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Electron Beam
Tungsten or
molybdenum
Nature & Origin of X-Rays – a Reminder
2.1. Physics of X-ray Sources
Char. X-Rays: Ex = h·ν = h·c/λ = ∆Ekin = Ekin(i) - Ekin(f)
K-lines
Char. X-rays
EK=RH·(Z-1)2 ·(1-1/4)
ionization λm
X-ray beam
The X-ray energy distribution is characterized by
Bremstrahlung and characteristic lines depending
on anode material and electron energy. The use
of filters originates a quasi-monochromatic x-rays beam.
M-edge
Image from
transmitted
x-rays
X-ray tube
painting
photo-plate
1000 carbon
cadmium
transmission
µ coefficient
0.8
100
lead
through wood
0.6 >50% reduced
10
0.4 Cadmium (0.1cm) transmission
wood (2cm)
1 0.2 canvas (0.2cm)
in heavy metal
Lead (0.1cm) paint content.
0.1 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 0 100 200 300 400 500 600
energy [keV]
energy [keV]
Details of the Face
Some pigments, including lead white and
lead-tin yellow, contain elements of high
atomic weight. These colors will absorb
X-rays, will locally block the blackening of
the film, and will appear as light areas in
the X-radiograph. Here, lead white was
locally applied in the under-modeling of
the Virgin's face, on the ridge of the nose,
on the upper lip, and in the eye sockets.
Other pigments and cracks absorbed the
X-rays to a lesser extent, and thus appear
dark on the X-radiograph.
Choice of Energy
Z=48 Cadmium
Z=51 Antimony
Z=79 Gold
Z=29 Copper
Co-Au,Cd,Sb
Analysis of past
damage & repair
I (d Pb ) = I 0 ⋅ e − µ Pb ⋅d Pb = I 0 ⋅ e −2.26 = 0104
. ⋅ I0
only 10% of the x − rays pass through the lead - paint layer!
I (d C ) = I 0 ⋅ e − µ C ⋅dC = I 0 ⋅ e −0.063 = 0.94 ⋅ I 0
94% of the x − rays pass through the canvas - oil paint layer!
Vermeer’s Woman with a String of Pearls
1660-1665
Covered wall-hanging
tile structure of the floor
details of the chair
Another Vermeer
The sculpture is extremely frontal, with most of its weight projecting forward. Such an
imbalance is anchored by a lead counterweight placed in the interior of the base. In the
x-radiograph, the lead anchor is visible as a white mass at the back of the base. Also
visible in the x-radiograph are iron armatures inside the sculpture. Seen as curling gray
forms, the armatures were used to hold internal core material in place during casting.
Get the right energy!
I Cu (d ) ( µ Pb − µ Cu )⋅d
=e
I Pb (d )
high energy x-rays are required to
penetrate massive metal material
before after
Ornate iron cross of unknown origin from around the mid-17th century.
Traces of gold on the surface indicate that the cross was once gilt. X-ray
radiography reveals original design and guided the restoration process.
Back to the value of paintings
Summary X-ray radiography
Radiography is a powerful tool with a wide range
of applications. Its usefulness is mainly based on
the differences in material densities which affects
the x-ray attenuation coefficients. This determines
the x-ray opacity for heavy metal or high density
material compared to low density material like paper.
The method gives only qualitative differences on
photo-screen, it is a tool for first investigation, a
detailed analysis requires more sophisticated studies.