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z goal states in Z free , in least possible time t ∈ R , with Table 1: RRT Algorithm.
Algorithm 1.
minimum path cost. Ƭ = (V, E) ← RRT( z init )
1 Ƭ ← InitializeTree();
Problem 1 (Feasible Path Solution): Find a path 2 Ƭ ← InsertNode(Ø, z init , Ƭ);
σ f : [0, s ], if one exists in Z free ⊂ Z such that 3 for i=0 to i=N do
4 z rand ← Sample(i);
σ f (0) = zinit ⊂ Z free and σ f ( s ) ∈ z goal and report 5 z nearest ← Nearest(Ƭ, z rand );
failure if no such path exists. 6 (z new , U new ) ← Steer (z nearest , z rand );
7 if Obstaclefree(z new ) then
Problem 2 (Optimal Path Solution): Find an optimal path 8 Ƭ ← InsertNode(z min , z new , Ƭ);
9 return Ƭ
σ * f : [0, s ] which connects zinit and z goal in v, such
Z free ⊂ Z such that the cost of the path σ * f is minimum,
C (σ * f ) = {min σs C (σ f ) : σ f ∈ ∑ f }.
2.2 RRT
RRT constructs a tree using random sampling in search
space. The tree start from an initial state say zinit and
expands to find a path towards goal state say z goal . The Figure 1: Tree expansion process.
tree gradually expands as the iteration continue. During
Further detail of some major functions is described as the
each iteration, a random state say z rand is selected from
following:-
configuration space Z . If random sample zrand lies in
Sample: This function generates a random positon z rand
obstacle free region, then a nearest node say z nearest is
from search space in obstacle free region Z free .
searched in tree according to a defined metric ρ . If z rand
is accessible toz nearest according to predefined step size, Nearest: This function returns the nearest node from Ƭ = (V,
E) to z rand according to a cost function.
then tree is expanded by connecting z rand and z nearest .
Steer: This function provides a control input u [0, T] which
Otherwise, it returns a new node z new by using a steering drives the system from z(0)= z rand to z(T)= z nearest along
function, thus expands tree by connecting z new with the path z:[0,T] → Z giving z new at a distance Δq from
z nearest towards z rand where Δq is the incremental distance.
z nearest . A Boolean collision checking process is
performed to ensure collision free connection between tree CollisionCheck: This function is used to check collision
detection of a tree branch and returns true if it lies in
nodes z new and z nearest . When an initial path is found even obstacle free region, i.e., whether a path z:[0, T] lies in the
then the process continues until a predefined time period Z free for all t=0 to t=T.
expires or fixed number of iterations are executed. Node
expansion process is described in Figure 1. RRT algorithm Near: This function returns the nearby nodes in tree
is presented in Table 1. defined by (1).
InsertNode: This function adds a node z new to V in the tree
Ƭ = (V, E) to connect node z min as its parent.
22 IJCSNS International Journal of Computer Science and Network Security, VOL.16 No.10, October 2016
2.3 RRT*
∆d = ( x 2 − x1 ) 2 + ( y 2 − y1 ) 2 (3)
Figure 4: Convergence at iteration n = 4200 [10].
Figure 8: Path quality comparison of three algorithms with 8000 iterations in a sample run.
26 IJCSNS International Journal of Computer Science and Network Security, VOL.16 No.10, October 2016
RRT*-
Parameter RRT RRT*
Smart
Path Cost (m) 56 50 41
Run Time
150 621 210
(Sec)
Tree Density
(number of 2954 2972 2000
nodes in tree)
Completeness Probabilistic Probabilistic Probabilistic
Non- Asymptotic Asymptotic
Optimality
optimal Optimal Optimal
4. Conclusion
Cutting-edge research has evidenced that RRT and RRT*
based approaches are successful for high dimensional
complex problems. The analysis of these approaches have
shown that they confront issues of optimality and large
number of nodes in search space. They improve path
quality at the cost of computational efficiency. This
performance trade-off could lead to more difficulty while
dealing with high dimensions, high degrees of freedom and
non-holonomic constraints. We plan to grow search tree
more intelligently with improved computational efficiency
for high dimensional complex problem using wheeled
mobile robots. Future work in this direction is a thriving
Figure 9: Average Run Time and Path Cost Comparison with 8000 area of research.
iterations in 10 trial runs.
References
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analysis of executing all three algorithms on obstacle Planning for Autonomous Vehicle Maneuvers Using RRT*",
cluttered map are shown in Figure 9. The plots presented at the European Control Conference (ECC), 2015.
demonstrate that RRT*-Smart generates shorter path with [2] D. Alejo, J. A. Cobano, G. Heredia, J. R. Martínez-De Dios,
less path cost than RRT and RRT* for 10 different runs of and A. Ollero, "Efficient Trajectory Planning for WSN Data
8000 iterations. Second fact that is evident from the Collection with Multiple UAVs", in Cooperative Robots
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significantly less time than both other algorithms. Because Publishing, 2015, pp. 53-75.
[3] S. Karaman, M. Walter, A. Perez, E. Frazzoli, and S. Teller,
RRT* and RRT*-Smart offer near neighbor search and
"Anytime Motion Planning using the RRT*", presented at
rewiring operations, which increase execution time per
IJCSNS International Journal of Computer Science and Network Security, VOL.16 No.10, October 2016 27
the IEEE International Conference on Robotics and COMSATS Institute of Information Technology (CIIT), Lahore,
Automation (ICRA) 2011. Pakistan. He has established a laboratory for research in Vision,
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Biographies
Iram Noreen received BSCS from The
University of Lahore and MSCS from
Lahore College for Women University,
Lahore with distinction. Her research
interests are image processing, computer
graphics and robotics. Presently, she is
associated with COMSATS Institute of
Information Technology, Lahore as PhD
scholar in Department of Computer
Science.