An Chem Lecture-Min

HSC CHEMISTRY
HEAD START LECTURE
Presented by:
ALICIA TAN
What’s happening today!!
• Production of Materials
– Quick summary
• The Acidic Environment

– More detail
PRODUCTION OF MATERIALS
Ethene/Ethylene
• Source: Cracking
– Thermal cracking – 700-1000oC steam
– Catalytic cracking – zeolite catalyst (!"#$%& ), 500oC
,-.+/0-
'() *&& + '& *1 2 + '4 *(4 +
Ethene/Ethylene
• Very reactive – why?
– Highly reactive double bond
Ethene/Ethylene
• Polymerisation
– INITIATION
78
5−%−%−5 25 − % :
– PROPAGATION
5 − % : + '& *1 → 5 − % − '*& '*& :
– TERMINATION
• Has many possibilities, usually involves radicals reacting
with each other
Ethene/Ethylene
• Polyethene
– LDPE
– HDPE
Biomass
• Cellulose
– Made of carbon chains
– Renewable!!! (7×10(( tonnes produced per year)
Biomass
Cellulose
Glucose Acid Hydrolysis
Polyethene
Fermentation Ethanol Polymerisation

Ethene
Dehydration
2.2
Production of Ethanol (Cellulose à Glucose)

• Sugar cane ground up to extract cellulose (Biomass)
– Renewable
• Cellulose undergoes acid hydrolysis
– Time consuming and expensive
2.3
Production of Ethanol (Glucose à Ethanol)

• Fermentation
– Nutrients (Glucose) in aqueous form
– Anaerobic environment (low oxygen)
– Yeast
– Warm temperatures (about 370C)
– pH neutral water
– Limitation: Ethanol concentration <15%
D-BE0
'A *(& %A BC 2'& *F %* BC + 2'%& 2
2.3
Production of Ethanol (‘Ethanol’ à Ethanol)

• Currently 15% concentration
• Fractional distillation à ~95% concentration
2.3
Production of Ethanol Summary

Cellulose Glucose Ethanol Ethene
Cellulose Glucose Ethanol Fractional Ethylene
Distillation
•Up to 10,000 •Expensive, •Requires •Allows for the •Requires

glucose units long time fermentation in extraction of dehydration,
•50% of dry plant consuming the following pure Ethanol. and is the
matter process condition: •Can be done basis for many
•7∗ 10(( tones per •Requires use •pH neutral water repeatedly to Polymers
year of hydrolysis •Yeast achieve very •Concentrated
or enzymes •Low oxygen high purity Sulfuric Acid is
used as a
•Nutrient (eg. catalyst, as it
Glucose) is a
•Alcohol dehydrating
concentration agent.
<14%
•Warm
temperature
(about 30oC)
2.3
Oxidation-Reduction reactions
Oxidation
&L
HIE → HI(BC) + 2M N
0 +2
INCREASE in oxidation number
Reduction
&L
HI(BC) + 2M N → HIE
+2 0
DECREASE in oxidation number
2.4
Galvanic Cells
AN OX RED CAT
Anode Oxidises Cathode Reduces
2.4
Nuclear Chemistry
• Unstable isotopes:
– Neutron to proton ratio is too high
• Beta negative decay (fast electron)
– Neutron to proton ratio is too low
• Beta positive decay (fast positron)
– Too many nucleons
• Alpha decay (Helium atom)
2.5
Nuclear Chemistry: Production

Accelerates charged particles
Eg. Protons, Electrons
Cyclotron Smashes into elements
Creates new element
Smashes billions
of Neutrons into
Nuclear Reactor elements
Creates new
elements
2.5
THE ACIDIC ENVIRONMENT
OVERVIEW
• Indicators
• Acidic oxides, Le Chatelier’s Principle
• Types of acids, pH
• Titrations
• Esterification
Substance pH Acidic, Basic or

Neutral
Bleach
Rain
Egg whites
Blood
Water
Vinegar

Neutral
Bleach 12.5 Basic
Rain
Egg whites
Blood
Water
Vinegar

Neutral
Bleach 12.5 Basic
Rain 6 Acidic
Egg whites
Blood
Water
Vinegar

Neutral
Bleach 12.5 Basic
Rain 6 Acidic
Egg whites 8.5 Basic
Blood
Water
Vinegar

Neutral
Bleach 12.5 Basic
Rain 6 Acidic
Blood 7.35 Neutral
Water
Vinegar

Neutral
Bleach 12.5 Basic
Rain 6 Acidic
Blood 7.35 Neutral
Water 7 Neutral
Vinegar

Neutral
Bleach 12.5 Basic
Rain 6 Acidic
Blood 7.35 Neutral
Water 7 Neutral
Vinegar 3 Acidic
Indicators
Indicator pH range Acidic range Basic range

colour colour
Methyl orange 3.1 - 4.4 Red Yellow
Bromothymol 6.0 - 7.6 Yellow Blue
blue
Litmus 5.5 - 8.0 Red Blue
Phenolphthalein 8.3 - 10.0 Colourless Pink
Indicators – Uses
• Water
– Universal indicator
– pH range suitable for human and marine life
– Easy to resolve issues when discovered quickly
• Soil
– Dissolved in water, Barium sulfate sprinkled
– Universal indicator
– Effects crop growth
Oxides
OPQ(R)
Oxides
OPQ(R)
Oxides
OPQ R + ST P(U) → ST OPV WX

OPQ(R)
Oxides
OPQ R + ST P(U) → ST OPV WX

- !"& %Y + 6*'" → 2!"'"Y + 3*& %
- !"& %Y + 2\I%* → 2\I!"%& + *& %
Le Chatelier’s Principle
] ⇌ _
“When a system at equilibrium is

introduced to a change, the
equilibrium will shift to minimise
that change”
Le Chatelier’s Principle - Concentration

• Only applies to aqueous and gaseous substances
Increase concentration of products causes shift to the left
Increase concentration of reactants causes shift to the right
'%& 2 + *& % + ⇋ *& '%Y BC

Addition of '%& 2 will result in ___________________
Addition of *& '%Y BC will result in ________________
“When a system at equilibrium is introduced

to a change, the equilibrium will shift to
minimise that change”
Le Chatelier’s Principle - Concentration

• Only applies to aqueous and gaseous substances
Increase concentration of products causes shift to the left
Increase concentration of reactants causes shift to the right
'%& 2 + *& % + ⇋ *& '%Y BC

Addition of '%& 2 will result in shift to the right
Addition of *& '%Y BC will result in shift to the left

Le Chatelier’s Principle - Temperature
Endothermic: Consumes energy during forward reaction (+H)

Exothermic: Releases energy during forward reaction (-H)
When there is an increase in temperature:

Endothermic reactions will ____________________
Exothermic reactions will ____________________

When there is an increase in temperature:

Endothermic reactions will shift to the right (products)
Exothermic reactions will shift to the left (reactants)

'%& 2 + *& % + ⇋ *& '%Y BC (Δ* < 0)

Increase in temperature will result in shift to the left
Decrease in temperature will result in shift to the right
'%& 2 + *& % + ⇋ *& '%Y BC + ℎMId (Δ* < 0)
Increase in temperature will result in shift to the left

Decrease in temperature will result in shift to the right
Le Chatelier’s Principle - Pressure

Increase in pressure causes a shift to the side with fewer
moles of gas.
Decrease in pressure causes a shift to the side with more
moles of gas.
'%& 2 + *& % + ⇋ *& '%Y BC

Increase in pressure causes a shift to the _______________
Decrease in pressure causes a shift to the _______________
Le Chatelier’s Principle - Pressure

Increase in pressure causes a shift to the side with fewer
moles of gas.
Decrease in pressure causes a shift to the side with more
moles of gas.
1 mole 0 moles
'%& 2 + *& % + ⇋ *& '%Y BC
Increase in pressure causes a shift to the right
Decrease in pressure causes a shift to the left
Le Chatelier’s Principle – catalysts?

• Catalysts will NOT effect the position of equilibrium
• Speeds up the forward and reverse reaction to the same
extent

Poisonous oxides
Sulfur Dioxide: volcanoes, combustion of fossil fuels with
sulfur impurities, smelting of metal sulfides
# E + %& 2 → #%& 2
2ef# E + 3%& 2 → 2ef% E + 2#%& 2
Nitrous Oxides: Lightning, internal combustion engines

%& 2 + \& 2 → 2\% 2
2\% 2 + %& 2 → 2\%& 2
Both are serious respiratory irritants L L

Acid Rain
Sulfuric Acid Rain:
#%& 2 + *& % + → *& #%Y BC
#%Y 2 + *& % + → *& #%1 BC
Nitrous Acid Rain: 2\%& 2 + *& % + → *\%Y BC + *\%& BC
Effects:
• Erosion of limestone and marble structures
'I'%Y E + *& #%1 BC → 'I#%1 BC + '%& 2 + *& % +
• Increases acidity of soil, killing crops
• Acidifies waterways, killing marine life
Q: Evaluate reasons for concern about the release of sulfur

dioxide into the environment
• Opening statement/source of oxides: The Industrial revolution

saw an increase in fossil fuel consumption, leading to an increase in the
amount of oxides of nitrogen being released into the atmosphere
(# E + %& 2 → #%& 2 )
• Reasons for concern:
– Respiratory irritant
– Causes acid rain – many adverse effects on society and the
environment
• Judgement: It can be seen that oxides cause significant damage to
the environment as well as presenting health concerns. Therefore, the
release of SO2 is concerning
Evidence for increases in sulfur and nitrogen oxides

1. Increase in acid rain
– Qualitative data – less reliable
– Acid rain can come about as a result of other sources (eg. CO2)
2. Direct measurement devices

+ Quantitative data – reliable
– Only available since the 60s-70s – not a long period of time
3. Ice core drilling in Antarctica – air bubbles in ice show high

levels of oxides on newer layers compared to older layers
+ Quantitative data – reliable
+ Allows comparison over long period of time
– Gases trapped in ice may diffuse in an out of gas bubbles – not
accurate
Q: Assess the evidence which indicates increases in the

atmospheric concentration of oxides of nitrogen
• Opening statement/source of oxides: The Industrial revolution

saw an increase in fossil fuel consumption, leading to an increase in the
amount of oxides of nitrogen being released into the atmosphere
(%& 2 + \& 2 → 2\% 2 , 2\% 2 + %& 2 → 2\%& 2 )
• Assess two pieces of evidence eg.
– Increase in acid rain
– Direct measurement devices
• Judgement: Evidence indicates increase in NO2 concentrations as
suggested by… However, there are disadvantages of the evidence
obtained, so research must be continued into analysing the
concentration of these oxides in the atmosphere
Definition of acids
Lavoisier- Contained oxygen

Davy- Noticed that HCl didn’t contain oxygen. Contained
replaceable Hydrogen atoms.
Arrhenius- Acids release hydrogen ions and bases release
hydroxide ions in water
Brøndsted-Lowry- Acids are proton donors, Bases are proton
acceptors.
Hydrogen ion = Proton

Brøndsted-Lowry
Acids are proton donors
HCl(aq) + H2O(l) à Cl-(aq) + H3O+(l)
Bases are proton acceptors
NH3(aq) + H2O(l) à NH+4(aq) + OH-(l)

Brøndsted-Lowry
Acids are proton donors
*L
HCl(aq) + H2O(l) à Cl-(aq) + H3O+(l)
Bases are proton acceptors

*L
NH3(aq) + H2O(l) à NH+4(aq) + OH-(l)

• Acetic acid CH3COOH

– Monoprotic
• Sulfuric acid H2SO4

– Diprotic
• Citric acid (2- hydroxypropane-1,2,3- tricarboxylic acid)

– Triprotic
Acid terminology
Strong: An acid that completely ionises in water
• HCl, HNO3, H2SO4
Weak: An acid that does not completely ionise in water
• CH3COOH (acetic), citric acid
Concentrated: An acid that is concentrated has a high number
of moles of acid per volume
Dilute: An acid that is dilute has a low number of moles of acid
per volume
NOTE: STRONG ≠ CONCENTRATED !!

Acid terminology
Strong: An acid that completely ionises in water
• Eg. *'" → * L + '" N
Weak: An acid that does not completely ionise in water
• Eg. '*Y '%%* ⇋ * L + '*Y '%%N
Concentrated: An acid that is concentrated has a high number
of moles of acid per volume
Dilute: An acid that is dilute has a low number of moles of acid
per volume
NOTE: STRONG ≠ CONCENTRATED !!

Calculations
li"Mm
hifhMfdjId$if =
ni"olM
Calculations
li"Mm
hifhMfdjId$if =
ni"olM
lImm
li"Mm =
li"Ij lImm
Calculations
li"Mm
hifhMfdjId$if =
ni"olM
lImm
li"Mm =
li"Ij lImm
pS = − UqRrs [SL ]
pH calculations
1.2 grams of hydrochloric acid are dissolved into 500mL of
water. What is the concentration of the solution?
pH calculations
l 1.2
f= = = 0.0329 … li"Mm
ll 1.008 + 35.45
pH calculations
l 1.2
f= = = 0.0329 … li"Mm
ll 1.008 + 35.45
f 0.0329 …
'= = = 0.0658 … li"/~
| 0.500
pH calculations
l 1.2
f= = = 0.0329 … li"Mm
ll 1.008 + 35.45
f 0.0329 …
'= = = 0.0658 … li"/~
| 0.500
*'" $m I mdjif, lifiÄjid$h Ih$Å
'ÇBÉÑ = ' Ñ Ö
pH calculations
water. What is the pH of the solution?
l 1.2
f= = = 0.0329 … li"Mm
ll 1.008 + 35.45
f 0.0329 …
'= = = 0.0658 … li"/~
| 0.500
*'" $m I mdjif, lifiÄjid$h Ih$Å
'ÇBÉÑ = ' Ñ Ö
Ä* = − log() *L = − log() 0.0.658 … = 1.182
Calculations
2.6 grams of Sodium hydroxide are dissolved into 250mL of
water. What is thepHof the solution? The molar mass of
Sodium hydroxide is 39.997
pH calculations 2
water. What is the concentration of the solution? The molar
mass of Sodium hydroxide is 39.997
l 2.6
f= = = 0.065 … li"Mm
ll 39.997
pH calculations 2
water. What is the pH of the solution? The molar mass of
Sodium hydroxide is 39.997
l 2.6
f= = = 0.065 … li"Mm
ll 39.997
f 0.065
'= = = 0.26 … li"/~
| 0.250
pH calculations 2
water. What is the pH of this solution?
'ÇBÉÑ = 0.26 … li"/~
Calculations
'ÇBÉÑ = 0.26 li"/~
\I%* BC $m I mdjif, lifiÄjid$h âImM
'ÇBÉÑ = ' ÉÑ ä
Calculations
'ÇBÉÑ = 0.26 li"/~
Ä* = − log() * L = − log() 0.26 = 0.585
Calculations
'ÇBÉÑ = 0.26 li"/~
Ä* = − log() * L = − log() 0.26 = 0.585
ãiMm dℎ$m mMMl j$ℎd?

Calculations
'ÇBÉÑ = 0.26 li"/~
Ä* = − log() * L = − log() 0.26 = 0.585

çP!
Calculations
'ÇBÉÑ = 0.26 li"/~
Ä%* = − log() %* N = − log() 0.26 = 0.585

pS + pPS = rV
çP!
Ä* = − log() * L = 14 − (− log() [%* N ]) = 14 − 0.585 = 13.4
Titrations
• Used to discover the concentration of an unknown solution
• Requires a solution of a known concentration, called a
‘standard’
• Requires a knowledge of the two solutions, so as to use an
appropriate indicator
• Reaction is an acid-base neutralisation
*'" + \I%* → \I'" + *& %
Titrations
Titration- Standard solution

• Substance used should:
– Be a water-soluble solid (generally powder).
– Be very pure
– Have a known chemical formula
– Be hydrophobic- this means it does not absorb water present in the
atmosphere, which would make its mass change over time.
– Stable; ie. Does not react in air.
• Suitable standards
– Acids: oxalic acid dehydrate (H2C2O4.2H2O)
– Bases: anhydrous Na2CO3 or NaHCO3
Titration- Indicator
Eg. Identify the appropriate indicator to use for a titration
between a) HCl and NaOH. b) HCl and NH3. c) NaOH and Citric
acid.
acid.
HCl and NaOH are both strong acids/bases. Therefore

the ‘neutralization point’ is approximately 7.
A good indicator to use is Bromothymol Blue.
acid.
HCl is a strong acid. Ammonia is a weak base.

Therefore the ‘neutralization point’ is going to be
between 4-5.
A good indicator to use is Methyl Orange.
acid.
Citric acid is a weak acid. NaOH is a strong base.

Therefore the ‘neutralization point’ is going to be
between 9-10.
A good indicator to use is phenolphthalein.
Titration- Experiment
Titration- Calculation
Eg. A standard solution of NaOH (1.1 moles/L) is titrated
against a solution of HCl with unknown concentration. On
average, 25mL of standard solution requires 27.8mL of titre.
What is the concentration of the HCl solution?
1. Write out the relevant chemical equation
\I%*(BC) + *'"(BC) → \I'" BC + *& % +
\I%*(BC) + *'"(BC) → \I'" BC + *& % +
1 1 1 1
\I%*(BC) + *'"(BC) → \I'" BC + *& % +
1 1 1 1
2. Calculate the number of moles of standard solution
\I%*(BC) + *'"(BC) → \I'" BC + *& % +
1 1 1 1
f = h ∗ | = 1.1 ∗ 0.025 = 0.0275 li"Mm
\I%*(BC) + *'"(BC) → \I'" BC + *& % +
1 1 1 1
f = h ∗ | = 1.1 ∗ 0.025 = 0.0275 li"Mm
3. Calculate the number of moles of unknown solution

\I%*(BC) + *'"(BC) → \I'" BC + *& % +
1 1 1 1
f = h ∗ | = 1.1 ∗ 0.025 = 0.0275 li"Mm

!m jId$i $m 1: 1, dℎMjM IjM 0.0275 li"Mm iê *'"
\I%*(BC) + *'"(BC) → \I'" BC + *& % +
1 1 1 1
f = h ∗ | = 1.1 ∗ 0.025 = 0.0275 li"Mm

4. Calculate the concentration of unknown solution

\I%*(BC) + *'"(BC) → \I'" BC + *& % +
1 1 1 1
f = h ∗ | = 1.1 ∗ 0.025 = 0.0275 li"Mm

4. Calculate the concentration of unknown solution

0.0275
'= = 0.99 li"Mm/~
Buffers
• A buffer minimises changes in pH when subjected to a
small amount of acid/base
– Is a solution which contains similar amounts of a weak acid and its
conjugate base in equilibrium
• The carbonic acid-hydrogen carbonate buffer (*& '%Y /

*'%YN buffer) is found in freshwater lakes/rivers and blood
*& '%Y + *& % ⇋ *Y %L + *'%YN
Buffers
*& '%Y + *& % ⇋ *Y %L + *'%YN
• If acid is added, [*Y %L ] increases. By LCP, the equilibrium shifts left
and reduces [*Y %L ]. Since there is a left shift, initial decrease in pH is
reduced
• If base is added, *Y %L decreases as H3O+ reacts with OH, removing it
from the system. By LCP, shifts right and increases *Y %L . Since there
is a right shift, initial increase in pH is reduced
• Since this system is able to minimise both sudden increases and
decreases in pH, it acts as a buffer system
Buffers
*& '%Y + *& % ⇋ *Y %L + *'%YN
• Essential in rivers/lakes to maintain the pH as aquatic life

cannot survive outside of optimal pH (6.5-7.5)
• Essential in blood to keep pH in an optimum range for
cellular formation and metabolism (7.35-7.45)
Esterification- Components
Alkanols: Contain Hydroxyl groups (-OH) and can be described

by the formula
CnH2n+1OH
Alkanoic acids: Contain carboxylic acid groups (-COOH) and

can be described by the formula
CnH2n-1OOH or Cn-1H2n-1COOH
Esterification
• Reaction between an alkanol and an alkanoic acid to
produce an alkyl alkanoate (ester) and water
• Slow, endothermic reaction that does not go to completion
í.ìí. Ñî ïÉñ
I"ëIfi$h Ih$Å + I"ëIfi" MmdMj + óIdMj
5( − '%%* + 5& − %* ⇋ 5( − '%% − 5& + *& %
Esterification- Nomenclature
Number of C Name of Number of C Name of
atoms corresponding atoms corresponding
Alkanol Alkanoic acid
1 Methanoic acid
1 Methanol
(or Formic acid)
2 Ethanol 2 Ethanoic acid (or

Acetic acid)
3 Propanol 3 Propanoic acid
4 Butanol 4 Butanoic acid

Esterification- Nomenclature
Alkanol Alkanoic Acid Corresponding

ester
Methanol Hexanoic acid Methyl
Hexanoate
Ethanol Propanoic acid Ethyl Propanoate
Hexanol Octanoic acid Hexyl Octanoate
Butanol Propanoic acid Butyl Propanoate
• Esterification- Nomenclature
2 1
2 1
2 1 2
3
2 1 2
3
Esterification
THAT’S IT!!!
THANK YOU FOR COMING J

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HSC CHEMISTRY

HEAD START LECTURE

• The Acidic Environment

Fermentation Ethanol Polymerisation

Production of Ethanol (Cellulose à Glucose)

Production of Ethanol (Glucose à Ethanol)

Production of Ethanol (‘Ethanol’ à Ethanol)

Production of Ethanol Summary

•Up to 10,000 •Expensive, •Requires •Allows for the •Requires

INCREASE in oxidation number

DECREASE in oxidation number

Nuclear Chemistry: Production

Substance pH Acidic, Basic or

Substance pH Acidic, Basic or

Substance pH Acidic, Basic or

Substance pH Acidic, Basic or

Substance pH Acidic, Basic or

Substance pH Acidic, Basic or

Substance pH Acidic, Basic or

Indicator pH range Acidic range Basic range

OPQ R + ST P(U) → ST OPV WX

OPQ R + ST P(U) → ST OPV WX

“When a system at equilibrium is

Le Chatelier’s Principle - Concentration

'%& 2 + *& % + ⇋ *& '%Y BC

“When a system at equilibrium is introduced

Le Chatelier’s Principle - Concentration

'%& 2 + *& % + ⇋ *& '%Y BC

“When a system at equilibrium is introduced

Le Chatelier’s Principle - Temperature

Endothermic: Consumes energy during forward reaction (+H)

When there is an increase in temperature:

Le Chatelier’s Principle - Temperature

Endothermic: Consumes energy during forward reaction (+H)

When there is an increase in temperature:

Le Chatelier’s Principle - Temperature

Endothermic: Consumes energy during forward reaction (+H)

'%& 2 + *& % + ⇋ *& '%Y BC (Δ* < 0)

Le Chatelier’s Principle - Temperature

'%& 2 + *& % + ⇋ *& '%Y BC + ℎMId (Δ* < 0)

Increase in temperature will result in shift to the left

Le Chatelier’s Principle - Pressure

'%& 2 + *& % + ⇋ *& '%Y BC

Le Chatelier’s Principle - Pressure

Le Chatelier’s Principle – catalysts?

“When a system at equilibrium is introduced

Nitrous Oxides: Lightning, internal combustion engines

Both are serious respiratory irritants L L

Q: Evaluate reasons for concern about the release of sulfur

• Opening statement/source of oxides: The Industrial revolution

Evidence for increases in sulfur and nitrogen oxides

2. Direct measurement devices

3. Ice core drilling in Antarctica – air bubbles in ice show high

Q: Assess the evidence which indicates increases in the

• Opening statement/source of oxides: The Industrial revolution

Lavoisier- Contained oxygen

Hydrogen ion = Proton

HCl(aq) + H2O(l) à Cl-(aq) + H3O+(l)

Bases are proton acceptors

NH3(aq) + H2O(l) à NH+4(aq) + OH-(l)

HCl(aq) + H2O(l) à Cl-(aq) + H3O+(l)

Bases are proton acceptors

NH3(aq) + H2O(l) à NH+4(aq) + OH-(l)

'%& 2 + & % + ⇋ & '%Y BC

'%& 2 + & % + ⇋ & '%Y BC

'%& 2 + & % + ⇋ & '%Y BC (Δ* < 0)

'%& 2 + & % + ⇋ & '%Y BC + ℎMId (Δ* < 0)

'%& 2 + & % + ⇋ & '%Y BC

ãiMm dℎ$m mMMl j$ℎd?

ãiMm dℎ$m mMMl j$ℎd?

ãiMm dℎ$m mMMl j$ℎd?