examination
which it seems,everyone could pass."
-td ni j )lc
1 . just 3S,e.g. Amerika ni Nihongo o hanaseruhito ga taleusan
iru y0 tti, Nihon ni //to Eigo o hanasent,hito ga takusan
imasu. 7 / t) )1t:El***a3frt 6 riXdr ! . 6 J ) u=B4ta t
XmA;f;t 6 rindr ! . t -j.. "Justas therearemanypeople
who can speak Japanesein the United States, there are
lots of peoplein Japanwho can speak English."
2. in order that ..., Shu.jinga benhy0 dekiru yo rti ashita wa
hoclomoto ichinichi-jfi gaishutsu,suru tsumori desu. */rii
M?et56I 5 uc-an
Flt?tr L-H+rlHf 6c t , rf. "rn
order that my husbandcan study tomorrow, I intend to
go out all day with my child."
3. somethinglike, e.g. Nani ka sowta hotoo itte ita yo ni obo-
eteimasu. Nrt,ft,\,tt: & tA c TL'/c J 5 l:y*-<U'* f.
"f rernemberhe said somethinglike that."
4. wish for others, e.g. Ii hurisurnasuo sugosaremasuyo ni. , .
! . ! ' 2 t )z z x t : 6 : ' * h t ? t 5 lc... "I wish you (will
I
have) a nice Christmas."
-yd ni iu' J ) l:F ) (indirect command)e.g. Gakusei ni sono hon t
o yomu y0 ni iimashita. #Hlc-ZD*XffitJ J ) lcB!,,* L/c. ,'I
told the studentsto read that book." ;
I
I
V.-following Expressions -ba ii no ka 81
noisy."
-yagut + become,€.9. Ano hito wa konogorohidoku wahayaide
kimashita. bo>Xr*: (ft) D\HUU < #t!.t* * Lfc. "She is
getting to look very young lately."
CONJUGATIONOF ADJECTIVE,S,. . - , z , r . | (
'i (
fftr..t
t{ '- \
,, -i -;'
5.
2. at arashii
h i i ffi LU. ls) new
l. atarashi ku -nal Negative
5.
1. -(desu, deshita,
deshd)
Conclusive
(Dictionary Form)
t
2. Noun Attributive
Conditional
t
hiku I kard Tentative
t
*Explanation of. ku-f.orm, see
;
f r /
lr -\l , a
+-"4,/1 A
- / // r ; "rt (_ 1'l )
I ,/ *-.
;
;
Ku-form of Adjectives 89
5.
6. ao kard Tentative
Note: Both ll and yoi "good" are usel in th: attributive form, but
in all other conjugated forrns, only loi is used, i.e. yoku,
yokatta, yohereba,yokard, etc.
I mo kaemasen. hl{t.
? o*oatl*,{-"I 6 H zt ti^,.
With only this little bit of money, \rye can't buy
anything."
T Sorebakari de wa kodomono ydfuku mo tsukuremasen.
tfuttn D(.lt?ffiOi+'X&tf?}t*tli,. "With only that
little bit of material,we can hardly even make a dress
T for a child."
V. (to the extent that . . . I virtually ; practically; almost): hurai
T Vr*bahari Naku bahari ni tanomimashitagd, kiite kure-
masen deshita. if ( lf t. D l:f,fia * L tii, .( < *t
Ffrt"
"She practicallycried asking it of him,
T *€rttLl;.
but he did not listen to her."
Kanashikutemune ga soherubakari deshita. {i1L < tfifo
T rt',*lfl6lIi. DtLlc.
almost burst."
"I was so sad, that my heart
t
96 bahari Particles
"':f g;::l,r::.;\:{:;";:"lT;J'":ilT'Lll,lt"i
was one minute late, I couldn't see him."
Adj. *bahari ni Uchi ga 0hii bahari ni itsu mo okyaku ga
takusanarimasu. T<rt\x$ t,.'lfi. D ?:L',? 6 *d#r!?RL!*)
D t f. "Just becausetheir house is big, they always
have many guests."
Cop. n.*na*bakari ni Binbo na bakari ni itsu mo kur6
'? t #tr L t f.
shimasu. RZlrtt'i. D]rc-L "Just be-
causeshe is poor, she always has trouble."
IX. ( o n t h e p o i n to f . . . ; j u s t s h o r to f . . . )
Vr* *bahari ni Nahan bahari ni yorokonda. ifi'A,tfi. DUc
E Lti. "She was so happy that she was on the verge
of crying."
X. (thinking that it is the best time to . . . )-best chance
Noun*to bahari (omotte"thinking" is omitted after bakari)
Kono toki to bahari kanojo ni hanashikaketa. I. Afit
& tfn,0'4Lkl:;fr Li.hifc. "Thinking that this is the
time (the chanceI had been waiting a long time for
had finally come),I talked to her."
Noun* ka to bakari (omotteis omitted after bahari)
Inta ha to bakari machikamaeta . th, & l{A , D'ft brt,t i-
ft. "l waited, thinking that the chance would come
up at any minute."
XI. (thinking that it was only . . . )
Noun* ka to bahari (omotteis omitted after bakari)
Yume ha to bakari yorokonda. Urt'&l{21. D#A,t:.
"Having thought that it was only a dream, I rejoiced
to find it was real."
XII. ( n o t o n l y ,b u t a l s o . . . ) : d a h e
Verb *bahari de wa naku, . , . mo
(Vs*bahari de wa naku, ...mo) Gakkd e itte iru bakari
de u)a nahu, nijrl-jikan lrro hataraite imasu. #ffi^
* n is a short forrn of, nai. The effect of this expressionis very sirnilar
to the positive verb form, Vr* bahari, see BAKARI, V, p. 95.
Particles dahe 97
II.
things).
(as much as; as many as)
II
Vs* dahe Moteru dahe motte itte kudasai. f$-tC5tiTfr c
<'fr a'iCT8 !.. "Please take as many as you can I
carry." I
Y to;* dake Tsuhaitai* dahe tsukaimashita. ,ff t'ft,1 'tjki&
L '* L ft. "f used as much as I wanted to use."
I
III. (just; only)-bahari
Verb * dahe
t
(Vs*dake) Taberu dahe de shigoto wa shimasen. A^6
ffkttftSlt L * tirL. "He only eats,and doesn't work."
(Y to* dake) Okane o harita dake de orei mo iwazu ni
I
kaerimashita. *dAA{S DtctiVJr*d+Lt E *2f u.'}frD*.
Llc. "He (just) borrowed the money and went home
I
without even saying 'Thank you."'
Adj.*dahe Takai dahe de yoku arimasen. HL'rukt(l
*> D t €^,. "It's just expensive, not good."
< I
IV. (the more... the more):hodo
Y u Vs* dake (repetition of the same verb) Taberebataberu
I
dake suki ni narimasu. A^*rlfA^
?. "The more I eat, the more I
6fevj*73'l:tr 0 t
get to like it." I
Nihongo wa benkyd sureba suru dahe omoshiroku
narimasu.E4*Srtro5fi?hr{?6 ffk}ffiH < tr.0t f.
"The more I study Japanese,the more interesting it
I
becomes."
DANO T:D
(and; or ; and the like; and so forth ; and what not)-often
used in pairs.
Noun* dano* Noun* dano Ano uchi ni wa inu dano neko
dano ga imasu. *>D*t:0t^ff D\thtiofi\L'* f. "There
are dogs, cats and more in that house."
A-type word * dano* kd-type word* dano A dano ko dano
to hontd ni urusai hito desu ne. b*>f:o) a , tlD L# E
lc, 6 S !'Atf*a. "He is always saying this and that,
and is such a nuisance,isn't he ?"
Verb*dano*Verb *dano
(Vg* dano*Vg *dano) Kore o suru dano are o suru dano
t o i i n a g a r as h i m a s e n . a t L x t b f t D * > t L ? . ? . a € D LE
!'lrii bL* tA,. "Although he says he will do this and
I
I
100 de Particles
I
he will do that, he does not do it."
(Y,"* dano*Y to* dano) Asoko e itta dano koko e itta da-
no to itsu mo ibatte imasu. b+ I rfi: /cff D a a ^{T
I
z /cff D L L.? (f'jffi) { t .'lf c T,L'* f. "He is always
bragging that he has gone here and there."
Adj. * dano+ Adj. * dano
I
(Adj, * dano+ Adj3* dano) Are mo hoshii dano kore mo
hoshii dano to itte hontd ni yokubari desu. *>fL6 AkL I
1.ffD.*ttaftLL.'ffD LE .<+*lcg11 D(..f. "He
says he wants this and wants that, and is truly greedy."
(Adj, * dano+Adiro* dano) A sureba yohatta dano ko
I
surebayohatta dano itsu mo k6kai bakari shite imasu.
*>b?tLlf I rJ,c /:ff D a ) fir,lt'I i.: i: tio> L,? r"4klfr I
lfi.0 L(!.*f. "She is always regretting that she
did not do this or she did not do rhat.,, I
DEI
Some de are particles,while others are the second base as well I
as the te'f.ormof the copula da (See p. 15). De as a particle has the
meaning,"in the state of . . . " With this meaning in mind, per-
haps we can analyzesome sentencesas follows :
I
Kore wa hon desu. r, htt#Tf.
desu-short form of de arimasu.
"This is a booli."
Particles de 101
DO(MO) a
(but, though, and yet)
Verb * do Utedo(mo)tatahedo(mo)zenzenhenji ga nakatta.
r
Particles ga 103
E^
(to)-motion towards
Noun+e W'atakushiwa Nihon e ikimasu. fz.lrs+^fTF
t f. "I'll go to Japan."
Kore wa chichi e no tegami desu. :lt?trC^.oS
*fttf. "This is a letter to my f ather."
Note : e is often interchangeablewith ai.
Nih"" ikimasu.
H+t;los*f. "I'll so
t;,1
to Japan."
(Strictly speaking, however, fli emphasizes arrival,
while e emphasizes action of going.)
Correct Incorrect
e.g. chichi e no tegami chichi ni no tegami
!a. o+*& lt: D?ffi
"the letter to my father"
Note : ni.+no is never possible.
GA
The word which precedesga is the subject of the sentence
(cf. wa)
Noun+ ga
1. When the subjectis emphasizedin a sentence(or clause)
Kono kata ga Tanaka.sandesu. aDfirt\H+ * ,\,Tt.
"Tlns is Mr. Tanaka (whom I told you about)."
Comparewith:
Kono kata wa Tanaka-sandesu. e 0>fiBE + s li, T'.r'.
"This is Mr. Tanaka." (no implication)
Watahushiga kakimashita. ATDiS* * Llc. "^fwrote it."
2, IMhen no contrast is involved.
Koko ni hon ga arimasu. L C lc#r.t) 0 t t, "There
is a book here." (no implication)
Comparewith:
Koko ni hon ara arimasu L I' tc#ftb D t f. "There is
a book here (. . . but there is perhapsno notebook,or
pencil, etc.)."
Soko ni Yamada-sanga imasu. t: ?crltE 3 ,Lrit. t f.
104 ga Particles
II. Conjunction
1. (but)-adversative
Verb+ ga
(Ys*ga) Toda-sanwa koko ni imasu go, Niki-sanwa
imasen. F El* ,Ltt;' ;' ?CL',
t ?ri, 4=*3 ,ttt!'* rf
L. "Miss Toda is here,but Miss Niki is not here."
N,o+ ga) Watakushiwa ihimashitaga, Takahashi-san
wa ikimasendeshita. T/.ltfT* t L ftri, Hfiff3 ,t tt
fi* * "BLt L fo. "I went, but Mr. Takahashidid
not go."
Adj.+ sa
(Adjr+ga) Kyo wa isogahiildesu,) ga, ashitawa hima
desu. 1A lt,lt L!'ii, gng lttlHtf. "f am busy
today,but I will be free tomorro'w."
(Adjr,+ ga) Ano uchi wa mae wa shirohatta ga, ima
wa aoi. bl>XltHfttHi. ->/cii, *ltH!.,. "That
housewas white before,but it is blue now."
Note: Often the clause after galis omitted.
e.g. Watakushi mo ashita ikitai to omotte imasu ga. . .
, . I t o o w a n tt o
fA6Wg,frf/:1.€,Ea(t.*fri...
go tomorrow, but (. . . I don't know if I can)."
2. (and)-no adversativeimplication
Verb+ go
Ns*ga) Watakushi mo yoku ihimasu ga, ii tokoro
106 ga Particles
Comparewith:
IV'atakushiwa kore wa suki desu. fl.tt r, hltffi g tf. ,,f
like this (. . . but I don't like that, etc.)."
Watakushi wa kore ga hirai desu. TArtc,trriffiL'.1ef. "r
dislike this (This is dislikeableto m*g)."
2, necessity
W'atakushiwa yoi jibiki ga irimasu. {A}t J U.?5ltiU . (tr) ,
* f. "I needa good dictionary." cf. watakushi wa yol
jibiki wa irimasu. fattrr,.?5lltu. D tf. "I needa good
dictionary (. . . but I don't needa bad one, etc.)."
Particles ga 107
4. desiderative
Nihonshokuga tabetaidesu. B 4AriA{/c!'t?. "I want
to eat Japanese food." cf. Nihonshokuwa tabetaidesu. E
*AltA{lc!'tf. "f want to eat Japanese food (. . . but
not Italian food,etc.)."
Motto okanega hoshI desu. 6 c L*"'Ariffi L t'-iCf. "I want
more money." cf. Motto okaneua hoshii desu. 6 , & *b-
A0i?ikLt''?f. "f want more money(...but I don't want
any troublewhich comeswith money,etc.)."
But: before-tagaru(the 3rd persondesiderative), Ieavethe
particle o. Ano hitg.wa Nihon no kamerao kaitagatte
imasu. *>DXlt E# D )r / t tHL./czli c(.1 .t ?. "He
wants to buy a Japanese camera."
5. fear
Obake ga howai desu. t;lh?fiifif t,'Tf. "I am afraid of.
monsters." cf. Obakewa kowai desu *d,ftBlttftU.,t?.
I08 giri particles
:ffi?.4[ttEfretqFr.lF**ry
Particles ka 109
Y n a ; * h o d o( s o . . . t h a t . . . f l € g a t i v e )
Ichi-gy6 mo yomenai hodo nemui desu. -'t16 ffibrr
u.'l1a'.HRI,.'tf. "I am so sleepythat I can hardly
read a line."
II. (about): kttrai:bakari
l-lumber*hodo Mada mittsu hodo nokotte imasu. * ff=
2ltEl>Lu(L,*?. "There are still about three
left."
Go-nin hodo kite imashita. fi t= &'xrL'* L/c.
'About five peoplewere there."
KA fr
I. Sign of interrogative
a. ahvaysplacedat the end of the sentence.
b. never placedafter the copula da.
Verb * ka Ashita gakk6 ni ikimasu ha. nng YffiUcft* *
?r. "Are you going to school tomorrow?"
Ashita iku ka. efrA'tt 1rt,. "Are you going?" (not as
polite as the above; women should not use this
form)
Ano hito wa gakusei desu ha. &>0>xtt+r4,r?i'.
(never: Ano hito wa gakuseida ka.) "Is he a student?"
Ano hito wa gakusei deshita h; *>o>/...rt+4,t L/ci..
"Was he a student?" Ano hito wa gakusei datta ka.
-permissable,but not, as polite as the above.
II. Rhetoricalquestion-emphatic,always at the end of a sen-
tence.
Ys*ka Sonnakoto ga dekimasuka. tr+frsiif 5 (S1X)
t fi.. "I can't possiblydo such a thing, can I ?"
III. Uncertainty
Vtentative*ka Sd desho ka. +, "if L t ) i', wonder if
110 ka Particles
that's so." Iku dard ho. ft < tib J rtr. ,,f wonderif
he is going."
Noun* ka Bydki datta no ldarlf ha yasetemiemashita.
frfrff2/:Oi'Ht<n*-t Ll:. "I wonderif she has
beensick; she lookedskinny."
Verb* ha*waharanai (shiranai)
(Vs* ka*wakaranai)-f.or the lst person
Itsu kekkon suret ha wakarimosen. L.? ({'rlffi)ffiffit
6rt'*2rt.(f) 0 t {*lL. ,,f don't know when I am
getting married."
(Vs* ha*shiranai)-f.or other than the lst person
Kyonendoko ni ita ka shirimasen. *+&'C ([1fu)V=
L'lci.fu D t t /w. "f don't know where he was last
year.tt
IV. (or)
Vg*ka...V3*ka
Anata ga iku n' desu ha,lsoretomo] anata no oniisan ga
iku n' desu ho. blc/ciifi< ,LTff ', b/rtcoh-Jilt
/-rti'fr ( ,Ltj2.. "Are you going, or is your brother
going?"
V. ( e i t h e r . . . o r )
Noun* ka* Noun Are wa Shimizu-san ha yamamoto-san
desu. birlrl#rfis A,rt,il*s,t?f. ,,Thatis either
Mr. Shimizu or Mr. Yamamoto."
Ani ka watakushi ga ikimasu. nrt,tAfi\'fr* * ?.
"Either my older brother or I will go."
VI. ( w h e t h e r . . . o r n o t )
Noun * ka do ka Kare ga gahusha ka do ka shirimasen.
'iLrt\+#i.
&' , rt,X1, * {f &. "I don't knorv whether
he is a scholar or not."
Noun * ha* Noun* de nai ha Kare ga gakushaha gahusha
de nai ha shirimasen.'iLfi\+#rt,+*ffs,L.,i.fr , t "t}
L, "I don't know if he is a stholar or not.',
Kare ga gakusha ka gahusha de nakatta ka shirimasen.
'4&.rt\+*r.+#rlri'z
/ci.ff Dt ti,. "I don't know
if he was a scholaror not."
Verb* ha do ha
(Ye*ha do ha) Ihu ha do ha mada wakarimasen.ft<
i. &' 5 rt,t fi*2r. (f) D Xt&. "f don't know whether
Particles hara 111
we will go or not."
(Y to* ka do ha) Itta ha do ha kiite kudasai. ft./:i.
E , IJ.m!''iCTt 1., "Please ask him if he went or
not."
Verb* ha Y na; ha
CVs * ha Y ha) Ano eiga o miru ha minai ha kiite
"o;
mimash6. hl>U*,trt?F,6fi,F,lgL .,f.ffiL.(4 * L r, .
"Let's ask him if he is going to see that movie or
not."
(Yt"*ha Ynahatta ha Ano eiga o mita ha minahatta ha
kiite mimashita. hl>U*EtX R fui..fl, ki. c tctj.ffi L.(
at L/c. "f asked him if he saw that movie or not."
VII. (somethingto the effect)
Noun*fo ha Yamada-santo ha iu hito ga kimashita. dl
EE LLfi.B, Di** Llc. "A person called some-
thing like Mr. Yamada came."
Verb*to ha kihu (iu)
(Vg*fo ka hiku) Toda-sanga ashita huru to Fa kikima-
shita. FmSrIrig6HXA Li.Ff,8t Lft. "f heard
something to the effect that Mr. Toda will come
tomorrow."
(Vro*to ka hihu) M0 Nihon ni itta to ka kikimashita.
{ ) g -#lt:6 zl;&r.8fl8 t Lft. "r heard something
to the effect that he had gone to Japanalready."
KA !, Colloquialform of shika
Go-nin&a konakatta. E r.Xlti.: t. "Only five peoplecame."
KARA rt,b
I. (from)
Noun* kara
1. spatial watakushi wa Nihon kara kimashita. tL
It g #i. b** Llc. "I camefrom Japan."
2. temporal Kyo hard koko de hatarakihajimemashita.
1afi,0>r. r.r@3tt ubt Llc.
"I started working here today."
II. (afterdoing...)
Vrr+ kara Gohan o tabete hara benkyd shimasu. gltr{,
(ffigfi)?A^rcrt,bfuffiL t?. ,,Aftereating
112 keredo (mo) Particles
becomewarm."
(Adjr"* heredo) Ano uchi wa aokatta keredo ima wa
shiroi desu. *>o>Xlt€r. : /ckifu A+W H t .tf.
"That house was blue, but now it is white."
KIRI *,0
(only)
Number* kiri Ichinichi-jt hitori hiri de sugoshimashita.
- E F-A * DfE i L t L/c. "I spent the whole day
all alone."
Kore-type word * kiri
1. quantitY: dahe Kore kiri desu. L ix ..r tf.
"That's all."
2. time Sore hiri kimasen. +fL* , X t {lrL. "He
hasn't come since then."
KOSO r't
I. emphatic
Noun* koso Anata koso ojlzu desu. btt/c C t*d-b,+t..f.
"You are the one who is skillful."
Noun*particle* hoso Tohyo ni hososunde iru ga nani mo
omoshiroi koto wa shimasen. *Htc a+lLr<,'ie!. brt:
'fFJ
t6H L'L & lt, L t €,L. "I do live in Tokyo all right,
but I do nothing particularly interesting."
II. fiust because...)
Y l,o*hoso Okane ga ireba leoso isshdkenmei hataraku n'
desu. *d-&rit.'(3F)
hlf : t*&,mdFffi< A,r.t. "Just
becauseI need money, I work hard."
I
114 made Particles
t
Adj, * hurai Mada jfrgatsu na no ni mo samui hurai desu.
* (t) ff+,E txDlc 6 t +u' < bt.'(*f.
still October,it is almost cold."
"Althoughit is I
Nahitai hurai deshita. & * /cr, ' < b L.:f L/c. "I felt like
crying." "I was on the verge of crying." I
Noun* huroi Ano hito kurai atama ga yokereba iikeredo
. . . bDl..-< b!',gFrildittf!,'L,WtL&'. . . "It would be
nice if I were as bright as that person."
I
II. (as much 3s, that much)
Noun * hurai lwal Hiragana hurai kakemasu. +ffi& <
I
bt.,gki*?. "I can write as much as hiragana (...
but no more). I
Kono-type word * kurai sono hurai nara dekimasu. t o>
< bL',fx bt*t?. "f can do that much."
Kore-type word *hurai sore hu,rai nara dekimasu. +tL
"I can do that much."
< bL,'fx bt**?.
III. (about)-approximate quantity, approximatenumber I
Interrog. word * hurai Dono hurai koko de matte imashita
ka. E0>< bL'r atffi cTL.t Llci..
have you been waiting here?"
"How long I
ka. A fu< b L,,rumL t L
Dorehuraibenkydshimashita
/:i,. "How long (How much)did you study?" I
Number*kurai Mittsu hurai tabemashita.=2 < bL.,ft
-{* Llc. "I ate aboutthree."
Mainichisan-jikanhu,raibenkydshimasu. {*g=r+Ffl <
T
b\,fu1fi,Lt ?. "I study aboutthreehours a day."
MADE *f,
4\-
T
r. (as f.ar as)
Noun*made Tohto made ikimasu. HH *.f.'fr* tf.
I
"I will go as far as Tokyo."
sanjuf-pejimadeyomimashita.=+Httffi4t L/c. I
"I read as far as Page30.i
II. (until)
Noun of time*made Ashita made koko ni imasu. EEg
trrI' l:L't?. "f will be here until tomorrow."
III. (even) a. madeis alwaysfollowed by positive verbs (cf.
sae,which is used with both positive and nega-
tive verbs).
--
-G:
J-Fj
TI
t_f particles mo fis
E I
JT b. made il this usage replaces the particles rua,
I.f.! I
| ga,o.
c. rnade generallyfollows other particles such as
L I
I - I ni, de, no, e, kara, to, etc.
) . Noun+made Matsumoto-san madekimashita. t1*t,Lt
L I -C*t L/c. "Even Miss Matsumotocame."
E I Noun+particle+made Fujita-san ni mademisemashita.
a t #E*,L?.*"eF..t*Llc. "I evenshowedit to Mrs.
I - I Fu_,rra.
) I Inakade madeutte imasu. E€"C*ffi:tr.,*i.
"They evensell it in the counrry.,,
t I Yu*made Ano gakuseiwa gakk6o yasundemadehono
F I
l_ | yomimasu.h0)+&:t}-+ffiAft,L"etr"+2ffi,4tt.
I | "That student reads so much that he even skips
. " I schoolto do so."
!, I Okane o karite made Nihon ni ikitai desu ka. *-.+?
- | ffiD<j.-ea4lcfi$/ct.retrt. "Do you wanrro go
I I to Japan,evenif you must borrow money?"
If Mo 6 a. rzo replacesthe particleswa,ga, o.
hi
f
"",
Trf,i:tlYii'#:::ffi::"
i theseparticles.
h
'l -
I. (also,too)
*o"n.ffi,o1"::: ka. btr/ctll* L/ci..
h r,"'Iiyashita
L II. (asmanyas,as muchas)
It Number+aroMittsumo kaimashita.=.:6Ht,,* Llc.
J "I boughtas manyas three."
I Ji-nin mo kimashita. +/\6*t Llc. "As manyas ten
peoplecame."
III. (even)=5as
t
T= Noun+zco+negative verb Aisatsu mo shinai de itte
shimaimashita.t)t,'3 ? (f*ts) 6 Lfr t.,(.fi e rc L * !.
Fr-rI
* Llc. "He went away without even greetingme."
L ry. (do not evendo... )
f Yz*no shinai-moreemphaticthan V;oi
Bydki de mikka-kangohano tabemo shimasen.ffifrac
t
t
116 tno Particles
VII. (whether...or)
'fr.
Y,r+rtto*Ynahute*moltte nlo ihanakute mo ii desu.
( d ftfi..fr < ( 6 u,'!.tf. "It is all right whether you
go or not."
Adjwtr* mo+ Adjnohutu*mo-If. the secondadjectiveis not
a negativeform, it is an adjective of contrast to the
first.
Yokuterno yokunakutemo (waruleutemo) kaimasu. H.
-iC L't
< ( t H.( tc ( 6H ?. "Whether it's good or not
good (bad),I'll buy it."
VIII. (even if)
Y u+ mo Kore o tabetemo ii desuka. L ir?A{( 6 L.L''
t?i.. "Is it all right even if I eat this ?" "May
I eat this?"
Kyd itte mo anohito wa uchi ni imasenyo. #gfic\
6 b o)/.ltfilc!.* tlrL .t. "Even if you go today,he
won't be home."
IX. Doubleparticles
Noun*particle+mo Tohyoni mo ikimashita. HHlc 6ff
3 t Llc. "f went to Tokyo, too."
L
a Particles na 117
h NAh
End of a sentence
h 1. (don't)-prohibition
vg* na (mostly usedby men) ohoru na! **6 rr. ,,Don't
get mad!"
h 2. (you know, you see, don't you think so ?)
t
Verb*na (mostly used by men)
({*na) Ano onna wa kirei da nA. bo>f1r6*}1U.
(ffiE ) fffc. "That woman is pretty, isn't she?"
a
"This house is big, isn't it ?"
(Adjro*na) Tokyo wa atsuhattana. HHtt*rt,=/clr.
"Tokyo was hot, wasn't it ?"
3. (I wonder)
h Verb * ka na
(Y*ha na) Ano hito wa ihu ka na. *>o>xlr{T( i,lr.
"I wonder if he would go."
* (Yt"* ha na) Mo hita ha na. 6 ) X/ci'k. "I wonder
+
t
NA lr
This na is not a particle, but the attributive form of the copula
da. It comesfrom the classicalcopula form nari.
Cop. n. * na (attributive phrase)
I
Ano hito wa leirei na hito desu. &>o>Xlt*txt,,(ffiffi)trA:Cf.
"She is a pretty person."
Koko ni wa suhi na hito ga takusan imasu. r,:, lrltffStrA
t
I
t
118 na Particles
NA fr.*> I
I. Exclamation (used by men)
Verb * nd I
(vs*na) Yoku amega furu nd. I < ffinlp+6tlj ,,.
"How hard this rain pours!"
(Yt"* na) Yoku sonnakoto ga ieta nd. J < Z r+/r t &
I
iiF *-fcts,*>. "How could he have said such a thing!"
Adj'*na I
(Adjr* na) Kitanai nd. i5u ,,fr.t>."How dirty !',
(Adjr'*na) Ano ko wa hawaihattand. ho>+ltElgtu.
fir->l;lcb. "How cute that child was!"
I
II. Wish
Y:oo*ii nd Ano hito ga ky6 kureba ii nd. bo>xtigg
I
X*tlf u"!'&&>. "I wish he would cometoday."
Ys*to ii nd Ano hito ga ky6 kuru to ii nd. *>D/trt\+
E * 6 L ! 'L'ftt>. "I wish he would cometoday."
t
III. Informal salutation
t'f,::?,H'ojuuol?l:'T;t#:
^;{rU3
I
.,,sayyou,
isn,t
it so?"
NADO he'
(such things ?s, for example,and the like, something like)
Noun*nado
a. nado usually replaces wa, &e, o, except for emphasis.
b. nado appears with other particles such as fli, de,
flo, e, made, hara, to, etc.
c. nado precedesthe above,particles.
Uchi de wa inu nado katte imasu. Nttttfr &.FJcT
u'* ?. "At our house we raise such animals as dogs."
Haha nado sonna koto o itte imashita. efr E+ hft:-
LXgcT,U.* Llc. "Mother, for example, said such
a thing."
Tohyonado e ikimashita. HHtr&.rffi5* ,,'We
L/c.
Particles nagara 119
NAGARA fxri b
I. Simultaneousaction of one subject
1. (while)
Vz* nagara Rajio o hikinagara benkyd shimasu.
t t * ?-En
* lrii bfuffiLt f. "Whilelistenins
to
the radio, he studies."
Note: If two different subjects are involved, the expression
Ys*aida should be used.
e.g. Kare ga hon o yonde iru aida, watakushi wa
tegami o kakimashita. |&.rtif.tffi,L:c!'b ffi!, tL
tt+fftt$3 t Lt. "'While he was reading a
b o o k ,I w r o t e a l e t t e r . "
2. (although) r
Vr* nagara Shitte inagara oshiete kuremasen.
futrC!.trii b#.L< < *r,*€rL. "Although he
knows it, he won't tell me."
NEh
r. (n'est-cepas?Fseeks confirmationof the statement.
End of a sentence
Ky6 wa ii otenki desune. l1ltL't'*dxflt?ia.
"It's a beautifulday today,isn't it ?"
II. Showsspeaker'sfamiliarity to listener.
Betweenclausesor at end of sentence
Md kaer6 ne. S 5 ,lfrb J *a. "Let's go home,OK?"
Kokowa ne,k6shiy6ne. I, :lt*e, c, LJ ) ie.,,L€t's
do (it) this way here, OK?"
MK
I. Noun*ni
1. (in, at)-locationof existence(cf. de,locationof action)
Shimizu-san wa ima heya no naka ni imasu. HrK
ti,lt+Strl)+lCL't?. "MissShimizuis in the
room now."
Matsumoto-san wa ima Tokyozi sunde imasu. th
#8,tlt+KHlc1g6tL"tf. "Mr. Matsumoto
is living in Tokyo now."
2. Point of arrival
Tohyoni tsukimashita.Hlfilc6tS * L/c. "We 8r.
rived in Tokyo."
3. (at)-designatestime
Ichi-ji ni kimasu. -FSl:*tf. "He will come at
one o'clock."
Note : When gor0 is use{, either take ni out, or place ni after
goro. e.g. Ichi-ji goro kimasu. -ffitfi** ?. or Ichiji
goronf kimasu. -ffitrtc*t t. "He will come around
one o'clock.o
4. (per)
Ichi-jihanni san-doruharatte kuremasu. -Fffllc
= l.')v(#)*Lc( < *atf. "Theypay us three dol-
122 ni Particles
t causative-passiveverb
sensei ni muzukashii hanji o kakaseraremashita.
"r was
t 5EHircWLt',iH?t#rt.{t b;1t L/c.
made to write difficult Chinese charactersby
my teacher."
t elder sister."
with Y ,r+ itadaku (morau)-one who performs
the act of.Y tr; the one who receives the act of
t Y t, is the subject.
Senseini tegami o kaite itadakimashita. ft&U=
I e.
ni, p.122, for the indirect object.
agertc (yaru),
with Vcaur^tivc-te+ hudasaru (kureru,)
-the one who is permitted to perform the action
:
of the Yu
t I
kudasaimashita.
fr,hrt\tL!.4D#Xffi* {t(T
3 1.'t L /:. "The teacher allowed me to read
that book."
H I
+itadaku (morau)-the one who
f. with Vcausative-re
permits the subject to perform the action of,Y t,
t I
Watakushi wa haha ai suki na ydfuku o eraba-
sete moraimashita. Alt&}.*TS fr#fEt:Slt'
H I
T
124 ni Particles
h size of California."
NI KAGIRU tcFR6 is the best (literally, limited to), e.g. Nihon-
I
126 ni Particles
NOD
L a. (of, 's)-possessive(or the noun before no modifies the
noun after no)
Noun* no watahushino uchi wa Tokyo ni arimasu. tto>
.,My houseis
filtffiHtqbA *.t. in Tokyo."
Yamamoto-san no heya no rajio wa 6kii desu. Ut
3 ,t DED 2 , t ftt8 t,,:ef. "The radio in Mr.
Yamamoto'sroom is big."
Note: The final noun can be omitted, if it is clear to both speaker
and listener.
e.g. Are wa Tamura-san no desu. t>ttltffitt E A,a;ft.
"That is Mr. Tamura's."
b. The noun beforeno modifiesthe noun after no, e.g. Kono
hon no hylshi no iro. aD#Df<lrf'p&. "the color of the
cover of this book."
|iote: In Japanese ilo may be used many times in one sentence.
e.g. watakushi zo uchi no daidakoro no todana no naka no
chawan L(w). "thebowt
{LA'*OarnDFfifrr>#Awb
insidethe cupboardof the kitchen of our house"
Though this is a bit exaggerated, it is not uncommonto see
zo used many times in one sentence. In this usagenormal
Japanese orderis from largeto small, or generalto specific;
thus, uataliusltino uchi is bigger than daidohoro,daidohoro
is bigger than todana,etc.
II. Apposition
'fanaka-san
Noun*no*Noun Ano hata lva isha no de,
hono hatu \va scnsetno Tanaka-sandesu. bo)-hlt
Ii.l'tal$r+rS llT, aDhlt,h$:Dttl +8 /uTt. "'l'hat
'l'auaka,
is Mr. who is a doctor, and this is Mr. Ta-
naka, who is a teacher."
III. The noun lvhich preceoesilo is the subject'of the relative
clause. (This no is interchangeable with the particle ga.)
Noun*no*Verb*Noun Watakushino (Sa)katta ndtowa
okii desu. ILDH,ctc /t - l. lt^* u',tf. "The note-
book rvhich I bought is big."
lVatahushi,rc (Sa) itte ita !{ohko wa yama no ue ni
arimashita. ttl>'fr ct U'fufp,ffltdlD-Lfcb D t L/:.
"The schoolI went to was on the top of the hill."
Doubleparticles-no alwaysfollowsthe other particle, the
nounplussomeparticlebeforeno modifiesthe noun after no
Noun*particle+no Kore ga chichi e no tegami desu. E
itiiltrO+fft(f. "This is the letter to my father."
Sorewa Tohyo hara zo kisha desu. tfi,l:.RHi'bc)fi.
128 no Particles
Cop.n.* na+no
one Kirei na no ga suki desu. gir,U,(ffiEg)
ttDfi\*T
3 tf. "I like pretty ones."
Adj.*no
I
I
I Particles o lZ9
I row ?"
2. softens the tone
VIII. (whether...or)
I Verb*no*ynai no to litte\ Ihu no ihanai no to
nakanaka
kesshin shimasen.fi < Dtjrt,fx1,D L F a11,L.,
Lt t
I ,1. "saying that he will go, and then that he won,t
go, he does not easily make up his mind."
ox
I Noun* o
r. The precedingnoun is the direct object of the verb,
I except
when contrast is involved, in rvhich case this o is replaced
by ua.
I
I
130 o Particles
.t,:
Nigai husuri o nomasaremashita. #!.'HXffi.f Strt Llc. ',.]"..
::
"f was madeto take bitter medicine." iriel
.. i.i.1+
I I . Routeof motion i,dd:
., :i$.i
Michi o arukimasu. €?S 5 * ?. " I walk along the ''.;';,o,
street." +?*b
:'1&:l;
|'li:
SA3
f. sentence-endingor phrase-ending particle-slight emphasis,
sometimesa slightly boastful feeling.
Noun*sa Kore ga hon sa. :hrt+S. "This is the book
(. . . which I told you about)."
Verb*sa
(Ve*sa) Ashita ihu sa. nf g ffi < g. "I'll go tomorrow
(. . . naturally)."
(Yto*sa) Kind itta sa. VfA'fr./c* "I went yesterday
(...of course)."
Adj'*sa
(Adjr*sa) Okii sa. x *' ! .3 . "ft's big (. . . you should
see it yourself)."
(Adjr"*sa) Takakattasa. Hf .e ft,8. "It rvasexpensive
(...of course)."
Cop.n.*sa Daisuki sa. X*T3 S. "f just love it."
II. makesan adjectiveor a copular noun into an abstractnoun.
Adj.t.. *sa 6kisa x* * "bigness,size."
Cop. n.*sa shiat.kasaili?tr.3 "quietness."
SAE 3.i.
a. sac alrvaysreplacesthe particles ga, u)o, o.
b. sae appearsrvith all the other particles such as ni, de, flo,
e, tnAde,kara, to, etc.
c. sae ahvaysfollows the above particles.
d . sae is sometimesusecl with nxo; lvhen used with it, sae
precedesrno, and is more emphatic than sae alone.
e. sae is used with both positive verbs and negative verbs.
t
I. (even)
Noun*soe Ugoku kotosaedekimasen. e} < I' & t it*
(H*) ttrL. "I can't even move."
Yamaguchi-san ni sae misemashita. rlrEr* &?c*.t--R^t
t L /c. "I showedit even to Miss Yamaguchi."
Senji-chfl tabemono ga nakute niwa no husa sae mo
tabeta sd desu. Fjffi#k#znifr ( <re.eE* .i- tA</c
132 shi Particles
T
I
l.Y-
SURA tb (:sae)
(even)-emphatic
Noun* su.ra Sonna koto sura shimasu. + i.tr$Xf bL*.
?. "He even does that sort of thing."
Sonnakoto sura shimasen. +rLtrSTf bU*t&. "He
doesn'teven do that sort of thing."
TE(
In traditional grammar, te is considereda particle, but it is bet-
ter thought of as a verb ending (see pp. lO-18, S4-bg). I
TOL
I. (and)-connects only nouns and pronouns, never connects
I
clauses
Noun*to*Noun Pen to enpitsu ga arimasu. .sy&ffi'g I
,i*) D *.t. "There are pens and pencils."
Dore to dore ga anata no desu ka. EtLL Afufiibfr/c
Of-ffir. "Which ones are yours (which one and
I
which one are yours)?"
II. (togetherwith):to isshoni I
Noun*to Suzuki-santo ikimasu. ffi*8 ,t Lft* * f.
"I'll go with Mr. Suzuki."
III. Comparative
t
Noun* to* Noun* to Kono hon to sono hon to dochira ga
6 k i i d e s uk a . . D # L + D F L Ebbri^*L.,-iCfi..
t
"Which one is bigger, this book or that book?"
IV. Quotative-use before such words as iu, hiltu, omou.,etc.
Verb * to iu. (kiku, etc.) Yamada-sanga ashita huru to
t
iimashita. dJE 3 i,riFn B X 6 LRL ,,* Llc.
Yamadasaid that she would come tomorrow,."
,.Miss
I
Noun*to iu (hiku,,etc.) Ano kata ga byoki [da] to hilti-
mashita. hDfirJ\ffifl & ffl* t L/c. ,,I heard he is ill.', ;
VL
it's hot, we go to the beach.',
(is about to do something) t
V,.r,*ri"e* to* suru' Dekaheydto shite iru tokoro e tomo-
dachi ga kimashita. Hr.LlI , & L(L.6Ff^fir$ri*
* L/c. "My friend came just as I was about to go
I
VII.
out.tt
(trying [unsuccessfully]to do something) I
Vtuntutiue*
to*suru Ohiyo to shimashita gz, okiraremasen
I
I
I
I
I
t Particles tomo 135
T with to.
TO CHIGAU &;$ ) be different from, e.g. Watakushi no iken
wa anatano to chigaimasu.fAoffiF^ltfr/r/:0)LS!',t?. "My
tl opinion is differentfrom yours."
TO HITOSHII L{f, LL' :ni hitoshii be equal to, see p. I25.
T
I
TO ONAJI & H U same ds, e.g. Anata no to onaji y6fuku o
kaimashita. htrt:D & IFIUi+Jjlittil.L.t Lfu. "I bought the
same dress as yours."
II
lL
TOKA LrJ'
t TOMOe 6
I. (either. . . orl between)
Noun* tonto* Noun* tomo Yama tomo umi tomo miwake
I ga tsukimasen. dJ& 6 t& L rdnftWrti2* t tl,. "We
t
I
136 tomo Particles
I
T wA rr
Particles ua 137
I a student."
Kore wa hon desu. f, il,lt+ff" ',This
is a book."
t Note: In this sentence structure with the copula at the end, the
word preceding wa is nbither emphasizednor contrasted with
any other element. (cf. ga, pp. 103-105).
t 2. Contrastingelement
a. Single particle wa
I Watakushi wa gakuseidesu ga, anata ua sen-
seidesu. f[lt+4[tfri, b/ctttJ6/,L,t?.
I b. Double particles
Tokyo ni wa ikimashita gd, Osaka ni wa iki-
masendeshita.frffl:ttfT$ * Ltri, ^fsT
I lclt{1* * t'tt L/c. "f went to Tokyo,
but I didn't go to Osaka."
I
r':l
I38 wa Particles
YAT
I. (suchthings ?s, and so forth)-inexhaustiveconjunction
Noun+ ya* Noun Tsukueya isu ga arimasu. t/Lf f6+ri
*> 0 t t. "There are suchthings as desksandchairs."
II. (as soonas)
Y*ta+(ina ya) Tsuhuya (ina ya) sugu kare ni denwa
o kakemashita.tr < tf (H) ({&lcgffi?rt,ff * Llc.
I
Particles yri tgg
YOI
End of a sentence
Verb+ lo Mado ga aite imasu.yo. ffirib (fB)! .( U't ? J .
"The window is open, you know."-giving informa-
tion to others, rnild emphasis.
Ashita iku yo. (used by men) rrJg ffi ( I. "I'll go
tomorrow."
Ashita iku wa yo. (used by women-wa is inserted
between the verb and Yo) Waft < b i.. "I'll go
tomorrow."
Yama yo. t! J. "You, mountain."
Noun+ yo (addressing)
Usedmainly in poetry or literary writing.
YORI J. D
I. (than)
Noun*yori Kono hito wa ano hito yori sei ga takai desu.
;O ltbo;Xl trHriHU,,t?. "This man is taller
than that man."
140 ze Particles
ZE.d
(you know)
End of a sentence Kyd iku ze. (used by men) 11'fr<
d. "I'll go today, you know."
zo4
Emphasis
End of a sentence Muzukashiieo. (used by men) ffi L
L.Z. "It's difficult."
I
I
t
I
I
I
r-
I
I
t
T INTERROGATIVEWORDS TTr"1;FJ
< S 6,t t->
PLUS PARTICLES W;A( L r L >
Interrogatiaeword+ka "gome.. . tt
dare ha 'ttrnr sorl€one, e.g. KyO.dare ha kimashita. 9A3{Ei.X
t L/c. "Sorneone came today."
dochiraka EbbtJ' either one, e.g. Dochiraha [oJ otori ni natte
kudasai. Abb .*o LD]tc-ttc(T*1.. "Pleasechooseeither
one of the two."
rD rt, somewhere,e.g. Haha wa kyo doko ka e
dohoha U I' ('f-'I
ikimashita. <+ E gL i.r{f I * Llc. "My mother went
somewheretoday."
142 Interrogative Words plus Particles
Interrogative word+ mo
An interrogative word* mo has two separatemeaningsdepending
on rvhether it is followed by a negative verb or a positive verb.
I. Intemog. roord*mo*poaitive uerb "every.. . " (inclusive)
dare mo iE 6 everyone, e.g. Sonna hoto u)a dare mo ga
Interrogative'Words plus Particles r43
shitte iru. ?,+tr$tt;6 6 ritr cT,L ,6 . ,,Everyoneknows
such a thing."
dochira mo Eb b 6 both, e.g. Dochira mo ii desu,. Ab
b 6 L.,L.tf. "Both are good."
dohomo &'C (,f-"Ite)6 everywhere,e.g. Doho mo konde
imashita.&': 6ift,ttL.* Llc. "It was crowdedevery-
where (Everywherewas crowded)."
donata mo &'/r/; t everyone, e.g. Donata mo eigo ga
oiOzudesu. &'/r/: {1X;*ri}o.-.b+11?. "Everyone speaks
English well."
donna* noun* mo E L/"c- 6 every kind of, e.g. Donna
hito mo imasu. E A.,/rA 6 u.'* ?. "Every kind of person
is here."
donna ni mo (non-existent)
dono*noun*mo UO-6 every, e.g. Dono hon mo muzu-
kashisugimasu.
E D#t ffi L?(ie) S t f. ,,Everybook
is too difficult."
d0 mo (non-existent,except for case Z, p. 148)
dore mo Uit 6 every one of them, e.g. Dore mo omo-
shiroi desu. A fL 6 EfH U.,f f . "Every one of them is
interesting."
dotchi mo t c f2 { both, e.g. Dotchi mo kirei desu. t c
b t 3 *tu ' (ft,TE[)
tf. "Both of them are pretty."
iku.*counter*nto flt-- 6 any number, several,€.g. Ihu-
nin mo himashita. tt,,t { i( t L/c. "Several people
came."
ikura tno L' < (fJt)b 6 any amount, many, e.g. Mada
i h u r a m o n o k o t t ei m a s u . * ( * ) / J r . , I b 6 D a c T L , *
t. "There are still any number (many) of them reft."
ikutsu m0 !' ( (&) p t any number, several,€.g. Ikutsu
mo haimashita. !. ( =6HL'* L/c. "r bought several."
itsu mo L.? ('f4ffi)t always, €.g. Itsu mo uchi ni imasu.
L.? t A?t! . t f. ,,I am always home.,'
ttan'* counter + mo .f-"I-t any number, e.g. Nan-satsu
mo kaimashita. l'{ffftH!.*L/c. "I bought several
books."
nani mo (non-existent,except for case3, p. 148)
naze mo (non-existent)
Note: IVhen other particles are used, they always go between the
interrogative word and mo.
144 Interrogative Words plus Particles
\-
Interrogative'Words plus Particles 145
t
odorokimasen. fltl/t'.'F_(6 Itr5 t {trL. "No matter who comes,
I won't be surprised." Dare de mo hairemasu. tbt t j\lt t f.
"Anyone (no matter who he is) can enter."
I
146 Interrogative words plus particles
:C6 ffi,t /rL .':C.. L r , . "No matter what kind of book we buy,
he probably won't read it." Donna hon de mo yomimasu. &.
,Lfs.4(.'tffiat9. "He will read any kind of book."
donna de mo E,L/X(. t no matter how, e.g. Donna de mo
kamawanaikara shite kudasai. E,Ltrt6f#*"k1.,i. \L(TE
I r. "No matter how you do it, it's all right; pleasedo it.',
d o n i t an i . . . Y t u m o E L l r l c . . . V ( t n o m a t t e rh o w m u c h , e . g .
Donna ni hotoraitemo mada binb6 desu. ELfrlc@1.:C6 gfj
RZret "No matter how hard I work, I am still poor." okane
ga takusan mokaru nara donna ni de mo hatarakimasu. *s#
tiiRtlrffir.6 lr b E /.lr?:t't 6)Jg' g f. "If I can earn so much
money, I'll work a lot (no matter how much work I have to
do, I'll do it)."
d o n o * n o u n . . . Y s s / / t oE o > N . . . V ( t no matter which, e.g.
Dono hon o yondemo tsumarimasen. E4.t?ffiLft:* t t
*14,. "No matter which book I read, I becomebored." Dono
hon de ,no ii kara misete kudasai. E O*t6 U,,L.i.b-E-u(T
3 !.. "Any book is all right; pleaseshow it to me."
dd Y p mo a , v -ic{ no matter how, e.g. Do mite mo ano
hito wa chotto okashiidesu. E, n{ 6 ho>Xrrt-=f*di.LL,t
f. "No matter horv I look at him, he is a little odd." Dd de
mo kamaimasen. A, t 6ttiU.,*+lrL. "No matter how it is, it
doesn't matter."
dore...Ytun?.0 Afu...V(6 no matter which one, e.g. Dore
o mite nxo yoku arimasen. Eltz-n( t X < ,) D t t/u. ,,No
matter which one I see, none is good." Dore de mo kekk6
desu. Ettt df;,5f,fitf. "Any one of them is fine."
dotchi...Yptnl Ecb...V(6 n o m a t t e r r v h i c h ,e . g . D o t c h i
o tabete mo oishikunai desho. E . fe*rA{( 6 *.iL. L < fr! ,t
L t , . "No matter which one I eat, it probablywon't be tasty."
Dotchi ni de mo hairemasu. E cf2?Ct6j\*rtf. "You can
enter either one."
iku*counter...Ytu mo fE-V ( 6 no matter how many, e.g.
Iku,-ninite tno tarimasen. {E !,( t,E, ttl,. ,. No matter
how many peopleare here, it's not enough." Iku-nin ni de mo
agemasu. {EAltt6lk}*f. "I'll give it to any number of
people."
i h u r a. . . Y r , m o ! ' ( ( f f t )b . . . v t t n o m a t t e r h o w m u c h , e . g .
Ihura nonde mo mada nodo ga kawaite imasu. !, ( bffi.r\,t t
*ffGrii€u.(L'tf. "No matter how much I drink, I am still
I
J
I
I
I Interrogative Words plus particles
l4T
h is fine."
nan'* counter* Y te ,tto ,f'"I-V ( 6 no matter how many, e.g.
Nouns r5l
=pT81.. "Pleasegive me three apples."
Ordinalnumberstrffi( U r f 5 ) Uchibon*&"first")
e.g. Ano gakusei wa kono kurasu de ichiban
desu. (noun) fr>o>#4,lt.o), 7 xt-#
tf. "He is the top in this class."
Kore ga ichiban 6kii desu. (adverb) c }1ni
-#^ * t'tf. "This is the largest."
b. Nouns of quantity
(tahusanWil "many," suhlshi ,),V "a little," zenbu
AS "all," mina b& or minna !# "all," dzei X*
"many [people]")
e.g. Tahusanno okashi o tabemashita, (noun)
iRUot"'H+AA{tLlc. "I ate lots of
cakes."
Okashio tahusonkaimashita. (adverb) *dH
?AiRdI H L. t Lft. "'We bought many
cakes."
c. Some abstractnouns
Uijitsu SX "truth" or "in fact," zettai f€ff "ab-
soluteness"or "absolutely," wariai *lJA "rate" or
"relatively")
e.g. Sorewa jijitsu. desu. (noun)t*rttX{Xtf.
"That is a fact."
Iijitsu sonnakoto wa shiranakatta. (adverb)
Iff*t LtrU1ltfu b|rrt'z /c. "In fact I
didn't know such a thing."
d. Nouns of generalizedtime
(hyo 4a "today," konshn+;E "this week")
e.g. Ky| no gogo ikimasu. (nqun) 4 n D+'ik:tl
* t ?. "I am going this afternoon."
Ky| ikimasu. (adverb)49ffi8*f.
"I am going today."
I 3. Nouns which are modifiednot by adjectivesbut by adverbs
or non-conjugative adjectives
I a. Nouns of directions
(higashtH "east," nishi E "west")
I
152 Nouns
I
Nouns < P F
rcb
-
L Noun*Vz*Noun (hitosashiyubi;E+F"index finger")
I 4. Abbreviated nouns
(hohurenEr€ from hokusairengT
trHiEA "the united
Nations," k6k6 H& from k6t6gakk6H++& ,,high
school"
5. JapanizedWestern words
(arubaito7 tu t\ ( l- "part-time job," from German Arbeit;
dansu i- > z "dance," from English dance)
There are literally thousands of foreign words used
in this manner, but pronunciations, and sometimes
meanings, are Japanized,and it is often difficult to
tell from what words they actually originate. These
words come from such foreign languages as English,
German, French, Russian, Portuguese, and others.
Moreover, some of these words are often shortened in
Japanese,so that they are even more difficult to re-
cognize. For example, suto means "strike," hansuto
means "hunger strike," demo means "demonstration,"
and so forth. No list of all these words is possible;
moreover,new words are continuallybeing added. For-
tunately, however,they are written in hatahana,so that
readersare made aware that they have foreign origins.
NOUN.FOLLOWING WORDS AND EXPRESSIONS
r I(AI{A i.ft I wonder if that is, e.g. Are u)a Konno-sanka ,xa.
btttt+ry8 Lfi,lr.'I wonder if that is Miss Konno."
t
i
q
ing to the newspaper,(I hear) it will rain tomorrow (If lve de-
pend on the newspaper. , . )."
NI YORI lc I D from, e.g. Kesa no shinbun ni yori sore o shiri-
mashita. +finDffifrfll:l , +fLtffi\ t L/c. "W'e found it out
from this morning's newspaper."
NI YORU TO l:. I 6 L :ni yoreba according to, e.g. Shimizu-
san no hanashi ni yoru to Toda-sanno otd-san wa totemo ohane-
mochi da so desu. HzKE ,t o>ffi:,l=I6 L F Bl3 ,LD*dra S ,tlt & (
6 *d#ffi tiz , tf. "According to Mr. Shimizu, Toda's father is
very wealthy."
ll
, . .| |
j*J l
d
Noun-following Words and Expressions no yd da 169
TO BAKARI OI'IOU & lt'n. D,9.., always think that, e.g. Sasahi-
san to bakari onrotteitara l{otnura-sandeshita. E R *3 't & ttr.
D,EcA.L',/:bry,ff 3,t("L/c. "f ahvaysthought that it was Mr.
Sasaki,but it turned out to be Mr. Nomura."
TO CHIGATTE & jS c A. unlike, different frorn, e.g. Watakushi
to clcigatteotdto wa taihen.benkyOka desu. tLLrB, <ffitt|XAffi
Sefla'f. "Unlike ffie, my younger brother studies very hard."
TO IEBA L=.t-li speakingof, e.g. Tanaka-san, to ieba,chikagoro
-3.k-tt'[eFt
chittomo aintosen. H + 8,t & b c & 6 *u'' t t,L.
"speaking or' Miss Tanalia, I haven't seen her at all lately."
TO IU LE' , which is called,who is callecl,referred to zS, e.g.
Yamada-satx to iu hito o sltitte irnosu,lea? ilEB3,t&E. ) Xffic
(!.tfr.. "Do you know a personcalled Mrs. Yamada?"
TO IU HODO I'{O LE ) lt E (&) o> what you can call, e.g. Kes-
saku,to iu hodo ?io t?rorrode rua arimasen gA, ontiseshitttaslt'd.ffi
ft t'3, ft t. D'+htttft) t) * t67.7i*o'!t.BL t L r r . "It isn't what
you r,vouldcall a masterpiece,but pleaselook at it."
'fO
IU NO WA L'3 J Attt :te one rvhich is calleil, e.g. Amerika
desune. 7 t t) )r &!', J 0>ltt8\,'E("f*a.
to itt ixl LUa6lii lerr,rti
"America (Tire country called America)is a bi:; counti'y,isn't it?"
TO IU Y0 NA L;i., I ) .|r slrcir things ns, e.g. Nihon eiga to
itr,y6 na tnonoua :nita hoto ga aritnasen. Er{rll^ifq&:{ ) I ) /r
{, ,liin/: L Lh\*> D t -t}rt. "I have never seen such things as
Japanesemovies."
TO I(A IU Lfii:€ ) somethinglike, somethingto the effect, e.g.
Kyo Sosalei-sott lo ka iu hito ga kimashita. lAfka ^X LLr.E'
, ^2i)i€* L/:. "ToCaya personcalleclsomethinglil<eMr. Sasaki
came."
TO t-WAI I(AGIRANAI Lf'Eb k t ' is not necessarily,e.g. Eigo
ga yoleuhnnaseruhito ga mina Eikohu,- jin to wa hagirottai. JR -+l'
;sii I < ;f;*g6 l-rt\E"xtrA & til,Rb k!'. "All those who can
speakEnglishfluentlyare not necessarily Englishpeople."
TO (NI) MIERU Lnk-6 it looksas if, e.g. Asokoua shizukana
tohoroto miemasu.b+:lt#r.frFf Ln*-tt. "That lookslike
Noun-following Words and Expressions wa tomohaku l|g
a quiet place."
TO (Nl) NATTE & tr cT. &s, e.g. Ano hito LUamachi no chilshin
to natte yoku,hatarakirnasu.b0>X[ttrIOF,L. LfscA.I < @ I *
?. "He works hard as (by becoming)a central figure in the city."
TO SHITE LL< in the capacity of, e.g. Kono leotobao daiji na
mono to shite oboeteoite kudasai. a ' |€#?rt#/r 6 D L L<'Hk-
(*"'1.:CTE L',. "Pleaserememberthis word as a preciousthing."
TO SHITE MO & L(t :totemo
TO SHITE NO L L< D ?s, e.g. Hahaoya to shite no sehinin ga
arimastt. Bffi LL<D-FEfi\&) 0 t t. "I have a responsibilityas
a mother."
TO SHITE WA L L(lt for, e.g. Amerika de r'"nmreta hito to
shite wa eigo ga heta desu. 7 , t) /1(:i*'-ttf: & L(ltHESrtT+
tf. "For a person who was born in the United States, his
English is poor."
TO TOMO NI & *l: with, e.g. Watakushi no chichi wa toshi to
tomo ni yasashihunarimashita. tto>att/+ & ltlcfs L ( tr D *. l,-,tc.
"My father becamegentle with age."
TO WA & lf - tle aru to wa shows surprise,following the topic,
e.g. Sonnakoto to tua yume ni mo shirimasendeshita. +&fxEF
<Yl:tfrt , *t] Lf L/c. "f wouldn't even have dreamedsuch
a thing!"
TOTEMO & ( t : to slzite?n0 even, e.g. Watahushitoternoitsu
made ,no honno'shigoto rua shitc itaku arimasen. tLL ( { L,?
(ITII.?)
*f { r./vts'fl'Jitl L(!''/: < b D *.t/u. "iiven I myself
do not rvant io do this kind of worl<forever."
WA MOCHIPTOI{ tNO KOTOI ttlllJifr not only. . . , but. . ., e.g.
Machi wa mochironmukaigawo no yama nto rniemasu. FiJttn#
D:JJ{t{ k-*.t. "l.lot only can we see the city, but we can
folt.frU
also see the mcuntainson the other side."
WA OROKA iNA KOTOI [t *dbfu' to say nothing of, much less,
e.g. Hanosrckoto rua oroha, ai'nto shimasendeshita. 3f;f : &t*,
*;bfi,, *!',t L*t Lf L/c. "I did not even see him, much less
talk with him."
WA TOMOKAKUtt & (tr ) t r' < (A) setting aside,not to men-
tion, to say nothing of, e.g. IOdan wa tomohahu hore hara dd
shite ileu tsumori desu ka. T,#ttt di.( afLfi,b E, L<'fr ( p
174 wa tonikahu Noun-following Words and Expressions
I
t
t
I
I
+i
fi
# coMMoNNOUN-PREF'IXES
trqffi<r, & , i>
fi
I
Prefix
oo-
00-
Kanji
#
t
Meaning
a certain
deceased
Example
bojitsu
bofu
Kanji
#s
cra
Meaning
a certain day
deceased
#
father
cho- rt4 super chojin ,tB superman
dai- ffi
dai(tai)- x
No.
great
daiichi m* No. 1
#
daisahka xtEx. prominent
writer
ao- IEI the same donin IFJ same person
fu' T dis-,un-
i TE
futei uncertainty
fuhu- EIJ vice-,assis- fuhudai- alJxffifFvice-president
tant, sub-
tdrN
i fuhu- W. double
fuhuiinhai 'E|j*F*
fu,kusha wq
compound fuhubun wx
subcommittee
duplication
i
compound
sentence
fuku- '{n re- fuhhi reversion
I si- # in-law
artifi-
cial
gibo
gisohu
"rn)',:ir
#e
ttrE
mother-in.law
artificial leg
I I
hai
han-
#F anti-
(exclude)
hainichi ill,a anti-Japanese
I han-
E
n
anti-
(oppose)
Pan-
hanbei EX anti-American
I
I
I
I
176 Common Noun-prefixes
i
II
Prefix Kanli fufeaning Example Kanji Meaning
hi- )F non-,un- hibunmei- 'FXBNtruncivil ized
hoku country
hira- T common hirashain Yiitr mere clerk
+A
,i
hon- # this, the honnin the person
same himself
ihu- H several, ikunichi ffs several days
some
ima- modern imadohi +ffi present age
i
.a\
1
ji- k next jinan wfr the secondson
ji- tr of the j izahe trE sahe of the
1o- c5
.le
place
regular i otokui E1Sffi
place
regular
customer
II
iun- H semi-, jun' wl*tr semi-final
quasi- kessho I
ki-
ko'
lf+
.tst
,J.
your
small,
hiho
leoyaku-
ftffi
,Jr:19)y
your school
petty official I I
ho- l&
petty
the late
nin
ko
Mihi-shi
l&=^rt the late
Mr. Miki
t
kort-
t?o-
t-
.L
*l
*T
this time
good,
honshfi
t,
Ro-
+)]fr
t*)'.Ull
this week
goocl-
natured
t
ky u- IB
favorable
former, €x-
jinbutstc
hyti-
gurtjirt
tHirr^
man
ex-soldier t
,na- H mid-,right manatsu
tnashit a
TTq
l;-{T
midsummer
right below
t
plain honesty
?nat- 'ffL
every
mas-
shojihi
mainichi
]TE[I
I
hiH every day
ln a rna- g miniature ftlome-
ningl,o
'
trLIV miniature doll
I
full man.getstt tiliry
Tnon-
me-
ffi
k female
(human)
megami f-i,F
full moon
goddess I
female
+U,$Vil
(animal)
mettshi +b(dtr)
4. cow I
mei- noted meimon &r'1 noted family
nlu-
*
Sft non-,-less mujo S'tfF heartless I
I
t
Common Noun-prefixes tn
Prefx Kanji Meaning Example Kanii Meaning
nii- ffi new niizuma ffi* new wife
oni- fr tough onihenji HeF relentless
prosecutor
rai- X next, rainen x+ next year
coming
sai- E the most saidai ftt the biggest
sai- F re- saihen FE reconstruction
sei- E regular seihaiin iE*tr regular
member
sen- fc last sengetsu frE last month
shita' T under, shitabahi Tffi. footwear
lower
rough shitagahi Tg rough copy
sub- shitauke TFFKT sub-contract
sho- At many, shokohu. F#E several
several countries
sho- iE genuine shokin E# hard cash
just sho ni-ji
't'a*L
lr _trif exactly
two o'clock
sd *t, entire sdin frefi the whole
membership
s0ra- *- feigned, soramimi *4 feigned
pretended deafness
st7- ffi several j it su
stt, Xta several days
ta- * many taltd ntctt *-ii fii many sides
ta- IU strange tanin {rgA strangers
tai- )\ big, pro' taishi ttr ambassador
minent
tai- if toward, taibei ffxeft policy towards
against seisahu America
tahaku- *fr many- tahaku, *fr&w multiple
sided, heiei enterprise
multiple
tan- .H' single tandoku, Htr* singleness,
separateness
t6- )I4,
= the said tdnin E the said person
toko- H ever tohonatsu Htr eternal
summer
. r!.
:/ - sla
I
T
178 Common Noun-prefixes
uwabe
-LH upper garment
outward
t
-Lfl
I
j
!
I
COMMONNOUN-SUFFIXESWF-#< €?cx :" >
::
'l
COII{MONPROPER NO[IN-SUFFIXES
Geographical Nameg
Sufix Kanji Meaning Erample Kanji Meaning
-cho ry' town, Eifuku-cho ,t,fFtrI Eifuku District
:machi district
'dd H old province San'in-do 'lrHH
-dori iB San'inProvince
avenue, Ginza-ddri CRgiE
: tdri Ginza Street
street
-fu ffi metropolitanKyoto-fu H*ilfrT Kyoto Prefec-
prefecture
-gawa Jll, ture
TtrJ river Sumida- FEE,lII Sumida River
: hauta
gau)a
ru
r$
rf
F
rf Sufir
-gun
Kanji
FF
Meaning Erample Kanji
county,sub-Koshi-gun ffffiEf
Meaning
Koshi County
t -ji
-iima H
E&
prefecture
road Kiso-ji AHEE Kiso Road
island Io-jima ffiftH Iwd Island
I :shima
-haid0 ffiH highway Kiso-haidT AHffi€ Kiso Highway
t
rl -kaido ifiH highway
along the
Tohaido HiEH Tdkaidd High-
way
rI
rl -hen R
sea
prefecture Chiba-hen fHR Chiba Prefec-
ture
-ho
II I -ku
itr Iake Yamanaha-dl+iff
ko
Lake
Yamanaka
t E ward Shinagawa-ffirllE
ku
Shinagawa
Ward
r I
'
-rettd ,tJe chain of
islands
mura
Chishima- T&rtJ&
rettd
Village
Kurile Islands
I I
-san dJ
:}/?IIrE *zan
-shi
mountain Iruji-san 6*dt Mt. Fuji
I! -shima &
- jima
ffi city
island
Osaha-shi t|3fitr
Awaji-
shima
/Affi&
OsakaCity
Awaji Island
r -sha ifif
-sha /{J
continent Ajia-sha
U.S.state Oregon-shfi
T i TDgl Asian
tvJy
Continent
State of
I 'to ffi\
fH Oregon
metropolis Tohyo-to HH#ls Tokyo Metro
I
r
j,i.;
'i1l
i'
Personal Names
-chan.b r ,\, (see -san) used affectionatelyto addresschildren
Tomoko-clt.an k+b p A, Tomoko
-dono ffi Mr.; more formal than -san,often usedin officialdocuments
Suzuki-donoffi^ffi Mr. Suzuki
-jo ,# Miss; not used to addressan unmarried woman directly,
but used to refer to her
Yamada-jd t!Hffi Miss Yamada
-hun E Mr., Master; often usedby young men and boys to address
their male friends
Nakajima-kun'FBE Nakajima
-nte N expressesabuse
ano Egawa-me t>o>iI.|tlff- that despicableEgawa
-samat* Mr., Mrs., Miss; more polite than -san,commonlyusedto
addressothers in letters
Toda-samaFBltTt Mr. Toda
-san 8rt Mr., Mrs., Miss; most common suffix
Tanaha-sanE+SA, Mrs. Tanaka
-shi E Mr.; honorific suffix, not used to addressa man directly,
but used to refer to him, particularly in writing
Shimizu-shi i#zKft Mr. Shimizu
Some of the above suffixes are used not only after proper names,
but also after some nouns.
e.g. botchanyfib A, used to addressa little boy
"
oj7-san *dffi*rt used to addressa girl
shash0-sanHSS rt used to addressa train conductor
oisha-san(sama) tsE# 3 ,t used to refer to a physician
(Usually the word sensei fr*. is used to address
a physician)
Note: In writing out a person'sname, the family name precedesthe
Common Noun-suffixes lB5
given name.
e.g. Yantadalira ilHhFI3 Jird Yamada
It should also be rememberedthat it is not common in Japan
to call one's acquaintance(even a fairly close friend) by his/
her first name, as in the United States. Yamada-san(last
name plus san) is the most common way to eddress Mrs.
Yamada, one's acquaintance.
Terms of Addresg
It is common to address persons of a certain position by their
title instead of their name. This is especiallytrue within a social
structure where the ranking is apparent. In f.act, it soundsalmost
impolite to address one's superior by his / her last name plus -san.
It is naturally unthinkable to call your superior by just his / her first
name as is often done in the United States. It should also be noted
that the pronoun anata t>ttt: (or kimi fr for men) " you" should
not be used when one talks to one's superior,that is, use of anata
or kimi should be reservedonly to one's equalsand inferiors.
e.g. Buchi, chotto ohanashishitai koto ga arimasuE?, ima oiso-
gashiidesuka? f,il&,--'f *siifr
L L f;1.:. &rt\b Dt th\, +
*"''ftL L'Tf i.. " Departmenthead, I would like to speak
to you a minute; are you busy nol? "
More examplesof position traditionally addressedonly by title:
kach6(-san)fl{l& sectionchief
(ken)chiji(-san) ftrlft (prefectural) governor
k1ch1sensei&:&,i'lr,A:school principal
senmu(-san)t].ifr managingdirector
sensei tE+. most-usedterm for addressinga personwho
commandsrespect from the nature of his /
her work such as teachers,professors,doc-
tors,writers,Diet members,etc. Even among
the colledguesof the same school, it is
customary to call each other by sensei or
so-and-so seltserinsteadof by his / her name,
shach0(-san) ttE president of a company
shich6(-san)ffiE mayor
ch0ch6(-san) rf& mayor of a small town
sonchA(-san) t'ftr head of a small village
TERMS FOR FAMILY MEMBERS AI{D RELATIYES
There are still more terms for "father," which are used in different
localitiesin Japan, but one can easily learn them after staying
there for some time.
In the following list, the terms for other family memberswill be
given. Like the terms for "father," they have several different
forms, of which the most commonly used ones will be listed.
English
equiaalent neutral polite more polite children rough
mother haha, ohdsan okasama (o)kdchan oluhuro
E *d&3,t (choma) t"."E < b
hahaoya
&ffi
parents rydshin goryoshingorNshin-
ffiH 'ffiffilinsama
husband shujin goshujin goshujin- dantta
g L sama B.#{I
otto "fiflg
dannasama
J-
7C 5r-ffitfr
wife kanai okusan ohusama f f -
RARA
xfr s$,t tr.l
tsuma
w
son musuko musukosangoshisokusanta (more often used
,8.7 frIl?,U,ffi' for a grown son)
boya botchan obotchama (more often usedfor a
tfi+ Yib \, L youngson)
daughter musurne nxusufitesan
tr{ fil*,t
ojosan oiosama
*"'fiq* i,
elder ant oniisan oniisama (o)niichan anihi
brother n *d,n3 't (chama) t{ft
elder ane ondsan on€sama (o)ndchan anehi
sister ftF *"'ffr8,t (chama) fiftr
family hazohu gohazohu gokazohusama
xffi ,ffiNfrR
'*I
I
188
En,glish
Terms for Family Members and Relatives
I
equiualent neutral polite more polite children rough
siblings hyodai gokyodai - The word kyodai is used for
ft,#(ffrtr)'ffinffi siblings, that is, for both
brothers and sisters,but when
one talks only about sisters,
the word shimai ffrffi should
be used.
baby akanbo ahachan
fr,A'Yfr fr'beL
grand- sofu oj iisan ojiisama (o)jiichan jijii
father +L',t. *r?Ex, * ,L (chama) ?fi
grand- sobo obdsan obdsama (o)bdchan baba
mother ?E.B *r?E& 3 /L (chama) W
uncle oji ojisan ojisama ojichan
(frx, {fr't8,L, (chama)
fl,l* trra3,r
aunt oba obasan obasama obachan
{frEl, {H&3,L, (chama)
fl,8* fIfr'8 A,
nephew oi oigosan
9E gfr'ffFg,t
niece rnei (o)meigosan
m *.'ffift]I ,t
cousin itoko oitohosan
L.&: *"'!',&:.3rt
* {Ht}borh than one's parent
{older
uncle, but
&:Al [younger than one's parent
than one's parent
lHFluo,r
aunt, but {older
flEJ [younger than one's parent
EI
fl
I I{OUN MODIFIERS
&ffit6ffi#<bL'LLro, Lr
I In Japanese, every noun modifier precedesthe noun which it
II 2.
kodomotLDF#o>Xo>T4fr
"my neighbor'schild"
Copular noun*na (positive) hirei na uchi *ttr., (ffiH) ttR
"pretty house"
++
Copular noun* de wa nai (negative)shizukade wa nai tokoro
F?i.a;&ttcU'Ff "place
which is not quiet"
3. Adjective (positive) ohii uchi ^8.U,,ff "big house"
(negative) 0kikunai heya xF ( trt 'SE "room
; which is not big"
'|! 5. Sentence-ending
dono hito EDL "which person"
verb forms-Relative clauses
L. There is no relative pronoun in Japanese, and the verb
II
b. Ynai (negative) hanasanaihito ffi8 fu[,,A "un-
speakingperson,"that is, "per-
son who doesn'tspeak"
*c. Yto (positive past) itta hito 'fi.lcA "person
I who went"
I
$l
a
I
I90 Noun Modifiers
* In English the place words sucb as "here" or "there" are always adverbs,
but in Japanesethey are pronouns. Therefore, we have to add the particle
ni (or de) after these words, to use them adverbially. €.g. Sono hon wa
hokoai arimasu. 10>*lte clcbD tt. "The book is here."
ADVERBS EUilFI<
J. < L >
i
I
I
Adverbs
fir
"like"
hesshitefrL:C "by no means" from hessuru
i*f 6 "determine (not) to do. . . ;" always
,l
used with a negative verb
hatashite R/c L ( "as was expected,',from
I hatasu R/c? "accomplish"
harete ffiir,( "openly, publicly" from harera
I ffihb "clear up"
I medatte El:t c T "noticeably', from medatsu
ii 2. Y*
*-A "ceaseto exist"
taezu t&Lt "without stopping, con-
tinuously"from taeru,*&i-6 ,,cease
ii
to
exist"
3. Vz amari b*@)D "too...,,from amaru
+l 4.
* b "remain, be left over"
YrY, tsu,gitsugi wR "one by one" from tsugu
tr <' "come after"
+l
and more" from rnastctpt "increase."
5. Ys*ni omou.ni,E ) lc "in my opinion" from
ornou,,E.., "think"
?
r
II. CommonAdverbs and their Usage
1. Time
fi,ttatabtFOx "again," more literary than mata, e.g. Kyonen
tl futatabi sono chi o tazuneta. *+FtN t o>ffitf,Dtatc. "f
t I
visited the place again last year."
kanete i.h( "previously, before," e.g. Sore ni tsuite u)a
I I
I
I
I
196 Adverbs
6. Adverbsusedwith negative-tentativeexpressions
tnasaka* 8 ,. surely (not) : lotltola
Masaka(Yomoya)hyo tua konai dard to omoitnasu.* g fi,4
E lt*hL'ij b , & ,8.u'*?. "I surely don't think he will
cometoday."
I Onomatopoeic Words
205
t JUJU
L,o J U,sJ
kachihachi
sizzling sound
ir
m0n),ohnonya
mumbl€, €.g. monyamonla iu
6lcr 6lcr
nichanicha
t("b r lcb r soft and sticky, slimy, e.g.
nichanicha suru (huttsuh:u)
J nikoniko
smile, e.g. nihoniko uarau,
I
ICI' ICT
niyoniya
grin, e.g. niyanip cuarau
lctlc-t
I
T
I
206 'Words
Onomatopoeic
l
I
CONJUI{CTIOI{S ffi;A<€2a < L> J
A conjunctionis a word used to connectsentences,words, phrases, I
or clauses- There are two kinds of conjunctions in
Japanese:sen-
tence'beginning conjunctions and conjunctions between words,
phrases,or clauses.
I
f' Common sentence-beginningconjunctions (many of them
a combinationof two or more words, and sometimesit is not
are I
easy to recognize them as conjunctions).
arutwa or I
*>4 (Et)L .tt
:matauo
daga ff/.ii but, however desugais more polite
I
: desuga
dakara titJ, b
: desuhara
so, therefore desuharais more polite
t
dahedo ftW A
: dakeredomo
but dakedois more colloquial
than daheredomo
T
danoni ti.Dlc but
dattara /,._:t:b if so
very colloquial
deshitara is more polite T
: deshitara
datte ticT,
det
but, yet
and so
very colloquial I
deua :C[t
:ja
well then ja is more colloquial
I
cletno(.. d but colloquial
hatashite as expected
R/c L(
kakushite in this way literary expression
,.(ffi) ( L(
katsu. i'(E-)z moreover literary expression
heredo(mo) WtL A but
mata -X, and. moreover
matawa X0t or
: aluiwa
mottomo however, of course
{rr&(t)d
Conjunctions n9
tbtb
sorxor4e
+ Ak moreover
soredahara therefore, accordingly
+fLi.:rt,b
soredeVfuf therefore, thereupon
soredemo but, even that
thrd
a
soredew well then
tltttt
soredoltoroka far from it
+tL&': b/5,
+tL/trb and then
sorekara
soremoth 6 and that
sorenara if so
frtttrr>
sorenittt\:- besides
soretomo +tLt 6 or
asdto
sorew by the way
+tLIt.+ ) L
soreyueni so literary expression
lttffiiz
sdshitara and then
+JL/:b
i$il
I
270 Conjunctions
I
sdshiteZ, L( and
:soshite
sdsuruto then, if so
I
zrtaL
sdsureba then I
Z r 9hlf
tada /ctj (€)
tadashi {E L
only, but
but literary expression
T
toitte LE c(. and y€t, but even so
tokorode&: bt by the way
tohoroga&:lPibut
t
towaie LI|A k- however
tsuitewa2\,"iClt in this connection
I
yueni ffill so, therefore
yotte I (ft) cT therefore
literary expression
literary expression I
II. Conjunctionsbetween:
1. Nouns I
a. "and" oyobi &$, narabini itCXlc, both more
literary than:
dano tiD See Particles,p. 99
I
nari trD See Particles, p. L20
to L See Particles, p. 134 t
toka & i' See Particles,p. 135
ya f See Particles,p. 138
yara f b See Particles,p. 139
I
b. "or" matawa Xtt aruiwa *>6 (EDU'lt, both more
literary than ka fr See Particles, p. 110 I
c . " b o t h . . . a n d . . . " m o t S e e P a r t i c l e s , p 1. 1 6
2. Adjectives
a. "and" Adjwt, adj < ( See Verb-following Expres-
I
sions, p. U
dano t:0) See Particles,P. 100
I
b. "or" ha /r See Particl€s,,p. 110
3. Copular nouns
a. "and" de 'ie See Particles, p. LAz
t
b. "or" ha fr See Particles,p. 110
4, Clauses
I
a. Co-ordinatingconjunctions
I
.l
t
Conjunctions 211
I day."
Ashita kite ne. gnn X:C*e. "Please come tomor-
row, OK ?" etc.
I Men's speech
Ashita wa kitto yomu yo. nng [t 5 c Lffitr J.
r {
i
"I'll read it tomorrow for sure."
Kore o suru ne. atLtt6tJ.
etc.
"I'll do it, OK?"
I I
1
HONORIFIC AND HUMBLE VERB FORMS
I I Formal speechwhich requires honorific and humble verbs (nouns,
r
I
adjectives,etc.) is one of the most characteristic features of the
Japaneselanguage. It is therefore imperative to learn both the
I
I
honorific and humble verb forms, if one wishes to read and speak
I i
proper Japanesefluently.
f. Honorific Forms Borrorvedfrom Other Verb Forms
T I
1. Passive voice form (more often used by men than
women)
a. Vowel-stem verbs (Vr * rareru) Senseiga okashi
I I I
o taberaremashita. ft&,ri*i#+?ft{
t,. "The teacher ate a cake."
btL* L
I I
b. Consonant-stemverbs (Vr * reru) Anata ga sore
ka. btrf:rt\ttvA#r.it*
o kakaremashita L
/ci'. "Did you write it?"
I c. Irregular verbs
I 2.
with the honorific verb.
form
Causative-passive
218 Formal Level of lMords and Expressions
I' t
r| ;
may be that the use of the honorific forms made from passive
verbs is more often preferred by men, while irregular forms
by women.
I
r|
l
I
I
I
T i
I
I
T
I
T
:I|
:l
t_
n0 Honorific and Humble Verb Forms
It
IRREGULARHONORIFICAND HUMBLE VERB FORMS
IRREGULAR
I
II
Honorific Humble
ageru LW 6 sashiageru
EULW6
"to give"
aru bb "to be" gozaimasu (neuter)
"to have" j 5r.,* f
da /j
de aru t&>6
"to be" -copula de irassharu
'ic!.b-tLt6
de gozaimasu
t i 5 r . , *t il
I
(kaze o) hiku (okaze o) mesu
*r/m[fF
rl
Affi L u- < t At
"to catch a cold" ]1
iku {] ( "to go" irassharu L' Ft-> L + 6 mairu *a
iru L.6 ',to be" i r a s s h a r uL . b - t L + 6
orareru tc t) n 6
oide ni naru
oru ts 6
I
iu E' , "to say"
lsu',tl:tt6"
ossharu
*'ro Ltb
m6su rFf
m6shiagerutfi L -h1d6
I
kariru ffi v)b
"to borrow"
haishakusuru
t+l:$t6
I
haishaku itasu
Ii . i
Honorific and Humble Verb Forms 221
tIi lt
ir REGULAR
;i il
Honorific 1
(Passive form)
Honorific 2
(o Y, ni naru)
Humble
(o Y, suru)
(o Y, itasu)
#i 4-l
tl
agerareruLVI bna oage ni naru
*d.t.klt: ttZr
oarl nr naru
oage suru td} ff t 6
oage itasu *''-t WW.t
-l
fdb A l.ctsa_
tf oari da t; fr>vlt:
il
--
) f
awareru*hnb oal nl naru
*c*u . lr,/r 6
oal suru ?r*t', f 6
oai itasu t"-*L.Skt
r--'
r
I
(okazeo) hikareru (okaze o) ohiki ni naru
f"',Ef$tUt,t1"6 fdmfFt *d() F tc tsF
I
t I
ikarerufrrt,nb
i r a r e r uu . b h 6
t I
I i
iwareruEbnb
I t
karirarerultig bnb okari ni naru
*d{S u)Lt.,6
okari suru f""iff 0 t b
okari itasu h''{gv)w.t
I kirareru# F>nb
I korareru*bnb
il
il
*
222 Honorific and Humble Verb Forms
IRREGULAR
Verb
Honorific Humble
T Honorific L
REGULAR
Honorific 2 Humble
T (Passiveform) (o Y, ni naru)
(o Y2 suru)
(o Y 2 itasu)
t mirareru R,btLF_
t yasumarerutK* tr6
t ;
nomarerufffi* ILb onomi ni naru
n'ffial:/x 6
I shinareruft,ttttF.
t"',8,1.lE,k-tt!.5
I
T
n
T sareru 3 tt 6
taberareruA{ btLa otabe ni naru
*dA< tr,/r 6
!l tazunerareru otazune ni naru otazunesuru
I +(tr)hbnr'
(otoshi o) torareru
*"'+ (At)h l: /r 5
(otoshi) o otori ni naru
*di+(ffi)ht 6
I-_
224 Formal Level of Adjectives
6i o Oi desu.. O gozaimasu,.
*r,, b *v,<t € 3'!.*?.
"many" 'There are many.,?
tdi t0 Toi desot,. (o)To gozaimasu,.
ffiu. ffi ffiU'tf. (i"')ffiCS!.'*?.
ttfartt
"It is far away."
II. Adjective, stem ending in ai change a to 6, and add gozai-
tnasu.
tahai taha Tahai desn.. (o)Tahdgozaimasu.
H!', H Ht,.'tf. (*"')H,i3u't?.
"high" "ft is high."
"expensive" "It is expensive."
nagat naga Nagai desu.. (o)NaS0gozaimasu.
Eu' E EL.'rf, (*"')
fr,5i5t't?.
"longt' "It is long."
III. Adjective,stem ending in u: lengthen u, and add gozaim6tsu..
yasui yasu Yasui. desu,. (o)Yasil gozaimasu,.
F!' * Ft ,,:ef. (*d)t ) c'*'u.,t ?.
"cheap" "It is cheap."
I'
I
t samui
Formal Level of Some Common Expressions
* The perfective forms (fa-forms) are used when the action for which one
is apologizing,thanking, or congratulating, occurred in the past.
226 Three Levels of Imperative
* Arigatd zonjimashita.
HWrE u* Llc.
OsoreiriFnasu. Thank you.
nil;t 0 tf. I am much obliged.
*Osoreirimashita.
L
Honorific Noun-prefixes, o and go
There are two honorific prefixes used with nouns, o and go. Be-
causeboth of them are often written with the same Chinesecharac-
ter, 'ffi, one has to establish which reading is correct for each case.
Fortunately, however, it seems that in recent years o is more often
written with hiragana *d, while fiil is still used for go. There is
no definite rule governing when a noun takes o and when a noun
takes go as an honorific prefix, except that words which originate
from Chinese may more often take go, while Japanesewords may
usually take o. It should probably be mentioned briefly that the
',ffi is sometimes read ofl, flti, or gyo. These are also
character
honorific prefixes, but they are much less common than o or go
(e.9. onmi',frH "your bodyr" kami no mikohoro Na>'ffi'\'. "God's
will," gtoi fiflR "your wishes," etc.).
The function of the honorific prefix is roughly divided into the
following categories:
L. Idiomatic-Attached to some nouns when they sound more
idiomatic if they are used with o or go. In this
case these prefixes do not signify any particular
politeness.
e.g. gohan att,\(ffifrn "cookedrice," "meal,"
ocha t"'A "tea"
2, Respectfor others-Attached when one talks about the ob-
jects or actionsof others in order to show
a feeling of 'respect.
e.g. goshujin ffit "your husband"
oharada *''ff "your body"
3. Politeness-Attachedwhen one wants to show politeness in
formal speech. This prefix is often excessively
used by some women, particularly in the Tokyo
area, but too much use of this prefix could sound
affected. In ladies' conversation,it may not be
uncommon to hear ohitotsu, ofutatsu, etc., for
"one" and "two." Even more extreme examples
are opan or ok0ht for such foreign words as
bread or coffee. Also, in high-classJapaneseinns,
one may hear the maids use these honorific pre-
fixes when they speak to the customers,because
I
E
I
228 Nouns with Honorific Prefixes o or go
I
they are trained to be very polite to them.
One should also remember that an honorific word can imply re- "l
spect in one instance, and politeness in another. Therefore, one
has to decide from the context which meaning is intended in each
case. That is, if the speaker is talking about the object or action
I
of others,the honorific prefix is very likely intendedto show respect,
but if the prefix is used for the speaker's action, it is to show I
politenessin formal speech.
e.g. Gohyoryoku.itashimasu. 'ffitMJW.L* t. "I'll cooperate."
-politeness
I
Goktoryohuonegaiitashimasu. 'ffiffi)JtdFt ',* L t f. "We'll
request your (honorable)cooperagisn."-respect T
The following is a sample list of nouns which often appear with
honorific prefixes. Honorific prefixes are often combined with
honorific and humble verb endings to raise the level of formality.
T
NOUNS WITH HONORIFIC PREFIXES O OR GO
I
Function of
Noun Meaning Honorific form honorific
anshin peace of mind goanshin mf,L., respect
benhyo study obenkyo *druffi respect
or
gobenhyo '&lf(Atfi
bon tray obon *dA idiomatic
bon Festivalof the Deadobon *"-a
'(rrffix
idiomatic
bydki sickness gobyohi respect
cha tea ocha *d?i idiomatic
dai ji precious odaij i h-XSI respect
denwa telephone odenwa *dEffi politeness
enrto restraint goenryo /6{ffiffi, respect
genhi good health ogenki *"'frfr respect
meshi(han) cookeCrice gohan '''ffifrn idiomatic
hima leisurehours ohima *o'flH respect
hon book gohon ,M# respect
ihen opinion goihen ffi,H-E^ respect
jikan time ojikan *dffifd respect
hage patronage ohage *dH idiomatic
Nouns of Time in Formal Speech 229
Function of
Noun Meaning Honorific form honorific
sumanahutemoyosasO
na mon'da. L, < bH,Zfi=TF Ltr.
i6u.'Nlcfrth(ftf 8t)tr6,tff. "Evenif they are
poor, it seemsthey don't have to live in such a dirty house."
2, : da to (iu) Nan' datte? ,fE]ffc A.. "lVhat did you say?"
ja Le :de wa Sd ja nai. +, L p /xu.'. "It's not that."
hoitsu r, L .'2 : hore Koitsu ua yohunai na. c !'?lt I < lgL .,/g.
"This is no good."
horya i D r :hore wa Korya komatta hoto ni natta. a0 rffl-r
I
t; & l:/rz/c.
n' ,\, :nto
"This turned out to be a lot of trouble."
Doko e ihu n' deshd. Hge-rft ( x,reL r ,. "I wonder
where he is going."
I
nahuchatg.( b r :nahute wa :nahereba Konna muzuhashiimondai
wa anta de nahuchatohenaidesho. zfufrffiLt,,f6ffittt>'tft"Ch
I
,. "I supposeyou're the only one who can
< b effiWfr!'tLt
solve such a difficult problem." T
nando kL E :flaflha:nado Sonna hon nando yomu no rno iya
da. Z,+fr*fr.L&'ffit_rotL.fff.
book."
..f would hate to read such a
I
nya lcr :ni wa Ano ho nya homatta. hD+lcr EFlz/c. "I had
so much trouble with that kid." I
soitsu {L .: :sofe Soitsuwa ohashii. t! .'plt *dr, L L ,. "That's
funny."
sorya Z D r :sore u)a Sorya bahagete iru na. Z D r,6Elklrc!.
I
6 k. "That's idiotic."
surya ?D r :silr€ba Kd surya yoku naru dar\. i rt0 rI (
tt btib 5 . "If you do this, it'll probably improve."
I
tatte foz( :te rno Bohu ga nani o shitatte kamawanai dard.
trri{Fj?.Ltc->(f#*2fX!'iibr. "No matter what I do, you don't
I
care, do you?"
te ya shinai (f Lfrt,. :te lwal inai libun no hoto shika han-
gaete ya shinai. AftD a L Lrt,Z k_(S L lxL'.
I
"He thinks of
nothing but himself."
tottemo Lc(6 :totemo Tottemo tsinharetatua. Lc(6tfr.tttc
*). "f am so tired."
yappart ,F cttD :yappasfui:yahari Yappari hite yohatta. f a
tf , *( f i. z lc. "As I thought, it was a good thing that f came."
APPENDIX I
COUNTII{GSYSTEM
NUMBERSffiFd
There are two ways of counting in Japanese: one is the native
Japanesesystem which goes only as far as ten, and the other is
borrowedfrom the Chineseand will go as high as one chooses.
Original lapanesecounting system
Used when 1. counting objects by the piece.
2. counting a person's age (equivalent to is-sai,ni-
sai, etc. [see p. 239], but is-sai, ni-sai sound
more formal than hitotsu, futatsu).
hitotsu -2 One muttsu. /<c six
-2
futatsu two nanatsu tc seven
mittsu =2 three yattstt, i\c eight
yottsu Wc four hohonotstt,
)tc nine
itsutsu
d ?
L2 NVC td + ten
Hatacht:+ tlventy-hatachi is used for a person's2g€,
"twenty years old," equivalent to nijus-stti,
Systemborrouedfrom the Chinese
ichi - one hachi n eight
ni - trvo hu (hya) nine
)u
so,n = three ju + ten
shi trl four iu-ichi f- eleven
go n five ' jn-ni *: twelve
roku x six jr,i-san += thirteen
shichi { seven jil-shi. *Zq fourteen, etc.
nijn -+ trventy gojfi fifty
f,+
niju-ichi =+- trventy-one rokujil x+ sixty
nijil.-ni :+: trventy-two shichijn {+ seventy
hachijil, eighty
a
sanlu thirty n+
yonia Zq+ forty kynjn )L+ ninety
*hyaku tr' one hundred
* Japanesealways omit one in one hundred: never ichi-hyoha,but always
iast hyha.
I
I
234
htaku-ichiE:-
Counting System
fifrh
(yon-ban) ffiw
go-ban dai-go
trl?El
itsutsu-me
us#H
go-ban-me
t
sixth
-t
n-1*I
roku-ban
*-
ffiE
dai-roku
frcH r,#H
muttsu-me roku-ban-me t
-.L.{L lltf-t-
XAEI x#H
t
./\g ^1/ \
seventh nana-ban dai-shichi, nanatsu-tne nana-ban-me
t6 ffit, tcH {#EI
eighth
(shichi-ban)
hachi-ban dai-hachi yattsu-me hochi-ban-me t
n# HX n?El n#E
ninth hu-ban
)L#
dai-hu
ffi)L
kohonotsu-mehu-ban-me
JtcH /L# H
I
* For one thousand,one hears both sen and issen.
'|* Oku and cho are always precededby ichi: ichioku and itcha, and never
I
oku or cha.
I
I
I
T :
I
t JapaneseNumbers and English Numbers 235
r tenth ja-ban
f6
dai-jn
ffi+
jt-ban-me
+6H
Note: The above ordinal numbers are nouns. They should be followed
I I
I
i
e.g. Ano gonin-meno hito wa dare desu ka. fr>o>A E OAtt,;t
Atftr. "Who is that fifth person?"
M6 nihai-me no kdhi o nonde imasu. 6, :ffi H A = - V -
I I
t tr /v<L'* f . "f am already drinking a secondcup of
coffee."
I I
I
JAPANESE NUMBERS AND ENGLISH NUMBERS
I As the use of commas shows, the division of the unit in the
I English number system comes between every three digits. In
Japanese,the division is made every four digits, as shown below.
r
I
o one o ichi
I o ten aju ;
t I
<>
d
o
hundred
thousand
ten thousand
o hyaku
O
d
SEN
man
tr'
f
T
t O
o
hundredthousand
million
o
O
j[man
hyakuman
+T
ET
q I O
o
o
ten million
hundredmillion
billion
<) senman
d oku
jIoku
TT
ffi
+f,g
q I o
O ten billion <) hyakuoku tr'ffi
o hundredbillion <> sen'oku fffi
-
I
I trillion YK
t ch6
O o
F{ ten trillion Fl jutchO frb
I
r !
COIJNTERS Wffiffi
Japanese usesmany differentcountersto countobjects,depending
r
I
on the type of thing being counted. This tradition is similar to
suchEnglishphrasesas "three slicesof bread," "three pairs of
I
t
t.ri'i I
I
236 b-d Counters
I
socks," "three cups of coffee."
In Japanese,for example,mai. is used for counting thin objects,
hon is used for long objects,and so forth.
I
It should also be rememberedthat in grouping objectsin Japanese
the divisions are basedon groups of fives and tens, instead of sixes I
and twelves as in the West. Traditionally, Japanesehas no such
group as the dozen (dasu 9'- 7 is the Japaneserendering of
the English dozen). For example, sets of Japanesedishesor bowls
I
are sold in units of five.
The following is a partial list of common counters. A sample I
counting up to ten is given once for each new beginning letter,
and occasionalexamples showing how to use the suffix are also
included. Exceptionsare shown by the use of parentheses.
I
b- bai ffi (multiplicative) times
ichi-bai "one time"
san-chahu
yon-chaku
I
ni-bai "double," "twice" go-chaku
san-bai"triple," "three times"
yon-bai
roku-chaku I
nana-chahu
go-bai hat-chaku
rolzu-bai hyn-chahu
nana-bai jut-chahu
hachi-bai I
hyn (ku)-bai -ch6 T tdfu "beancurd"
ju-bai it-ch0 "one tdfu"
e.g. Tochi no nedan ga I
kyonenno ni-bai ni natto. -ch6 tre a pair of scissors
*, jt[ D Itiry.h\*+ D =ffitc /c z it-cho"one pair" of scissors
/:. "The price of the land t
has doubledsince last year." d-:@
-ban & See Ordinal Num- ichi-dai "one car"
bers, pp. 234-35 ni-dai "two trucks"
-bun ft part, fraction san-dai
yo-dai
ni-bu,nno ichi L/2
go-dai
yon-bun no san 3/4
roku-dai
t shichi-dai
c- -ehaku H clothes hachi-dai
it-chahu "one dress" hu-dai
ni-chahu "two suits" iil,-dai
t,
s,f
li
Counters e-/ 237
I I
-€rl ro yen
ichi-en "one yen"
rop-pai, roku-hai
nana-hai
I
ni-en haf -f ai
I san-en
yo-en
hyn-hai
juf -f ai
li I
I
go-en
roku-en
-hatsu X round of ammuni-
tion
shichi-en .ip-patsu"one shot"
tI
I
hachi-en
kyil,-en
ni-hatsu
(san-patsu)
!I
jfr-en e.g. Kare wa san-patsu
utta. 'IRIL= ,EtT ->tc. "He
f. -fuku fiE puff of tobacco
fired three shots."
smoke,packet of powdered -hen ffi (occurrence)time - do
I
i medicine,cup of green tea
I if-fen "one timer" "once"
if -f uku
I ni-fuku
san-puku
ni-hen
t
I yon-fitku
go-fuhu
-hen frf chapter, canto, vol-
ume, etc.
rop-puku if-fen "one chapter"
l nana-fuku not common ni-hen
t
haf -ftuku
l hyu-firku
iu!-fuku
-hiki W small animal
ip-piki "one dog"
e.g. Tabakoo if-Puhu.iha- ni-hihi "two cats"
I ga desuka. I ts I (fSH)X- t
ffiL.i'ii (fn{FI)
Tfr.. "will -hon # long object
I you have a cigarette?"
-fuku {16kahemono"hanging
if-fon "one pencil"
ni.hon "two umbrellas"
I scroll"
ip-puku "one kakemono"
j- -j0 tatami "straw mat"
ichi,-j6 "one tatami"
I
t h- _:ltgi lff cup
ni-io
san-jo
ip-pai "one cup" of tea yo-j0
I ni-hai "two cups" of coffee go-j0
t
238 h-n Counters
t shichi-nin
hachi-nin
ku'nin
t
-satsuflf books
ii:;ali,i-..orrebook"
t jn-nin
-r€tsu FU row
I
-sho H chapter
t roku-retsu
shichi(nana)-retsu
hachi-retsu
"to composea poem."
I
t hyil,-retsu
ja-retsu
-Boku ,e footwear
is-sohu"a pair" of socks
ni-soku"two pairs" of shoes
t -rin ffi flower
ichi-rin "one flower with
stem"
t
-s6 ffi boat
t t
-rXoffi (tr6)carriage
ichi-ryd "one car" t-
ls-sd'"one boat"
I
-tan tr_ roll of kimono rn?.
rr
rl I terial
-s&i ffi (*) age it-tan "one tan"
is-sai"one year old" ni-tan
ni-sai san-tan
san-sai yon-tan
yon-sai go-ton
go-sai rohu.-tan
roku-sai nana-tan
nana-sai hat-tan
has-sai kyfi-tan
hyil-sai j u.t-tan
jus-sai -tan tr- land, .245acres
-sao H tansu "chest of it-tan "one tan"
drawers" t
(hito-sao)"one tansu," -teki iffi drop of liquid
(futa-sao) it-teki "one drop"
(mi-sao) t
Uo-sao) -ten ,F. point
(itsu-sao) it-ten "one point"
I
t
240 tsu-z Counters t
t
-tO FE big animal
hyu-wa
ju-wa, juf-fia
-wa fg bunch, bundle
I
it-to "one cow"
ni-td "two horses"
t
ichi-wa, i0-Pa "one bundle"
t
I
tsu- -tsui f,f a pair
it-tsui "one pair"
-wari glj L0%
ichi-wari "I0?'o"
t
ni-tsui
san-tsui
yon-tsui
I
rohu wari
shichi-wari, nana-wari
t
go-tst'ti
rohu-tsui
hachi-wari
kyil-wari
t
jn-wari
nana-tsui
hat-tsui
hya-tsui
z- -zerr.ffi a pair of chopsticks I
iut-tsui
-ts[ ;S letter
ichi-zen "one pair" of
nr-zen
chopsticks t
it-tsfr."one letter"
I
san-zen
yo-zen I
go-zen
w- -w& U bird
ichi-wa, i|-fa "one bird" roku-zen
shichi-zen
I
ni-wa
san-ba
yon-wa
hachi-zen
hu (kyn)-zen
I
jil-zen
go-wa
roku-wa, roP-Pa -zorr $S bowl of rice I
shichi-wa ichi-zen "one bowl" of rice
hachi-wa,haf'fa I t
Note: 1. It is not common in Japaneseto use the expression correspond' I
ing to "a cup of tea," i!-fai no ocha -'ffz)to'Jf, or "a sheet of
paper," ichi-mai no kami -&q)*ft, etc. As shown in the ex'
amples below, the particle follows the noun, not the number
plus the counter.
e.g. Ocha o ip-pai (i!-fai ocha o) nomimashita. i"'#L-fFfr
4.* Ll:. "I drank a cuP of tea."
Kami ga san'mai (San-tnai hami ga) arimasu' f&ri=&
h t) * t . "There are three sheets of paper." I
,
I
I
T
t 2. Han $
Dates 2,ll
l JapaneseYears
From ancient times Japan has kept track of time by grouping
t Meij died on the 30th of July and his son, Emperor Taish6, then be-
came Emperor. The year LgLz,then, is the 45th year of Meiji as
well as the 1st of Taish0. For the same reason,1926is the 15th
I| year of Taishd as well as the lst of Shdrva (See the chart, p. 242).
rl
I-
!
242 Modern Japanese Eras/Christian Era
+
il
Conversion Table
Iaf. Year Christ.Year
Meiji 1
fa|. Year Christ.Year
1868 Taishd4 1915
IaP. Year Christ.Year
Shdwa37 1962
I
EEifi 2
3
4
186e ^ E b
1870
1871
6
7
1916 FAto 38
T917
1918
39
40
1963
L9M
1965
I
5
6
7
t872
1873
L874
8
I
10
1919
L920
T92L
4L
42
43
1966
L967
1968
I
10
8
9
1875
1876
1877
11
T2
13
1922
1923
1924
M
45
46
1969
L970
L97L
I
11
12
13
14
1878
1889
1880 Shdwa
1881 FEfu 2
L4
15
1
7925
1926
L926
7927
47
48
49
50
L972
L973
L974
I
1975
15
16
L7
1882
1883
1884
3
4
5
1928
L929
1930
51
52
53
L976
r977
L978
I
18
19
20
1885
1886
1887
6
7
8
1931
7932
1933
54
55
56
L979
1980
1981
I
2L
22
23
1888
1889
1890
9
10
11
1934
193s
1936
57
58
59
1982
1983
1984
I
24
25
26
1891
1892
1893
L2
13
I4
7937
1938
1939
60
61
62
1985
1986
1987
I
27
28
29
30
1894
189s
1896
1897
15
16
L7
18
1940
1941
63
64
1942 Heisei 1
1943 Srl 2
1988
1989
1989
I
1990
31
32
33
1B9B
1899
1900
19
20
2L
19,14
1945
1946
3
4
5
1991
1992
1993
I
34
35
36
1901
1902
1903
22
23
24
1947
1948
1949
6
7
8
1994
1995
1996
I
37
38
39
1904
1905
1906
25
26
27
1950
1951
L952
9
10
11
L997
1998
1999
I
40
4L
42
L907
1908
1909
28
29
30
1953
1954
1955
T2 2000
I
43 1910 31 1956
M
45
Taisho 1
1911
t9r2
Lgtz
32
33
34
1957
1958 t
1959
^iE 2
3
1e13
1914
35
36
1960
1961 t
I
e
t Dates 243
+
^ffi F Tuesday trTEF Saturday
Suiydbi (Water [Mercury] day) Nichiyobi (Sun day)
TkqAF WednesdaY E llll E Sunday
+
t
Mokuy6bi(Wood [JupiterJday)
^lli{i H Thur-"dav
Daysof the &Ionth
This list is used both for the day of the month and for the
I
the 1st day of the month (ichinichi means
duration,excepttsu,itachi,
t
I
._L
n H 8th fi,g 19th
1 ,J|- kohono-ka JLA 9th -ha hatsu-ka :f g 20th
f g 10[h
i
.- Li
td-ka nijilichi-nichi t*- E 21st
iilichi-nichi +- E 1lth ni jfini-nichi :+: E 22nd
- I -
I
I
-,
F-It'
t[,
n
244 Dates
nijnsan-nichi l*= E 23rd nijnhachi-nichi:f,rt n 28th
.ka nijil.yoh-ha :tZq g Z4th nijahu-nichi =1flA zgth
nijilgo-nichi :ft g 25th sanjil-nichi =* E 30th
nijfrrohu-nichi:+xB ZOth sanjAichi-nichr=+-E 31st
nijnshichi-nichi :+t g ZTth
misoka ffi g last day of the month
dmisoka ^BS B last day of the year
THE CHINESEZODTAC
TwelvechineseHorary Characters and symbolicAnimals +:{
(U'e ) l:;1
Japanese are still fond of usingthe traditionalsymbolicanimals
of the Chines e zodiac.This is particularlytrue at the beginningof
a new year, or for a person'syear of birth. It is not uncommon
to hear a personask, Anata ua nanidoshidesu ka. *>tl/clt,l'"T#
tfi.. "In what animalyear were you born?" As shownbelow,
this is a twelve-yearcycle.
t Uma +
Hitsuji *
1l a.m.- I p.r.
1p.m.- 3p.r.
Horse ,F
Sheep +
L942 1954196619781990
19431955196719791991
Saru + 3p.r.- Sp.r. Monkeytrfi 19441956196819801992
I Tori
Inu
E
fr
5p.*.- 7p.r.
7p.r.- 9p.m. Dog
Cock g
t
19451957196919811993
19461958197019821994
I, i
I *,
l|i a,m.fp.m,
gozenfHf
ji S o'clock
ichi-ji
"fun ft minute
ip-pun
bya tI second
ichi-byo
I
(oneo'clock) (oneminute) (one second)
I I
(a.m.) ni-ii
san-ji
ni-/un
san-pun
ni-byo
san-byd
T I
w'ji
s0-j;
yon-fun(ton-/un) ton-byo
go-fun go-byo
t
I
rohu-ji rop-pun rohu-byo
shichi.-ji nana-fun nana-byd
(shichi-fun)
I| ;
hachi-ji hap-pun
(hachi-/un)
hachi-byo
kyn-byo
t I
ku-ii
iil-ji
iuichi-ii
hYil'Jun
iub-Pun
iil'if -fun
.-
1u-0yo
t
jaichi-byo
t I soso
+rh
t;;::j,'
(j nsan.
nijn-byo
j i)* X'l,i!o!tl" nijaichi-byo
sanjfr-byd
ni-ii (iuYo-ii)* saniuP-fun
t I
(p.m.) saniai|'fun
tonjuf -fun
sanjnichi-byo
yonjfr.-byd
I yonjni|-f un
gojuP-pun
yonjaichi-byo
goja-byo
gojnichi-byo
SojniP-0un
I i fini-ii (nii fryo-ii)* rohuiuf'fun
I
I
t
|r
2,46 Duration of Time
Hour
ni-shfi-han :j&nIJ "for two weeks," etc.
ichi-ji-han -F?nfl "for one hour"
!f
ni-ji-kan :ffiRfl "for two hours," etc.
II. Time units which sometimestake -han to show duration
lf
ichi-nen-kan(or ichi-nen) *'+([fl) "for one year"
Year
ni-nen-han(or ni-nen) - tp.(H) "for two years"
(Both expressionsare common.)
I
Month ih-hagetw-han(or ih-kagetsu.,
-yfiftfl
hito-tsu,ki)"for one
-rfr -fr month"
I
ni-kagetsu-han(or ni-ltagetsu,'futa-tsuki) "for two
-.,
Effr -,
(or san-kagetsu,
san-hagetsu,-kan
fr =E
mi-tsuki) "for three
months" I
=,Efd =rE =E
(Of the three expressions,the two in the paren-
months,,
I
thesesare more common, but for four months
I
I
I
F
F
I Punctuation 247
F Wr,B Ffr
fr-, E ffr
Wf E
go-kagetsu-han(or go-kagetsu)
fr-r E
months"
"for five
months,"
etc.
I
I
Day ichi-nichi-A
-
futsu-ha-han(or futsu-ha) E (f6)
"for oneday"
"for two
I
I
mih-ha-han(or mik-ha) = E (ffI)
days"
"for three days,"
gtc.
I (ichi-nichi "one day" is the only exception, and
takes no -kan. For four days or more, see pp.
I 243-M.)
Minute if-fun-kan (or ip-pun) -5, (ffi) "for oneminute"
ni-fun-han(or ni-fun) =ft(ffi)
t "for two
minutes,"etc.
(or ichi-byo)-?)(ffi) "for one second"
Second ichi-byo-han
t
t
t APPENDIX II
PUNCTUATION
t There are several marks which correspond to English punc-
1. Copula
249
I 2. Verb
{Transitive
IIntransitive
3. Adjective
I Note : Be alert to all the different verb forms; present,
perfective, positive, negative, tentative, potential,
t I
ing in five minutes or so, but I left without wait-
ing." Or, dependingon the context, it can also
+
i
without waiting."
V. Once one finds the main verb and its subject (existent or
t
supplied),they will becomethe core of the sentence.
VI. The rest will merely be the additions to the core of tho
sentence.
t I
1.
They may be some of the following elements:
Sentence-beginningconjunctions (See pp. 208-2L0)
il 2, Adverbs
Adverbial phrase,I
I-
ho*, when, where,how many (much),etc.
rl
+
il
?.ffi How to Read a Japanese Sentence
t
3. Noun-modifiers Other noun*no
Copular noun*na tI
Adjectives
Non-conjugative adjectives
Vs
Seepp. 189-
90 t
Yto
Ithtffibtc ffifrF a T fr
iH&rj E8'L ,i fitr D ^ft
hageochita noren no shita kara shizuha ni misesaki ni sashihonde
b W fr lc fS fr, lc. #,L-.{.L<
il
iru tohi datta.
L.6F#ffctc.
Ch0bagoshino naha ni
VE.Wffi+ D + lc
suwatte taikutsusd ni
s' 2 iC iE,EZ, lc
il
makitabakoo fukashite ita bantd ga hibachi no soba de shinbun o
/Sf$$r X "th.LtL',t#sT,i x$fi 0> M r ffi fffl X i
yoncleiru. wahai bantd ni konna fil ni hanashikaleeta.
ti|,Lr!',6 7iu' {,tffi, t: r- i'trtri l: ffSLi.l.l/c. il
The above excerpt from Shiga Naoya's ,fi'Affidt Kozd no hami-
+
+
santa ,J'{ilD+lttf< may look complex at the first glance, but if one
looks at it carefully, it consistsof three sentenceswhich are not
basically so complex. In each sentence, once the core of the
sentence(subjectand main verb) is located, the remaining parts
are all modifiers (noun modifiers, adverbial phrases,etc.).
i
1. Senhichi ua (Kanda no
| _...
laru
lhakariya no
I
)
1 mise ni h0k0 shite iru^
t
+
"Senkichi is employedat a certain scale shop in Kanda."
Core of the sentence: i
Senhichi wa hdhd shite iru,. "Senkichi is employed."
(subject) (main verb)
it I
!
t
II Remainingparts:
How to Read a Japanese Sentence
II
aru (Non-con-
) \ mise ni
jugative adj.) {udr'.phrase-
I [
I hakariya no (Noun*no) J where)
2, Sore wa (ahi rashii ) -hizashi ga (hon no ) noren no
lw*orohanal lao;ou | ,n;n nara
lsunda J lhageochila)
[shizuk:."i .I €'wr'eora\
sash;nonde iru tohi datta.
lmisesaki niJ
i "It was the time when the fall-like, soft, clear sun's rays were
quietly pouring into the store front from under the mostly
i
faded blue noren curtains."
Core of the sentence:
sore wa tohi datta. "It was the time."
(subject)(complement) (main verb)
;
+
Remainingparts:
( ahi rashii (Noun* rashii)l
no:rn modifir)rs: .f
lawaraka na(Cop.*na,) |
hizash;
i lsunda
relativeclauses: (leonno
(Vro) )
(subjectof relative I
.lause)
i
| t noren
\ aontt (adv.-degree) I
I hageochita(Vro-noun modifier)I
i (hizashigo
{
(subjectof rela- I
tive clause) | toni
t I
adverbiaI phrases'
lsash i honde ir u(Y s-noun modifier)J
' (rrom where)
Tii',i,olJ'rll'r'i:: f "
I misesahini (to where)
3. I ChObagoshi no naha ni I
I |
\
.
lt.u:otln -* .^:
taikutszso- ni
l
|
f hibachi no soba dn\
I banto ga { shinbun
| , .
'ovo yonde t't banto
inrl
Jvr,Lsvt'
I ni
vua4at )
I I makitabako o ita
fttkashite I
honnafn ni hanashihahett.
r "The clerk, who was sitting inside the latticed counter with a
boredlook,smoking a cigarette,talked in the following manner
I
252 How to Read a Japanese Sentence
I
I
INDEX I
YERB-FOLLOWINGEXPRESSIONSAND
NO{I}.I.FOLLOWINGEXPRESSIONS
in lower case
Verb-followingexpressions
NOUN.FOLLOWINGEXPRESSIONS IN UPPERCASE
(See also alphabetical lists of Common Noun-suffixes, pp. L7942,
Counters, pp. 23541 and Particles, pp. 93-140)
In order to extend its usefulness as a reading aid, the following list includes
many Chinese characters, even though some of them may not appear fre-
quently in contemporary writings.
: te morau gafii,62
de naranai ttr b kL., 58 GA ATTE NO KOTO ll\b->A.a>
: te naranai a &, 159
de nokeru tDVl6, 58 ga mono wa nai ,i 6 Olt,/g1', 62
: te nokeru gachi Wb, 48
de oku ttd < , 58 : te oku sai ry48,48
de ori tt"'(ffi) D , 58 : te ori GAKARIDE iii. Dt, 159
de sae Vba t8i V tt', 58 GAKARU rt',rt,b, 1b9
: te sae Vba GAMASHII iit L!., 159
de shimau tLt(ft#)r,58 gari /t\0,83
: te shimau garu /5\b, 83,86
de shiyd ga nai t L J , (ftffi) ri gatai ii l: (ffi) t',, 48
kL', 58 : te shiyd (sho) ga nai GATERA iNIl rt\<b, 159
de wa (tt, 59 : te wa ge Vf, 48,83
DE WA tlt, 158 GE fl, 159
DE WA ARUGA ttt bbrtt, 158 GORO F, 159
de wa ikenai tltt'kltr!', 59 Goro c &, 159
: te wa ikenai goto ni i & (fr) l:, 62
de wa irarenai tlit ' b *rk u ', 59 GOTONI I L (fi) vc, 159
= te wa irarenai gurai (' b t,' (fi) , 67 : kurai
de wa komaru tttm 6, 59 GURAI, 160
= te wa komaru GURUMI (' 6 4, 160
DE WA NAI tltk!', 158
de wa naranai tlt tt.bh!', 59 hajimeru ffiu>b, 48
= te wa naranai hatasu *fuf, 48
de yaru ('{'6, 59 : te Yaru hateru *( 6, 48
desh6 tLr ), 61 =dard hazu trf (rS), 62
dokoro de wa nai t' : h t lt tr hazuga (wa)nai ltf (*) ,ifrl ', 62
L., 61 nai hazu ga (wa) nai, 4L
DOKORODE WA NAI E i b< hazumini ltf&tc, 62
Ith!', 158 hi ni wa E lclt, 62
dokoroka E c brt,, 61 ho )j, 62
DOKOROKA E. brt,, 158 hd ga ii (Yoi) f 1i\,'\,', 63
dokoro no hanashi de wa nai E nai hd ga ii, 41
ibD#Ltltlr!', 6t hodo t* E (&), ffi
= dokoro de wa nai HODO [* t'(&) ' 160 - gurai
dokoro no sawagrde wa nai l'c. hodo no koto wa nai tt U (E) O :
baW.5 r ll t !', 61 : dokoro t [t,ft ! ', 63
de wa nai hoka [wa] nai ftgttfru', 63
ddshi fr L, 47 hydshi ni *HTlc, 63
ka i., 63
kiru fla, 49
komu )[tJ, 49
KORO YR, 161 t
ka d6 ka i. &' 5 fi,, 64
ka d6 ka ni yotte i. &') i.t: I a
<, 64
KOSO iZ, 113
koto c &, 65
koto ga aru C L ri t>b, 66
t
ka mo shirenai ,.6 L}1&U., &
ka mo shirenu i'6 L*ry), il
KA NA i.lr, 101
Vta koto ga aru, 52
koto ga atta C &ii b-tfc, 66
Vta koto ga atta, 52 i
ka Vnsi ka z]. V hL.f., &
ka Vnai ka ni yotte i. V kL.i.?3
koto ga dekiru I. &rit*
6, 66
(H*)
i
f a(,64
ka shira [n] rt,L b, M
KA SHIRA [Nl fi,LF>, 161
KA TO BAKART IOMOU] r. ] tt'
koto ni naru C & lc ftb , 66
koto ni natte iru I, & lch'a (L'
6, 66
k o t on i s h i t e i r u : l 1 3 L ( 1 . 6 ,
t I
rtrD, 161
ka to omou to i. &,8 , L, il
66
koto ni suru c, & lcf 5, 66 il
kaesu ;Ef , 48
kagiri m D, &
kakeru rt,Wb,48
Vta koto ni suru, 52
kototoomou aLt,Er,66
koto wa Vs a & lf Vr, 66
I
kaneru 1ft1a6, 48
kankei jo
kara rt,b, U
Hmt, 64
ku
ku mo Adjru mo nai < d Adj
{5fu!., 84
I
kara koso fi,baZ, 65 ku mo nashi Adjm mo nai < 6
i
+
kara ni wa rt,b?c}t, 65 1s; Adi ( tlr!., 84
KARA SHITE fi,bL(, 161 o \i kudasai ld Vr T31., 49
kara to itte rtrb LH ->a,, 65 o Vz kudasaimase td Vr T 3 u' *
kard fsrb ), 84 {+, 49
(Interrog.w.) * kar6 ga rtrb ) rt',, kunai ( lt!,', U
84 : (Interrog.w.) + kar6 to
kata fi, 48
kurai (bu'(&),67
KURAI, 160 - gurai
l|
kattara rt, -ttc b , M
kawari ni f\ Dtc, 65
nai kawari ni, 4l
ke fi,u
KUSAI Ru', 161
kuse ni ( tllc, 67
kute ( (, 84
kute mo < ( 6, 85
i
KE fi, 161 kute sumu < (HtJ, 85
{
i
I
ll
ll
I Index-E;rpressions 257
r| made t t, 67
mademo nai t t { /tru., 67
madeni t Tl:, 67
nai dake de wa nai /rr.tjB(t)
TltlIL., 40
nai de l4L.T, 40
MADE NI * tlc, 161
ll mae ni Btt:., 67
nai de hoshii lrt.tfrLL.,
nai de kudasai kU.tTE U', 40
40
r| mitai }lc1., 68
MO ARO Nt t>bb 5rtc-,162
m o . . . m sou r u t . . . { i b , 4 9
nai mae ni lrt,.Ett: , 4l
nai ni yotte lr L.lC.I z (, 69
nai nara t U'tt t>, 4L
t mo shinai t L /gt,.,, 49
M O S O K O S O K O NdI t c t r K ,
L62
n a i s h i . . . n a ih L . L . . . / g L ' , 4 L
naito tL.2,4I
nai to wa kagiranai lr L' & ttFRb
t mo surebaVs mo suru 6 f }1i{
V2 tf 6, 49
t!., 41
nai uchi ni tL. ) +: (8) tc, 42
t mono d O, 49,68
monoda 6 OtC, 68
monode mo nan' de mo nai 6 ,)
nai wake de wa nai lc L'I2Wtlt
ft1., 42
nai wake ni [wa] ikanai /.c!',t2W
68 lCltt .f rl3! r, 42
I td{qlttk!",
monode
1., 69
wa (ja) nai t O t lt lr nai yd ni h!'I ) tl, 42
nakattara lti. ct:b, 42
r| monono $ o>o>, 69
mu tJ, 40 : n'
MUKI 6 g, 162
nakereba trkltttf , 42
nakerebaikenai tr Vl tL tl U' Vl tt
,L., 42
t
l---
258 Index-Expressions
t
ni shitemo lr L( 6, 7L b, 168
NI SHITEMO lcL(t, 166 NO KOTO TO IEBA D. e &E.
NI SHITE WA lcL-iclt, 166 i-lf, 169
tl, 49 saseru 3 tC 6, 44
O MOTO NI SHITE z&lltL(, sasete ageru $€<_EVf 6, 45
L70 sasete itadaku 3€(t,.lcff (F,
o MOTTE tD)<, L7A ffi)<, 45
o NEGATTE YAMANAI Xffio sasetekudasaru 3€<T3 6, 45
(e*k!., r70 s a s e t ek u r e r u 8 € < < t L b , 45
o V2 ni naru *. V, lcftE , 50 sasetemorau 3{t( t b (}t) r, 45
6 ni mo V )1c6, 83 saseteyaru 3{e (€6 , 45
( I n t e r r o g .w . ) * 6 t o V , L , 8 2 sashiteageru 3 L < t.Vf b, 45
:y6 to : sas€t€ageru
6 to kamawanai V , Lffiigrh1., sashiteitadaku 3 L(t.f:fi (F,
82: yd to kamawanai fr)<,45:SaS€t€itadaku
6 to kangaeru V , L4*-6, 83 sashitekudasaru 3 L(TB 6, 45
: yd to kangaeru : sas€t€kudasaru
6 to Vmaito V ) L V tU.&, 82 sashitekureru 3 L( < h6, 45
: y6 to Vp3; to : saS€tekureru
to omou V , LE,r, 83 s a s h i t em o r a u E L ( t b ( H ) r,
: yd to omou 45 : sas€to morau
6toVdtoV rL V rL,S2 sashiteyaru 3 L(S6 , 45
:yOtoVydto : saseteyaru
to suru V , Lt6, 83 sasu 3f, M:s?s€ru
: y6 to suru sei da €!'(f is) ff, 74
o TOSHITE 170 sei ka €!'(FX',S)f ., 74
oboega aru fi,*_rt\fr)b,
"j&L(, 52 serareru €btL6, 45
OKI NI h 3.t: , L70 seru €6 , 45
osorega aru A|,r,nib6, 73 seteageru t< LW 6, 45
otosu i&i, 50 sete itadaku € ( !,, t ti (F, R)
owaru t&a, 50
-F
sete kudasaru €( 3 6, 46
-PPOI a ll'L', l7L (
setekureru {f < tL6, 46
sete morau €( d b (lt) r, 46
rareru btL6, 43 seteyaru t(t6 , 46
rashii bL!., 73 shi L, 74
RASHII f>L L., I7T sbidai WX!, 50
reru tL6, 43 SHIDAI Wffi, L7L
sbite ageru L< -LVf6, 45
sa 3, 74,85,86 : sete ageru
sae sureba 3 i.fhl{, 50 shite itadaku L ( r.tii (H, A)
sai H, 74
saicho ni ftfl:, 74 shite kudasaru L (T 3 6, 46
sareru 3*t6, 43 : sefsr€fu = s€te kudasaru
sasareru 3 8lrb, M shitekureru t(<tLb,46
: Sasefareftl : set€ kureru
saserareru 3€ b tL6, U shite morau L( 6 b(H) ,, 46
r
t
r| : setemorau
Index-Expressions
ta ue de tc 5 *-(-L,)-e, 53
261
I shiteyaru L(S6,46
= seteyaru
sd da Z , ti, 50,74,85, 86
tabi ni /:U (H) lc, 74
tagaru tii6,
tai lcU', 53
53
t sokonauffitr), 51
su t, 45 : s€ru
sugi mo [sezu] Adjstem sugi mo
tameshi ga nai FtJrt\fg!', 52
tara f; b, 53
(Interrog.w.)* tara ii [no] ka
te
fku., l7L
'iC, 54
I
t
I
262
te made ( t t, 57
Index-Expressions
I
t:Vl (t) t. lf , T6
te mieru < n*_b, 57
te miru <46, 57
TO IU NO WA & F 5 o>I1' LZz
TO IU yo NA Le ) J. ) tr, 172
t
temo (6,57 toiuy6ni
(Interrog.w.) + te mo ( 6, 57
te mo ii < t L.L', 57
&1.,)J-jl:,76
to iwan bakari L\,.,*)/wtt'i. D, Z6
TO KA IU Lfi,E 5 , LTz
I
te mo kamawanai (Sffi*2k1.,
57
te mo Vnakutemo ( { V /r ( (
to ka iu (kiku) Lrt,E ), T6
to [wa] kagiranai & PEb 1U', 77
nai to wa kagiranai, 41
t
d, 58
te morai tai ( 6 b (p) u'/cL', 58
nai de morai tai, 40
TO tWA] KAGIRANAI &PRbIr
1., LTz I
to kiku & m < , Z6
te morau ( t b (H) , , 58
te naranai -iCtr b hL., 58
to mieru L n*_6, Z6
TO MIERU L H*-6 , t7z
t
te nokeru <DVl6, 58
teoku (*"'(,58
te ori rC*o', , 58
to mo & 6, T6
tomonaku &6tr(, IT
: to mo nashi ni
I
tesaevba (3zvtf,58
te shimau (Lt
te shiy6 (sho) ga
r, 58
nai (L"t, (ft
tomonashini &6frLlc., ?T
To NATTE &/r -:a,, LTg
to no koro da tasZ &tj, ?T
I
fiF)rilrt,.,
te wa ( lt, 59
58
te wa ikenai (llr.,l'|131., 59
to shita tokoro de L L l; & a b
f, Zz
I
TO SHITA TOKORO DE t Lt:
te wa irarenai { lt t ' f fu/g! r, 59
te wa komaru ( ttE 6, 59
L a bt, 166
to shitara L l.ttb, Tz
I
te wa naranai (lttr blrL', 59
te yaru (f 6, 59
TEKI fi!, L7L
to shite & LrC, ZT
TO SHITE & L( , L73
to shite mo L L( 6 , 77
I
to L, 75
TO BAKARI OMOU & tL. D ,B
,, L72
TO SHITE MO L t-( d , L73
TO SHITE NO LLA,o>, L73
TO SHITE WA t.t-(tt, tTg
t
TO CHIGATTE eB c(, L72
TO IEBA &F*-tt', L72
to sureba &fhl{,
to suru to ttb
77
L, 77
I
to ieba ieru eE'*_tfa*_6, 75 To ToMo NI <tc, t73
to iu LH , , 75,82
TO IU LE , , L72
TO WA & tt, L73
to wa ie & ttE *-, 77
I
t o i u d a k en o k o t o d e w a t U ' )
tilt (t) o c, & tlt , 76
: to iu koto dake de wa
to wa itte mo lltEo(6,
to wa nashi ni & rt/r L tc, 77
toki [ni] ffi, 77
77'
I
to iu banashida &r'(E') rFf;ff, 75
TO IU HODO NO L t. ) 1,1U (&)
o, 172
tokoro [da] Lab, 78
Vta tokoro [da], 52
tokoro de L a b<, 52
I
to iu koto da &U', g &tj, 75
to iu koto dake de wa &t', i' &
tokoro ga L.-brt\, 52
tokoro no LCbl), 78
t
t
I
t
t
t Index-Expressions
%3
I tdri ffi D, 78
totanni Lt:A, (lbffi) tc, ZB
TOTEMO&<{, r73
82
yd ga Vmai ga
82
I , ,i V * L,ii,
T tsuide ni ?!.t
tsukusuK<?, 79
tsumori[da] =t (ffi) D, T8
(F) lc, Zg y6 sa V yd ga J, ni V J j rtt,82
yd na I , (ffr)h, 80
ydni .t ,K,80
T V13tsumori [da], 53
tsutsu 22, 59
tsuzukeru ffifl6, Sg
nai y6 ni, 42
ydniiu J)l:65,80
ydnimo J)}:6,83
l Uchi ni J bl=, Z8
yd ni naru f , lcfr6, g1
y6 ni suru I ) l=t za, 81
WA MOCHIRONttrJ#", Llg
yd to kangaeru .t , & t*-6,
: yd to omou
y d t o V m a ti o I , L V t U . & , g 2
gg
t wa shimai lt L t 1., Sg
wa shinai lt L l4l, ., Sg
WATOMOKAKUlr & (tr) t r. <
y d t o . . . y 6t o J , L . . . . f , L , g z
yori I ,, 81
YORI HOKA [Nr, WA] NAr J D
t (A), r73
WATONIKAKU6, & (E) t: i. (
(fr),r74
{tLk! ., L74
yori hoka [ni, wa] nai J D
1., g1
ffltr
k wake da *2vfft, 79
wake de wa nai b4l (lt 15! ,, Zg
nai wake de wa nai, 42
yori hoka [ni] te ga [wa] nai t
Dtfr,+rttfr ! ., 81
YORIMO xD6,t74
wake ni [wa] ikanai *2ff]CL,i.lr yori shikata ga nai J, Dtrfr ift
*
Lr, 79 1., g1
nai wake ni [wa] ikanai, 42 yoshi da H ff, 81
$ wari ni $Jlc, Ig yotei da ?Etj, 81
r gitaigo, 202-207
particles, 93-147
transitive and intransitive verbs,
tadoshi and jidashi, 22-24
"to wearr' Lg-20
Colors, 87, lil
Colloquial expressions,230-31
r
directional verbs as auxiliaries, ZT nouns, 154
-28 verbs, see expressionswhich follow
causative verb te-f.ormplus a direc- second base of the verbs, 4T-60
-ba, conditional of
adjectives,84, 88-89; copulas, 15 ;
Conjunctions, 208
functions of, 208
between adjectives, 210; copular
nouns, 2L0; clauses, 210-11;
I verbs, 6-12, 81
Bases,six
nouns, 210
particles used as, ZLA-LZ
r| Verbs
Causativeverb forms, see Verbs
Changeof situation
particle to use, af, L22
list of, 153
Copulas,da (desu),see da
Counters,235-41
I Characteristics of
copularnouns, 152; Japanesesen-
Da, copula
conjugations of, 15-16; functions
t
2ffi Index-Grammar
loz
[kotchi, sotchi, atchi I lv, pora (no dell"because," -- t r
sochira,
[-tai, tagaru, 53, 707 ) ,,to
I
rchiraltSZ
r
]hochira, I
lkore, sote, are l \hoshii, hoshigaru,rcTI want',
I '-
Index-Grammar
I
l"-
268 Index-Grammar
+
9-10 i Yte iru, 56 16, 69, 3L-32
Itadahu, directional verb, 26, Zg Naraba, see nAra,
Nasaru, see Verb, irregular
Ia - de uta, 15-16, 231
Japanese sentences, how to read, 24g
-52
Negative of
adjectives, see Adjective, conjuga-
+
+
tions; conditional, g5-36, 42
fodashi, see Auxiliary verbs copulas, see Copula conjugations
foshi, see Particles imperative
na, settence-ending particle, \LT ;
Kahho, see Parentheses, quotation
mark
Kanddsfu, see Interjections
Ynai de hudasai, 40
te-f.orm
nai de, 40; nahute, 42
t I
'l'rtll,t!'Y,29
Verbal adjectives, see Adjectives
. l ' r t tt t , r : o n d i t i o n a l v e r b e n d i n g , 5 3
Verbs
bases,six, functions of
I
'l'r,ki, rl(,tln suffi:c, L7L-72
-
: negative base, S I
ltltt, % reny1kei =r s€cond base
wlrlr interrogativeword, 57,14445
/h lr',1,3'l-35' 59
'ltctll$ild t)f
: continuative base, 5-6
r,
vr:
(rentct'^t'
't'itd base
t
Itn'itniit;i:
$rllrrt:tives,
' l ' d t lnt t l v o
90; verbs, 18-19
: fattributive base)
f .orr.lusive Uase|
t
rrrlytrrbsused with negative-tenta-
til'o exPressions,20L
n{vorbs used with tentative expres-
- dictionary form, 6
V. - kateikei : fourth base
- conditional base, 6
t
tlons, 200-201 % - meireihei : fifth base
I
t
I
I Index-Grammar
nl
: imperative base, 6 imperative form, see conjugations,
I %: suirydkei: sixth base
: tentative base, 6
7-13
three levels of, 226
categories of, 3-4
I causative,saseru, sasu, M
te-f.ormplus directional auxiliary
intransitive, j;ddshi, 2L_24
of directional restrictions, 29
passive, rareru, 43 ; reru, 4g_44
I verbs, 2B-Zg,45
causative-passive,saserareru., sasa_
reru.,M; serareru, sareru, 45
for honorific, 4y44, ZLz
perfective, see ta-fotm, 16-1g,b1_Sg
position in the sentence,v_vi
I as honorificform, Z!T-L}
characteristics,3
conditionalpatterns,miscellaneous,
potential, ll-44,197
consonant-stem,44
exceptions
i u-37
denial of obligation, 36
ihu: ihareru, ikeru, 44
hiku: hihoeru, kiheru, 44
obligation,85-36 miru: rnieru, mirareru, M
i permission,36-32
prohibition" 34-35
irregular
huru, 48; suru, 44
t suggestion,32
conditionals,29-32, gl4}
differencesin functions of
vowel-s3em,4i|
probability, 19, 61
progressive form, past and presenf