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CHAPTER 10
CHAPTER OUTLINE
1. Discuss the fundamental characteristics of organizing and explain work specialization, chain
of command, span of management, and centralization versus decentralization.
Work specialization, sometimes called division of labor, is the degree to which organizational
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182 Chapter 10
tasks are subdivided into separate jobs. When work specialization is extensive, employees
specialize in a single task. Jobs tend to be small, but they can be performed efficiently.
The chain of command is an unbroken line of authority that links all employees in an
organization and shows who reports to whom.
Centralization and decentralization pertain to the hierarchical level at which decisions are made.
Centralization means that decision authority is located near the top of the organization. With
decentralization, decision authority is pushed downward to lower organization levels.
Functional structure is the grouping of positions into departments based on similar skills,
expertise, work activities, and resource use. A functional structure can be thought of as
departmentalization by organizational resources because each type of functional activity such as
accounting, human resources, engineering, and manufacturing, represent specific resources for
performing the organization's task. People and facilities representing a common organizational
resource are grouped together into a single department.
Divisional structure occurs when departments are grouped together based on similar
organizational outputs. In the divisional structure, divisions are created as self-contained units
for producing a single product. Each functional department resource needed to produce the
product is assigned to one division. In a functional structure, all engineers are grouped together
and work on all products whereas, in a divisional structure, separate engineering departments are
established within each division. Each department is smaller and focuses on a single product
line. Departments are duplicated across product lines.
3. Explain the matrix approach to structure and its application to both domestic and
international organizations.
The matrix structure uses functional and divisional structures simultaneously in the same part of
the organization. The matrix structure has dual lines of authority. The functional hierarchy of
authority runs vertically, and the divisional hierarchy of authority runs horizontally. The matrix
approach to structure provides a formal chain of command for both the functional and divisional
relationships. The matrix structure is typically used when the organization experiences
environmental pressure for both a strong functional departmentalization and a divisional
departmentalization. Global corporations often use the matrix structure. The problem for global
companies is to achieve simultaneous coordination of various products within each country or
region and for each product line. The two lines of authority typically are geographic and
product, and the matrix provides excellent simultaneous coordination. It is an organizational
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Designing Organization Structure 183
4. Describe the contemporary team and virtual network structures and why they are being
adopted by organizations.
The implementation of team concepts has been a widespread trend in departmentalization. The
vertical chain of command is a powerful means of control, but moving decisions through the
hierarchy takes much time and keeps responsibility at the top. The trend is to delegate authority,
push responsibility to the lowest possible levels, and create participative teams that engage the
commitment of workers. This approach enables organizations to be more flexible and responsive
in a competitive global environment. The dynamic network organization is another approach to
departmentalization. Using the network structure, the organization divides major functions into
separate companies that are brokered by a small headquarters organization. The network
approach is revolutionary because it is difficult to answer the question, “Where is the
organization?” This organizational approach is especially powerful for international operations.
5. Explain why organizations need coordination across departments and hierarchical levels,
and describe mechanisms for achieving coordination.
Structure depends on a variety of contingencies. The right structure is “designed to fit” the
contingency factors of strategy, environment, and technology. These three areas are changing for
organizations, creating a need for stronger horizontal coordination. Two strategies proposed by
Porter are differentiation and cost leadership; these strategies require different structural
approaches. The pure functional structure is appropriate for achieving internal efficiency goals.
The vertical functional structure uses task specialization and a chain of command. It does not
enable the organization to be flexible or innovative. Horizontal teams are appropriate when the
primary goal is innovation and flexibility. The firm can differentiate itself and respond quickly
to change. Other forms of structure represent intermediate steps on the firm’s path to efficiency
or innovation. The functional structure with cross-functional teams and project teams provides
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184 Chapter 10
greater coordination and flexibility than the pure functional structure. The divisional structure
promotes differentiation because each division can focus on specific products and customers.
Technology includes the knowledge, tools, techniques, and activities used to transform
organizational inputs into outputs. Joan Woodward described three types of manufacturing
technology.
a. Small-batch and unit production. Small-batch production firms produce goods in
batches of one or a few product products designed to customer specification. Examples
include custom clothing, special-order machine tools, space capsules, satellites, and
submarines.
b. Large-batch and mass production. Mass production technology is distinguished by
standardized production runs in which a large volume of products is produced and all
customers receive identical products. This technology makes greater use of machines
than does small-batch production. Examples include automobiles, tobacco products, and
textiles.
c. Continuous process production. In continuous process production, the entire workflow
is mechanized in a sophisticated and complex form of production technology. The
process runs continuously and therefore has no starting or stopping. Human operators are
not part of actual production because machinery does all the work. Examples include
chemical plants, distilleries, petroleum refineries, and nuclear power plants.
Service organizations include consulting companies, law firms, brokerage houses, airlines,
hotels, advertising companies, amusement parks, and educational organizations. Service
technology also characterizes departments such as legal, human resources, finance, and market
research in large corporations. Service technology involves:
intangible output—services are perishable and, unlike physical products, cannot be stored
in inventory; and
direct contact with customers—employees and customers interact directly to provide and
purchase the service. Production and consumption are simultaneous.
LECTURE OUTLINE
The fit between a new manager and the organization is often based on personal beliefs about the
role of leaders. Things work best when organization design matches a new manager’s beliefs
about his or her leadership role. This exercise helps students identify whether their leadership
beliefs are primarily position based or nonhierarchical.
It is important because it follows from strategy. Strategy defines what to do, and organizing
defines how to do it. The organizing process leads to the creation of organization structure,
which defines how tasks are divided, resources are deployed, and departments are
coordinated.
A. Work Specialization
2. Organizations are moving away from this principle because too much specialization
leads to employees being isolated and doing only a single boring job. Many
companies are enlarging jobs to provide greater challenges or assigning teams to tasks
so employees can rotate among the jobs performed by the team.
B. Chain of Command
1. The chain of command is an unbroken line of authority that links all persons in an
organization and shows who reports to whom. It is associated with two underlying
principles. Unity of command means that each employee is held accountable to only
one supervisor. The scalar principle refers to a clearly defined line of authority in the
organization that includes all employees.
b. Responsibility is the duty to perform the task or activity an employee has been
assigned. Managers are assigned the authority commensurate with responsibility.
Accountability is the mechanism through which authority and responsibility are
brought into alignment. Those with authority and responsibility are subject to
justifying task outcomes to those above them in the chain of command.
Expectations about authority for a new manager are often based on experiences with their first
authority figures and role models—Mom and Dad. To understand authority role models, students
think about each statement as it applies to the parent or parents who made primary decisions
about raising them. .Authoritarian expectations fit in a traditional vertical structure with fixed
rules and a clear hierarchy of authority. Flexible authority expectations typically would fit with
horizontal organizing, such as managing teams, projects, and reengineering.
Discussion Question #1: If you wanted to add a group of big data scientists to a large
organization such as PepsiCo, would you centralize the scientists in a central pool at
headquarters or decentralize them to separate divisions? Discuss your reasons.
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a. Line departments perform tasks that reflect the organization's primary goal and
mission. In a software company, line departments make and sell the product.
Line authority means that managers have formal authority to direct and control
immediate subordinates.
b. Staff departments include all those who provide specialized skills in support of
line departments. The finance department of software firm has staff authority.
Staff authority is narrower than line authority and includes the right to advise,
recommend, and counsel in the staff specialists' area of expertise.
3. The average span of control used in an organization determines whether the structure
is tall or flat. A tall structure has an overall narrow span of management and more
levels in the hierarchy. A flat structure has a wide span, is horizontally dispersed,
and has fewer hierarchical levels. The trend is toward wider spans of control as a way
to facilitate delegation.
a. Greater change and uncertainty in the environment are usually associated with
decentralization.
Discussion Question #8: Experts say that organizations are becoming increasingly
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188 Chapter 10
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Departmentalization is the basis for grouping individuals into departments and departments
into the total organization. Managers make choices about how to use the chain of command
to group people together to perform their work. Five approaches to structural design reflect
different uses of the chain of command in departmentalization.
1. What It Is
2. How It Works
a. The major departments under the president are groupings of similar expertise and
resources, such as accounting, human resources, production, and marketing. Each
of the functional departments is concerned with the organization as a whole. The
functional structure is a strong vertical design. Information flows up and down
the vertical hierarchy, and the chain of command converges at the top of the
organization.
Discussion Question #3: An organizational consultant was heard to say, “Some aspect of
functional structure appears in every organization.” Do you agree? Explain.
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B. Divisional Approach
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Designing Organization Structure 189
1. What It Is
a. The divisional structure occurs when departments are grouped together based on
organizational outputs. Diverse departments are brought together to produce a
single organizational output. The divisional structure is sometimes called a
product structure, program structure, or self-contained unit structure. Most large
corporations have separate divisions that perform different tasks, use different
technologies or serve different customers.
2. How It Works
Discussion Question #4: Some people argue that the matrix structure should be adopted only as
a last resort because the dual chains of command can create more problems than they solve.
Discuss. Do you agree or disagree? Why?
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1. What It Is
2. How It Works
a. The dual lines of authority make the matrix structure unique. The success of the
matrix structure depends on the abilities of people in key matrix roles.
Discussion Question #4: Some people argue that the matrix structure should be adopted only as
a last resort because the dual chains of command can create more problems than they solve.
Discuss. Do you agree or disagree? Why?
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D. Team Approach
1. What It Is
2. How It Works
goals.
Discussion Question #2: How does relational coordination differ from teams and task forces?
Do you think relational coordination seems more valuable for a service technology or a
manufacturing technology? Explain your answer.
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1. What It Is
b. Some organizations take this networking approach to the extreme to create a new
kind of structure. The virtual network structure disaggregates major functions
to separate companies that are brokered by a small headquarters organization.
Discussion Question #5: What is the virtual network approach to structure? Is the use of
authority and responsibility different compared with other forms of departmentalization?
Explain.
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1. Functional Approach
2. Divisional Approach
a. The organization is flexible and responsive to change because each unit is small
and tuned in to its environment. Concern for customer's needs is high and
coordination across functional departments is better because employees are
grouped and committed to a product.
b. Coordination across divisions is often poor. Duplication of resources and the high
cost of running separate divisions is a major disadvantage. The organization loses
efficiency and economies of scale, and there may be a lack of technical depth and
specialization.
3. Matrix Approach
b. Frustration and confusion arising from the dual chain of command can be a
significant problem, as can high conflict between the two sides of the matrix, and
time lost in meetings. Mangers spend a great deal of time coordinating meetings,
taking time away from core work activities.
4. Team Approach
b. Disadvantages include dual loyalties and conflict, time and resources spent on
meetings, and too much decentralization. Team members can often lose sight of
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Designing Organization Structure 193
Discussion Question #10: Would you expect the structure of a company such as Facebook that
operates almost entirely online to differ from the structure of a bricks-and-mortar company such
as AT&T that uses the Internet for some things, such as customer service and business-to-
business transactions? Why or why not?
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1. As organizations grow and evolve, new positions and departments are added, and
senior managers have to find a way to tie all of these departments together.
Coordination refers to the task of collaborating across departments. It is required
whether there is a functional, divisional, or team structure.
2. Coordination problems are amplified in the global arena because units differ not only
by goals and work activities but by distance, time, culture, and language.
Coordination is the outcome of information and cooperation. Managers can design
systems and structures to promote horizontal coordination and collaboration.
C. Relational Coordination
Discussion Question #6: The Hay Group published a report that some managers have
personalities suited to horizontal relationships such as project management that achieve results
with little formal authority. Other managers are more suited to operating roles with much
formal authority in a vertical structure. What type of structure—functional, matrix, team, or
virtual network—do you believe your personality would best fit? Which structure would be the
most challenging for you? Give your reasons.
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2. The pure functional structure is appropriate for achieving internal efficiency goals,
but it does not enable the organization to be flexible or innovative. A horizontal team
structure is appropriate when the primary goal is innovation and flexibility. The firm
can differentiate itself and respond quickly to change.
3. Other forms of structure represent intermediate steps on the firm’s path to efficiency
or innovation. The functional structure with cross-functional teams and project teams
provides greater coordination and flexibility than the pure functional structure. The
divisional structure promotes differentiation because each division can focus on
specific products and customers.
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Designing Organization Structure 195
Technology includes the knowledge, tools, techniques, and activities used to transform
organizational inputs into outputs.
Discussion Question #9: The chapter suggested that structure should be designed to fit strategy.
Some theorists argue that strategy should be designed to fit the organization’s structure. With
which theory do you agree? Explain.
NOTES________________________________________________________________________
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2. Service Technology
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196 Chapter 10
Discussion Question #7: Describe the primary differences between manufacturing and service
technology. How do these differences influence the type of structure that will be most effective?
NOTES_______________________________________________________________________
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1. If you wanted to add a group of big data scientists to a large organization such as PepsiCo,
would you centralize the scientists in a central pool at headquarters or decentralize them to
separate divisions? Discuss your reasons.
I would decentralize the big data scientists to separate divisions. With decentralization,
decision authority is pushed down the chain of command to lower organization levels. The
trend is toward decentralization, which would use the big data scientists’ skills, relieves top
managers, allows the scientists to make decisions, and permits rapid response. Factors that
influence centralization versus decentralization include:
Greater change and uncertainty in the environment are usually associated with
decentralization.
The amount of centralization or decentralization should fit the firm’s strategy.
2, How does relational coordination differ from teams and task forces? Do you think relational
coordination seems more valuable for a service technology or a manufacturing technology?
Explain your answer.
Teams, which are the most widespread trend in departmentalization, consist of the vertical chain
of command as the powerful means of control; however, passing all decisions up the hierarchy
takes too long and keeps responsibility at the top. A task force is a temporary team or committee
designed to solve a problem involving several departments. Task force members represent their
departments and share information that enables coordination. Companies also set up cross-
functional teams for coordination which work with continuing rather than temporary problems
that might exist for several years.
As an organization grows and evolves, new positions and departments are added to meet the
changing needs, and it grows more complex performing incredibly diverse activities. This leads
to a need for coordination among these departments.
Relational coordination, which is the highest level of horizontal coordination, seems more
valuable for a service technology than for a manufacturing technology. Service technology
characterizes departments such as legal, human resources, finance, and market research in large
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Designing Organization Structure 197
3. An organizational consultant was heard to say, “Some aspect of functional structure appears in
every organization.” Do you agree? Explain.
The consultant is probably correct. In all organizations, people who do similar jobs are grouped
together in functional departments. For example, functional departments exist in a divisional
structure, although they are smaller than if the organization had a functional structure. The
hybrid structure and the matrix structure also take advantage of functional departments. Thus, at
the lowest levels in all organizations, there are functional groupings. These functional
departments, however, may be grouped together into a divisional, matrix, hybrid, or functional
structure for the organization as a whole.
4. Some people argue that the matrix structure should be adopted only as a last resort
because the dual chains of command can create more problems than they solve. Discuss. Do you
agree or disagree? Why?
Many experts would agree that the matrix structure should be adopted only after other structures
have been tried. If the organization is in a functional structure and that doesn’t work, and then
reorganizes into a divisional structure and that doesn’t work either, a matrix structure may be
appropriate. The matrix structure requires extensive training to help people understand the dual
hierarchies, and it may take one or two years to complete the implementation. Often, after the
matrix structure has been implemented, it evolves back into either a functional or divisional
structure if one side of the matrix becomes more powerful than the other. Dual chains of
command create more problems than they solve if the matrix structure is not suited to the
situation. The situation must demand equality along the two lines of authority, the sharing of
functional resources across divisions, and a rapid response to a changing environment. Recent
thinking on organization structure suggests that the matrix is appropriate in only a few situations.
Most organizations can get by with other forms, such as a functional structure with lateral
relationships, to meet the needs for coordination.
5. What is the virtual network approach to structure? Is the use of authority and
responsibility different compared with other forms of departmentalization? Explain.
In the virtual network approach, the organization becomes a small central broker, electronically
connected to other organizations that perform vital functions. Each department is an independent
contracting service to the broker for a profit and can be located anywhere. The central broker, or
headquarters, has only contractual arrangements with the departments and, therefore, very little
authority. Total responsibility for the component of the product or service is given to each
department, and each has complete authority over its own operation. The major difference is that
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198 Chapter 10
the headquarters has very little control over the departments and cannot exercise authority over
them very well.
6. The Hay Group published a report that some managers have personalities suited to
horizontal relationships such as project management that achieve results with little formal
authority. Other managers are more suited to operating roles with much formal authority in a
vertical structure. What type of structure—functional, matrix, team, or virtual network—do you
believe your personality would best fit? Which structure would be the most challenging for you?
Give your reasons.
Students should demonstrate a clear understanding of the structures they select, and how those
structures work, as they explain why they would feel more comfortable or more challenged
operating within those structures. Students who seek more formal authority should be more
comfortable with a functional or matrix structure and more challenged by a team or virtual
network structure. Students who seek more flexibility and autonomy should be more
comfortable with a team or virtual network structure and more challenged by a functional or
matrix structure.
7. Describe the primary differences between manufacturing and service technology. How do
these differences influence the type of structure that will be most effective?
Service organizations include consulting companies, law firms, brokerage houses, airlines,
hotels, advertising companies, amusement parks, and educational organizations. Service
technology also characterizes departments such as legal, human resources, finance, and market
research in large corporations. Service technology involves:
Intangible output—services are perishable and, unlike physical products, cannot be stored in
inventory; and
Direct contact with customers—employees and customers interact directly to provide and
purchase the service. Production and consumption are simultaneous.
One distinct feature of service technology that directly influences structure is the need for
employees to be close to customers.
8. Experts say that organizations are becoming increasingly decentralized, with authority,
decision-making responsibility, and accountability being pushed farther down into the
organization. How will this trend affect what will be asked of you as a new manager?
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Designing Organization Structure 199
The trend toward increased decentralization, with authority, decision-making responsibility, and
accountability being pushed farther down into the organization will require new managers to
have good delegating skills and very strong interpersonal skills. They must be able to work
effectively in a flexible environment in which they rely on subordinates to make a wide variety
of important decisions. New managers in such an environment must be able to work through
cooperation and influence rather than by telling others what to do.
9. The chapter suggested that structure should be designed to fit strategy. Some theorists argue
that strategy should be designed to fit the organization’s structure. With which theory do you
agree? Explain.
If the company is an already existing company, the argument for adapting strategy to structure is
stronger simply because the structure may be very difficult to change. It does not make much
sense for a local, bricks-and-mortar “mom and pop” store to have a multidomestic strategy; a
small company like that will not have the resources to pursue such a strategy. If the company is
new, the argument for adapting structure to strategy is stronger. The major point to understand is
that structure and strategy must be compatible, regardless of which comes first.
10. Would you expect the structure of a company such as Facebook that operates almost
entirely online to differ from the structure of a bricks-and-mortar company such as AT&T that
uses the Internet for some things, such as customer service and business-to-business
transactions? Why or why not?
Both companies are service organizations, but because AT&T provides Internet, television, and
telephone services to its customers, all of which require installation and/or repair work, it must
operate a “field” service component to meet these requirements. Facebook doesn’t need a field
operation. AT&T also operates bricks-and-mortar stores across the country to sell their services
and mobile phone products. The field service and stores components of AT&T’s structure not
only require the inclusion of entirely different categories of employees from Facebook, but also
involve the operation and maintenance of equipment and vehicles, which Facebook also does
not require. As a result, the structures of the two companies will be quite different.
Students interview an employee at their university, such as a department head or secretary. The
employee will answer questions about his or her job and organizational conditions. Students will
then answer the same set of questions for a job that they have held.
A score of 52 or above suggests that a student or the other respondent is working in an organic
organization. The score reflects a loose, flexible structure that is often associated with uncertain
environments and small-batch or service technology. People working in this structure feel
empowered. Many organizations today are moving in the direction of flexible structures and
empowerment
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200 Chapter 10
A score of 26 or below suggests a mechanistic structure. This structure uses traditional control
and functional specialization, which often occurs in a certain environment, a stable organization,
and routine or mass-production technology. People in this structure may feel controlled and
constrained. Students can discuss the pros and cons of organic versus mechanistic structure.
Family Business
In this exercise, students assume the role of consultant to a family business and rank the priority
of departmental functions in order of importance for assigning additional resources to improve
business in the future. Students rank functions individually first, then discuss their individual
rankings in groups and develop a group ranking. Finally, they analyze what they learned about
organizational structure and design from the exercise.
A Matter of Delegation
1. Prepare a memo to Golopolus, summarizing the new safety guidelines that affect the
Rockingham product line and requesting his authorization for implementation.
This course of action would probably have no effect. Golopolus is already aware of the
guidelines and hasn’t done anything about them yet.
2. Mind your own business. Golopolus hasn’t said anything about the new guidelines and you
don’t want to overstep your authority. You’ve been unemployed and need this job.
Tom Harrington is in a tough position. He feels loyalty to his boss, but he is also concerned
about product safety as well as the company’s reputation. This option would clearly be
unethical. Harrington is aware of the safety guidelines, which have been devised to ensure
the safety of children, so he cannot just “look the other way.”
3. Send copies of the reports anonymously to the operations manager, who is Golopolus’s boss.
The operations manager is ultimately responsible for whether Rockingham’s toys meet
federal guidelines and he or she needs to be aware of what those guidelines are. By sending
the reports to the operations manager anonymously, Harrington does not have to criticize his
boss or accuse him of wrong-doing; but he is making sure that higher-level managers are
aware of the new safety standards. Tom is right that he does not have the authority to
monitor the federal regulations, but the operations manager does have that authority.
1. Based on the information available in the case, sketch a picture of the original structure
within an Abraham’s store and the store managers’ relationship with district specialist
managers. What type of structure is this? Explain.
The original structure within the store was a functional structure which can be represented as
below:
PRESIDENT
Functional structure is the grouping of positions into departments based on similar skills,
expertise, work activities, and resource use. The major departments under the president are
groupings of similar expertise and resources, such as the meat, grocery, and produce
departments. Each of the functional departments is concerned with the organization as a
whole. This functional structure is a strong vertical design. Information flows up and down
the vertical hierarchy, and the chain of command converges at the top of the organization. It
does not enable the organization to be flexible or innovative and reflects barriers across the
departments.
2. Based on the information available in the case, sketch a picture of the consultant’s
recommended structure within the store and the relationship of store department managers
with district specialist managers. What type of structure is this? Explain.
The consultant’s recommended structure within the store is a divisional structure. Divisional
structure occurs when departments are grouped together based on similar organizational
outputs. In the divisional structure, divisions are created as self-contained units for producing
a single product. The new divisional structure recommended by the consultant within the
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202 Chapter 10
store and the relationship of store department managers with district specialist managers are
represented as below:
PRESIDENT
Store Manager
District Meat District Produce
Specialist Specialist
3. What are some of the advantages and disadvantages you see for the two types of structures?
Which structure do you think will work best for Abraham’s? Why?
Divisional structure will work best for Abraham’s as it will ensure more coordination across
the departments and also be more flexible and responsive to change.
1. What are some of Seth Goldman’s responsibilities as “TeaEO” of Honest Tea? Provide at
least three detailed examples.
Seth is in charge of sourcing the tea, managing the production of the tea, overseeing the
bottling of the tea, and managing the distribution of the tea.
2. How does Goldman’s experience as the founder of the company influence his ability to
delegate?
As the entrepreneur who started the company and developed it according to his vision, Seth
would have difficulty delegating tasks. He tried to solve the bottling of Honest Tea by
owning and managing the bottling company. This took him away from his mission of
developing low-sugar, healthy drinks. Ultimately, he sold the company and delegated the
bottling of his products to someone else. As the company has grown, Seth has realized that
delegating decision making to lower-level managers and employees can be
highly motivating and improve speed, flexibility, and creativity.
Small batch production companies to include Honest Teas have a structure than is organic,
low centralization, high verbal (horizontal) communication and low written (vertical)
communication as outlined in Exhibit 10. 14.
1. Which of the five approaches to structural design is used at Modern Shed, and how are the
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,
except foruse as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.
204 Chapter 10
Modern Shed uses the virtual network approach to departmentalization. The Seattle shed
builder has a core hub of just 12 to 14 employees (mostly designers and managers). These top
managers outsource most aspects of business operations to outside specialists. As discussed in
the video, Modern Shed’s marketing and sales activities are outsourced to independent
marketing consultants. The company’s manufacturing process involves close collaboration with
dozens of outside vendors who specialize in the creation and delivery of components used in
the sheds—everything from paneling and electric to hardware and transport. The contractors
coordinate through monthly conference calls, and they come together to build projects and
product lines planned by Modern Shed’s Seattle office.
2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of Modern Shed’s organizational structure?
The advantages of operating as a virtual network include fast response to market needs; access
to marketing, manufacturing, and sales personnel, without the overhead costs; and the capacity
to serve a rapidly changing niche market. Disadvantages of a virtual network include lack of
control over outside supply chain partners, high demands on managers in the company’s core
hub, and tenuous loyalty from independent contractors.
3. How did Ryan Smith determine whether his company needed a mechanistic structure with a
formal vertical hierarchy or an organic one involving free-flowing partnerships?
2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
,
except foruse as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.