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313/761-4700 800/521-0600 NARRATIVE IN RHETORICAL ARGUMENT
by
Christine Murphy Silk
DISSERTATION
Submitted to the
College of Humanities and Social Sciences
Camegie Mellon University
in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy in Rhetoric
November 1995
Copyright © 1995 by Christine Murphy Silk UMI Number: 9622442
UMI Microform 3622442
Copyright 1996, by UMI Company. All rights reserved.
‘This microform edition is protected against unauthorized
copying under Title 17, United States Code.
UMI
300 North Zeeb Road
‘Ann Arbor, MI 48103 Carnegie Mellon University
COLLEGE OF HUMANITIES & SOCIAL SCIENCES
DISSERTATION
‘Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
For the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN RHETORIC
Title__NARRATIVE IN RHETORICAL ARGUMENT
Presented by —_ CHRISTINE MURPHY STLK
Accepted by the Department of ___ENGLISH
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Approved by the Committee on Graduate Degrees
‘Dean Date’ To my mother, Dolores Murphy.
Her tenacity is the original inspiration for my having traveled this far.
Thanks, Mom, for refusing to be a quitter in your children’s eyes. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Many people have provided invaluable assistance throughout
the writing of this dissertation. First and foremost, I owe particular
thanks to my dissertation committee. I thank Richard Young, who
got me started on this path. His sagacity and guidance have been of
incalculable value to my scholarly growth. I thank Preston Covey
for his instruction, inspiration, and guidance on rhetorical and non-
thetorical matters, and most of all, for his friendship. I thank David
Kaufer for his support, lively comments, and sophisticated insights.
In addition, I thank Richard Enos for his help on earlier drafts of
this dissertation.
Towe a particular debt of gratitude to the following people and
institutions, whose assistance has made all the difference: John R.
Hayes, Jill Hatch, Martha Harty, Kate Maloy, Judge John F. Fader II
and his staff (especially Ashley How), Randy Mackubin, Paul
Sandler, James Lintott and May Liang, Mark Svec, Russ Halpern,
Jerome Goldberg, the Institute for Humane Studies, and the Claude
R. Lambe Foundation.
A special thank-you goes to my husband, Roger, for his patient
proofreading, particularly in the more technical passages. His
unfailing support, advice, and most of all his love, have made this
project less daunting.
ii Christine Murphy Silk
Dissertation Title: “Narrative in Rhetorical Argument"
Dissertation Advisor: Richard Young
ABSTRACT
Scholars from a variety of disciplines have recently taken an
interest in narrative, regarding it as a rich source for understanding
how humans gather and communicate knowledge. Traditionally,
narrative has been viewed primarily, if not exclusively, as a poetic
genre. Stories are assumed to be the domain of poets, fiction writers,
and literary critics. However, as this dissertation shows, narrative is
not exclusively a poetic device. It is also a rhetorical device that has
had an important presence in rhetorical argument since antiquity.
This dissertation examines selected treatises of rhetoric from
the classical era (Plato, Aristotle, Cicero, and Quintilian), and the
cighteenth-century (George Campbell and Richard Whately) to
determine how these rhetoricians regarded the roles of narrative in
thetorical argument. In addition, writings on jury trial argument
and firsthand observations of bench trial argument are analyzed to
determine how narrative functions in contemporary forensic
rhetoric. Two significant findings emerge from this study. First,
narratives—which include both fictional and non-fictional
accounts—have had important functions in rhetorical argument
throughout history. Among other things, they have functioned as
autonomous arguments, as evidence in support of larger
arguments, and as vehicles for conveying emotional appeals and
appeals based on ethos. Second, the functions of narrative in
thetorical argument can be accounted for in terms of three factors:
(1) the epistemological assumptions of the larger rhetorical system
in which the narrative is utilized, (2) the aims of the rhetor, and
8) the specific portion of the argument in which the narrative
appears. Furthermore, in forensic rhetoric, the range of functions a
narrative may have in a given trial argument seems to depend on
the audience trying the case; that is, whether the audience is a jury
or a judge.
This dissertation is significant because it fills a void in our
knowledge concerning the relationship between rhetoric and
narrative. Knowing how narrative functions in rhetorical
argument can broaden our perspective on the communicative
utility of storytelling, and it can increase our understanding of how
thetorical arguments are constructed and transmitted. TABLE OF CONTENTS
Dedication
Acknowledgments
Abstract
Chapter 1: Overview
Approaches to Narrative: Poetics and Rhetoric
Definitions, Scope, and Structure
Chapter 2: Narrative in Classical Rhetorical Argument
Plato
Aristotle
Cicero and Quintilian
Chapter 3: Narrative in Eighteenth-Century Rhetorical Argument
George Campbell
Richard Whately
Chapter 4: Narrative in Modern Forensic Argument
Narrative in Jury Trials
Narrative in Bench Trials
Chapter 5: Narrative and Rhetoric: Directions for Future Inquiry
ii
iit
32
58
80
104
126
w41
187
217
224,
275 Appendix
Table 1: Classical Rhetoric in Its Most Developed State
Through the Time of Quintilian
Table 2: Narrative in Plato’s Gorgias and Phaedrus
Table 3: Narrative in Aristotle's Theory of Rhetoric
Table 4: Narrative in the Rhetorical Theories of
Cicero and Quintilian
Table 5: Narrative in Campbell's Theory of Rhetoric
Table 6: Narrative in Whately’s Theory of Rhetoric
Table 7: Comparison of the Functions of Narrative in
Jury Trial Argument and Bench Trial Argument
Bibliography
313
314
315
316
317
318
319
320
321
vi CHAPTER 1
OVERVIEW
‘Communication begins by constructing narrative.
—Northrop Frye
The Archetypes of Literature
The recent interest in narrative among scholars in rhetoric and
speech communications has had a significant impact on
contemporary theories of human communication. John Louis
Lucaites and Celeste Michelle Condit cite “the growing belief that
narrative represents a universal medium of human
consciousness.”! Underlying this belief is the assumption that
narrative is, in Hayden White's terms, a “metacode, a human
universal,” and that man is, in Alasdair MacIntyre's terms,
“essentially a story-telling animal.”2 The interest in narrative is
1 John Louis Lucaites and Celeste Michelle Condit, "Re-constructing Narrative Theory:
‘A Functional Perspective,” Journal of Communication 35 (Autumn 1965): 90
? Hayden White, “The Value of Narrativty in the Representation of Reality,” Critical
Inquiry 7 (Autamn 1980):6; Alasdair Macintyre, After Virtue: A Study in Moral Theory (Notre
Dame: University of Notre Dame Press 1981), 201. evident in the disciplines of English, Rhetoric and Speech
‘Communications. Scholars in other disciplines such as
anthropology, political science, jurisprudence, medicine and
‘economics have also taken an interest in narrative?
Over the last few decades, rhetoric scholars have begun taking
a closer look at narrative because they believe that the compelling
power of storytelling may yield further insight into the efficacy of
informative and suasory discourse. Robert C. Rowland suggests that
3 For example in anthropology see: Edward M. Bruner, "Ethnography as Narrative” and
Renato Rosaldo “longot Hunting as Story and Experience” in The Anthropology of Experience,
2, Vicor W. Turner and Edward M. Bruner (Uzbana: University of Ilinos Press, 1986);
Catherine Kohler Riessman, Narrative Analysis (Newbury Park: Sage, 193); in political
science, se: Jefferson D. Bass, “The Appeal to Efcacy as Narrative Closure: Lyndon Johnson
and the Dominican Criss, 1965," Souther Speech Communication Journal 50 (1985): 108-120;
Maureen Whitebrook, ed, Reading Political Stories: Representations of Politics in Novels and
Pictures Savage: Rowman & Litlefield, 1993); n jurisprudence see: W. Lance Bennet,
“Storytelling in Criminal Trials: A Model of Social Judgment,” Quarterly Journal of Specch 64
(1978): 1-22; W. Lance Bennett and Martha Feldman, Reconstructing Reality in the Courtroom:
Justice and Judgment in American Culture (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Pres, 1961); in
medicine see: MJ. Hyde, "Storytelling and Public Moral Argument: The Case of Medicine
Argument and Social Practice: Proceedings ofthe Fourth Speech Communication
‘Assocition/American Forensic Assocation Confrence on Argumntation, ed. J. Robert Cox,
Malcolm O. Silas and G.B. Walker (Annendale: Speech Communication Assocation, 1985,
‘364-375; and in economics, see Donald N. McCloskey, If You're So Smart: The Narrative of
Economic Expertise, 24 ed. (University of Chicago Press, 1992). “narrative should be studied as one among many modes of
argumentative proof...and one among many rhetorical devices for
persuading an audience.Ӣ John L. Lucaites and Celeste M. Condit
argue that “a narrative voice pervades virtually every genre and
medium of human discourse,” and they call for the development of
a “critical praxis” that can “illuminate the full range of
communicative practices in which narrative participates.”5 Perhaps
the most radical position is that of Walter Fisher and his “narrative
paradigm.” Fisher believes that narrative can function as a
“metaparadigm” or a master metaphor that describes all discourse
and allows us to better understand and assess “whatever is taken as
an instance of knowledge.” The narrative paradigm, he argues, can
provide a “foundation upon which a complete theory of rhetoric
needs to be built” and thereby resolve some of the problems that he
believes plague the philosophy of rhetoric, such as the inability of
traditional argumentation theory to adequately resolve public
4 Robert C. Rowlané
Monographs 54 (September 1987): 274,
5 Lucaites and Condit, "Re-constructing Narrative Theory,” 90,106.
6 Walter R Fisher, “Narration, Knowledge, and the Possibility of Wisdorn,”in Rethinking
‘Knonledge: Reflections Across the Disciplines, ed. Robert F. Goodman and Walter R. Fisher
(Albany: State University of New York, 1995), 169.
“Narrative: Mode of Discourse or Paradigm?” Communication controversies that deal with issues of morality.” Fisher's narrative
paradigm will be discussed in greater detail later in this chapter.
The present inquiry may be viewed as a contribution to this
renewed interest in the communicative and suasory potential of
narrative. Specifically, this dissertation describes the functions of
narrative in classical rhetoric, in eighteenth-century psychological-
epistemological rhetoric, and in specific theories of rhetoric that
have begun to emerge in the modern era. Douglas Ehninger has
classified these time periods—classical, eighteenth-century, and
modern—as “rhetorical systems.” Ehninger defines a system both as
“an organized, consistent, coherent way of talking about
something” (as in a single treatise, such as Aristotle's Rhetoric),
and as “the rhetoric embodied collectively in the treatises of a given
place or period.”® Thus, Aristotle's Rhetoric, along with the
thetorical treatises of Plato, Cicero, and Quintilian, constitute a
system known as classical rhetoric. This latter sense of the word
7 Walter R. Fisher, Human Communication as Narration: Toward o Philosophy of Reason,
Value and Action (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1967), 194,
® Douglas Eninger,"On Systems of Rhetoric” in The Retori of Western Thought, ed
James L. Golden, Goodwin F. Berquist and William E, Coleman, 3rd edition (Dubuque
Kendall/Hunt, 1988), 25 “system,” with which Ehninger is most concerned, is the sense in
which the word is most frequently used in this dissertation.
APPROACHES TO NARRATIVE: POETICS AND RHETORIC
‘The approach taken in this dissertation is rooted in the field of
thetoric, not poetics. This is an important point to make, because
most narrative theorists—with the exception of a few scholars such
as Fisher, Lucaites, and Condit—approach the study of narrative
from a poetic standpoint. Most narrative scholarship comes out of
departments of literature, and narrative has traditionally been
viewed as a literary genre.
‘The impetus to explore narrative as something other than a
poetic device is comparatively new. This dissertation represents one
example of a small but growing trend in the field of rhetoric and
communications that questions the old assumption that narrative
is exclusively a device of poets, fiction writers, and literary critics. By
analyzing rhetorical treatises from ancient to modern times, this
dissertation will identify the presence of narrative in theories of
thetorical argument, and it will explicate the functions of narrative
in those theories. With a few notable exceptions which will be
discussed later, rhetoric scholars have generally ignored the
Presence of narrative in rhetorical argument, probably because, as Lucaites and Condit have pointed out, “dominant contemporary
theoretical explanations of narrative are drawn almost exclusively
from ‘poetic’ models of discourse” rather than rhetorical ones, and
narrative has been regarded as a poetic genre rather than a
thetorical genre?
To understand how this is so and what can be done about it, it
is necessary to briefly review the history of the relationship between
thetoric and poetics. Ever since Aristotle wrote the Rhetoric and
the Poetics, the two arts have been treated as separate disciplines,
each with dominion over its own discursive genres. Under poetics
one finds an array of literary genres, including poetry, drama, short
stories, and novels. Many kinds of poetic discourse have a narrative
structure; that is, they are essentially stories. Rhetoric has
traditionally included genres such as epideictic, deliberative and
forensic speeches that deal with matters of probability and opinion.
Rhetorical genres have not traditionally been recognized as having
narrative structure. Indeed, rhetorical arguments sought to imitate,
albeit imperfectly, the arguments one finds in formal logic, as
Aristotle's definition of an enthymeme as a “rhetorical syllogism”
9 Lncaites and Condit, Re onsrating NamativeTheory90 indicates.19 As Walter Ong points out, “[bJoth poetic and rhetoric are
distinct from the logic of the sciences in that their arguments do not
proceed with necessity,” but “rhetoric approximates the necessary in
a way that poetic does not." In short, the structure of poetic
discourse can and often does appear in the form of a narrative, and
it has been assumed that rhetorical arguments typically adopt a
logical structure devoid of narrative. This dissertation will show
that this latter assumption is invalid.
General distinctions between rhetoric and poetics have
remained relatively intact over the centuries. However, throughout
history there has been considerable debate over the exact boundaries
between the two arts. The criteria for distinguishing a “poetic”
discourse from a “rhetorical” one have been continually challenged
and reformulated. The latest version of this debate most familiar to
the modern scholar may be that between Wilbur Samuel Howell
and Kenneth Burke. Howell, who favors a close reading of
Aristotle's Poetics, argues that the distinction between the two arts
10 Aristotle, The Rhetoric and Poetics of Avistate, trans, W. Rhys Roberts and Ingram
Bywater (New York: Modern Library/Random House, 1954), 1356b.
11 Walter Ong, "The Province of Rhetoric and Poetic, in Essays on the Rhetoric ofthe
‘Western World, ed. Edward PJ. Corbett, James L. Golden and Goodwin F. Berquist (Dubuque,
1A: Kendall Hunt, 1990), 88. hinges on the concept of mimesis. Mimesis comes from Greek,
meaning “to copy” or “to imitate.” Thus, poetic discourse is
mimetic in that it is a “literature of symbol” in which an author
presents his audience with “an imagined reality, or a fiction, and
does so in such a way as to suggest connections of note between the
imagined reality and that actual reality within which the hearers or
readers dwell.”12 Rhetoric, in contrast, is a non-mimetic “literature
of statement” in which an author “makes statements about actual
realities, and his hearers or readers understand those realities in
terms which the statements are intended more or less to
illuminate.”!5 According to Howell, “the two literatures exist as.
hard realities in the world of letters, and...much ingenuity,
perceptiveness, and divergence have already been displayed in
working out the nature of the relation between them.” in his
view, there is no need to tamper with this long-standing, clear
distinction between the two arts.
lbur Samuel Howell, “The Twe-Party Line: A Reply to Kenneth Burke,” Quarterly
Journal of Speech 62 (Febreary 1976), 71-72.
%8 Howell, "The Two-Party Line,” 71-72.
4 Witbur Samuel Howell, Rhetoric and Poatics: A Plea forthe Recognition of the Two
Literatures," in The Classical Tradition: Literary and Historical Studies in Honor of Harry
Caplan, ed. Luitpotd Wallach (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 196), 380. Kenneth Burke's position on this subject is more elusive.
Burke's influential work, Counter-Statement, can be interpreted as
a treatise that calls into question distinctions between rhetoric and
poetics. Burke writes:
[T]he word [rhetoric], by the lexicographer's definition, refers
but to ‘the use of language in such a way as to produce a desired
impression upon the hearer or reader....In accordance with the
definition we have cited, effective literature could be nothing else
but rhetoric....15
Commenting upon his work in a later essay, Burke points out that
in Counter-Statement he was using the term “rhetoric” in two
different senses: “I was arguing for rhetoric as a literary style. And I
was working on some theories of form which I called rhetorical.
Unlike Howell, for whom only the poetic is symbolic, Burke sees all
communication, including rhetoric, as symbolic. One could infer, as
Howell has done, that Burke believes that “the poetical utterance
and the rhetorical utterance [are] specifically alike” and that “drama,
prose fiction, and the lyric and narrative poetry, as well as the
15 Kenneth Burke, Counter Statement, 3rd ed. Berkeley: University of California Press,
193,210,
16 Kenneth Burke, "The Party Line," Quarterly Journal of Speech 62 (February 1976), 63 various types of non-fiction, lie within the proper jurisdiction of
thetorical theory.”1” It is difficult to know with certainty whether
Howell's interpretation of Burke's position is accurate because
Burke does not explicitly address the distinctions between rhetoric
and poetics in Counter-Statement. However, when pressed about
the issue, Burke did make an explicit distinction between the two
arts. He wrote an essay in response to Howell's criticisms, and in it
he distinguished rhetoric and poetics according to what Michael Leff
has called the “functional approach.”18 The functional approach
characterizes rhetoric as “instrumental” in that it uses “symbolic
action to produce effects ‘beyond’ the act,” while poetics “deals with
the exercising of symbolic action in and for itself,” in the words of
Burke.!? Other noted scholars uphold similar functional
distinctions between rhetoric and poetics. Herbert A. Wichelns says
that poetics is concerned with expressing permanent, universal
values “which age cannot whither nor custom stale,” whereas
thetoric “is not concerned with permanence, nor yet with beauty”
but with communicating to a specific audience at a specific point in
17 Howell, “Rhetoric and Poetics,” 377, 375.
18 Michael C. Leff “In Search of Ariadne's Taread: A Review of Recent Literature on
[Rhetorical Theory,” Central States Speec Journal 29 (Summer 1978): 88
18 Burke, “The Party Line”
10 time Walter Ong writes: “The logic of poetic and of rhetoric
follows the ends to which each of these arts is directed—the former
to making a thing for contemplation, the latter to the production of
action in another.”21
Looking at narrative specifically, it has traditionally been
considered to be within the “poetic” domain, and it has been the
subject of study in departments of literature, who trace their roots
back to Aristotle's Poetics rather than to his Rhetoric. This point is
confirmed by Howell: “Aristotle's Poetics is a treatise on writings
ordinarily allocated to departments of literature in the modern
university.” Howell notes that epic poetry in the Aristotelian
sense includes a range of genres such as prose fiction, satire and
narrative poetry, among others.
A “poetic” or “literary” approach to narrative analysis
emphasizes the formal or structural features of the text, and it
attempts to account for the meanings and interpretations that
20 Herbert A. WicheIns, "The Literary Criticism of Oratory,” in Esays on the Rhetoric of
‘the Western Worl ed, Edwerd PJ. Corbet, James L. Golden and Goodwin F. Berquist
(Dubuque: Kendall Hunt, 1990), 76,
21 Ong, “The Province of Rhetoric and Poetic” 88,
72 Witbur Samuel Howell, Poetics Rhetoric and Logie Studies in the Basic Disciplines of
Criticism (theca: Cornell University Press, 1975), 5051
ul emerge from those features. Traditionally, the focus has been on
fictional texts, but in recent years the analysis has broadened to
include non-fictional narratives such as history and biography, as
well as genres such as newspaper reports, films, comic strips,
pantomime, dance, gossip, and psychoanalytic sessions 24
Nevertheless, the concern with the structural features of the text
has remained constant. Wallace Martin notes that this focus on
structural features is a historical phenomenon that evolved in
response to the need for scholars te establish some sort of criterion
for judging the legitimacy of emerging genres, such as the novel,
that sought a respectable place alongside other poetic genres such as.
epic poetry and drama.
‘The purposes and methods of critics of the novel after
World War Il were in large part determined by their desire to
demonstrate the importance of the genre [of the novell ata time
when claims about literary merit were based on form. So long as
discussions of the novel emphasized its subject matter and
23 Wallace Martin, Recent Theories of Narrative (Ithaca: Cornell University Press,
1986), 37,
24 Shlomith Aimmon-Kenan, Neratie Fiction: Contemporary Poetics (London: Meuthen,
1983), 1
12 content, disregarding the formal issues that were then important in
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