Adquisición de la Lengua Inglesa

I: THEORIES OF LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

0. Introduction

After the Second World War the USA emerged as a major international
power. As a result of this, being able to communicate in English became
more necessary and the teaching of English as a foreign language began to
receive increasing attention.

The theory that dominated linguistics during the 40’s and 50’s was
structuralism and so, the postulates of this theory were followed in the
elaboration of the first language teaching methods, the aural-oral approach
(Fries 1939) and particularly the Audiolingual method.

During the mid-fifties, the incorporation of the linguistic principles

of structuralism, added to a new and influential psychological theory
explaining how learning takes place (behaviourism) resulted in the
appearance of a well-defined and influential language teaching approach:
the Audiolingual paradigm. This approach for language teaching was more
or less the result of:

the earlier experience of the Aural-Oral Approach developed by Fries

the linguistic theory dominant at the time: Structuralism

the dominant theory of acquisition: behaviorist psychology

the principles of contrastive analysis between languages (which had

already started with Fries and the aural-aural approach)

All over the world, the audiolingual method became the prevailing
model for the teaching of foreign languages. Although the method became
less influential in the late sixties (as we shall discuss later), audiolingualism
and materials based on audiolingual principles continue to be widely used
even today, which is testimony to the remarkable diffusion and influence of
this approach.

As we have mentioned before, many of the principles of the

Audiolingual approach can be found in the behaviourist theory of learning.
In the following section we will examine the characteristics of this
psychological theory of language acquisition that was dominant during the
40’s and 50’s. We will study its main tenets and focus on the way it
explains both L1 and L2 acquisition. In addition, we will also focus on the

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prevailing linguistic theory at the time, structuralism, whose principles

combined with Behaviourist ideas to develop the Audiolingual paradigm.
Finally, we will study some of the main teaching principles and techniques
of the Audiolingual Method for the teaching of languages.

1.1 Behaviourism and first language acquisition

Behaviourist psychology claimed to have found the secrets of all human

learning, and language learning was not an exception. The main
assumption of behaviourism was that language learning, like any other
kind of learning, takes place through a process of habit formation.

For behaviourist authors (e.g. Thorndike, Skinner, etc.), for any kind
of learning to take place (i.e., for a habit to be formed), there must exist
three crucial elements:

-a stimulus, which serves to elicit behaviour1

-a response to that stimulus

-a reinforcement, which serves to mark the response as being

appropriate (or inappropriate) and encourages the repetition (or
suppression) of the response in the future. (see Skinner 1957).

A representation of this can be seen in this figure:

Positive Reinforcement (behaviour will

probably occur again & become a habit)
ORGANISM
Stimulus Response

Negative reinforcement (behaviour will

probably not occur again & will not become
a habit)

1 El estímulo busca motivar (elicit) algún tipo de respuesta o comportamiento en el receptor

del estímulo. En la comunicación, el receptor del estímulo es el oyente.

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The stimulus, which causes the response in a situation, may be internal,

for example, a state of hunger may act as the stimulus for a baby to cry, or
it may be verbal. If it is verbal, the process would be the following:

The child first imitates the sounds and patterns that he hears around him.
People recognize the child’s attempts at being similar to the adult models
and reinforce the sounds, by approval or some other desirable action. In
order to obtain more rewards the child repeats the sounds and patterns,
and so these actions become habits

TASK 1. Try to identify and describe a similar behaviourist learning process where the stimulus
is not verbal:

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Reinforcement is a crucial element in the learning process, because it

increases the probability that the behaviour will occur again and eventually
become a habit. For a correct habit to be formed, learners’ responses need to
be reinforced by rewarding targeted responses and correcting non-target-like
ones. In learning a foreign language, Reinforcement is the approval and
praise of the teacher (good, very good...!) or the self-satisfaction of target
language use, that is, the satisfaction of being able to communicate.
However, if reinforcement does not take place (as when a child says
something which is not understood by those around it) the linguistic
structure, i.e. the response provided, will not be learned. In sum, correct
pieces of language are acquired because the leaner obtains positive
reinforcement and, conversely, incorrect utterances are not acquired for the
opposite reason.

Only if a response is repeated consistently can it be fully learned. A

word that has been uttered thirty times is learned better than one that has
been said twenty times. The notion of “repetition” is therefore extremely
important: correct language learning (habit formation) will take place when
the learner makes active and repeated responses to stimuli (law of repetition).

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In contrast, mistakes were simply regarded as the result of imperfect

learning, that is, when the process of habit-formation has not yet been
completed.

TASK 2. According to the principles we have just studied, what is necessary for a child to acquire
his/her first language? Do all children receive this kind of consistent feedback (reinforcement
from their parents?

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Even though Behaviourism was originally proposed as a general

learning theory, in his book Verbal Behaviour (1957) Skinner applied
behaviourist principles to the learning of second languages. In this theory,
mastering a language mastery is represented as acquiring a set of
appropriate language stimulus-response chains. Since languages consist of
complex behaviours (i.e., complex rules and structures), it was believed that
learning would proceed most smoothly and rapidly if these complex
behaviours were broken down into their component parts and learnt bit by
bit2.

It should be noted that behaviourists postulate that language learning

is not a mental phenomenon: it is a behaviour. To put it differently,
behaviourism was based on the notion that language learning is not
concerned with problem solving, but with the formation and performance of
habits (Brooks 1960). As a consequence, behaviourist psychologist found no
need to talk about any complex internal capacity, belonging only to humans,
that allows us to learn a language. In fact, they claimed there is no difference

2 The idea that learning will proceed most smoothly and rapidly if complex

behaviours are broken down into their component parts is known as the principle of shaping.
In order to break down language into smaller structures when teaching an L2 the teacher (or
more precisely, the designer of the method) needed a clear and exhaustive description of the
different structures and substructures (systems of structures) contained in a language.
Such a description was provided by Structural grammar (see point 1.4), which was used in
the design of the ALM method.

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between the way a human being learns a language and the way other
animals learn to do anything else. Everything is learnt by a process of habit-
formation, in which the main components are: stimulus, response and
reinforcement.

1.2 Behaviourism and SLA: The concepts of transfer and interference.

It is a popular belief that second language acquisition (from now on, SLA) is
strongly influenced by the learner’s first language (L1). The clearest support
for this belief comes from "foreign" accents that appear in the second
language (L2) speech of learners. When a Spaniard speaks English, his
pronunciation seems to resemble Spanish pronunciation (he uses only 5
vocalic phonemes: /a, e, i, o, u/) The learners’ L1 also affects the other
language levels of their L2; i.e. vocabulary and grammar.

It is also a popular belief that the role of the L1 in SLA is a negative

one. That is, the L1 gets in the way or interferes with the learning of the L2,
in such a way that features of the L1, are transferred into the L2. Indeed,
the notion of interference (also called negative transfer) traces its origins
in the behaviourist learning theory.

As we saw above, before the 1960´s the field of first language

acquisition was dominated by behaviourist ideas. These emphasised
learning through a process of habit formation, which came as a result of
imitation, reinforcement and repetition of behaviour. Learners receive input
from speakers in their environment, and positive reinforcement for their
correct repetitions and imitations. As a result, with enough practice habits
are formed.

However, the second language learners already possess a set of

habits: those of their native language. According to the behaviourist
perspective these first language habits (i.e. structures) interfere with those
of the second language, and therefore new habits must be formed. For the
behaviourists, errors should therefore be seen as first language habits
interfering with the acquisition of second language habits.

Behaviourist theory describes interference as the result of what they

called proactive inhibition. This more or less means that previous
learning prevents or inhibits the learning of new habits. In SLA this process
works as follows: when the first and second language share a meaning but
express it in different ways (e.g. I like Vs. me gusta), an error is likely to

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arise in the L2 because the learner will transfer the realization device from
his first language into the second.

Of course, not all the patterns or habits of the L1 are different from
those of the L2. It is quite possible that the means for expressing a shared
meaning are the same in the first and second language. When this is
possible, the only learning that has to take place for positive transfer to
take place is the discovery that the realization devices are the same in the
two languages.

Task 3: Can you think of examples where Spanish either interferes or facilitates the
learning of English? Find examples [e1]at each level of the language (phonological, lexical,
syntactic, etc.)

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In sum, behaviourist learning theory predicts that transfer will take place
from the first to the second language. Transfer will be negative when there is
inhibition. In this case errors will result. Transfer will be positive when the
first and second language habits are the same. Thus differences between
the first and second language create learning difficulties which result in
errors, while the similarities between the first and second language facilitate
rapid and easy learning.

As a result of this, in behaviourist accounts of SLA, errors were

regarded as undesirable. They were in fact evidence of non-learning, that is,
of the failure to overcome proactive inhibition. As critics of behaviourism
and ALM later commented when: “Like sin, error was to be avoided...”. This
idea has strong implications for second language teaching which we will
explore in task 4.

TASK 4. According to behaviourist principles, learners of an L2 will produce errors because the
structures/habits of their L1 interferes with L2 learning. If you were to design a Audiolingual
course in Spanish for English learners what would you do to prevent and deal with interference?

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Having examined the main principles of behaviourist learning theory when

applied to SLA, it is time to consider the means that were used to predict
potential errors. These were contained in the procedure or methodology
which became known as contrastive analysis, which we will examine now.

1.3 Contrastive Analysis

Contrastive Analysis was originated as a result of the practical need to

teach a L2 in the most efficient way possible. The underlying assumption
for contrastive analysis was that "the teacher who has made a comparison
of the foreign language with the native language of the students will know
better what the real problems are and can provide for teaching them" (Lado,
1957).

The origins of C.A. were therefore pedagogic. This was reflected in

comparisons of several languages with English elaborated by scholars in
the United States, which were directed at establishing the areas of learning
difficulty that were likely to be experienced by English speakers learning
other languages.

There was almost total agreement that errors should be avoided. To

this end some attempts were made to predict when or in what areas they
would occur. By comparing the learner’s native language with the target
language, differences could be identified and used to predict areas of
potential error. Once these differences were identified, classroom practice
based on intensive techniques such as repetition or “drills”, could be
directed on these problem areas in order to help the learner overcome the
negative effects of first language interference. Such techniques became the
basis of the Audio-lingual method.

We have reviewed how behaviourism explains language learning. However,

apart from this theory of language, structural linguistics also influenced the
methodology of the audiolingual method (see footnote 2 above). Let us now

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consider briefly the most relevant aspects of American structuralism, the

dominant theory of linguistic description (i.e. the dominant grammar)
during several decades.

1.4 Linguistic theory and behaviourism: Structuralism

As commented above, the theory of language underlying the audiolingual
approach was Structuralism. Structural linguistics was the dominant
linguistic theory during most of the first half of the 20th century and it
focused its attention on the different levels or structures of a language (i.e.,
the phonological level, the morphological level, the lexical level and the
syntactic level[e2]). In other words, language was viewed as a system of
structurally related elements for the encoding of meaning.

Linguistic levels were thought of as systems within systems - that is,

as structured in a pyramid: phonemic systems (phonemes) led to
morphemic systems (morphemes), and these in turn led to the higher-level
systems of words, phrases, clauses, and sentences. In keeping with this
idea, phonemes were described as the immediate constituents
(constituyentes immediatos) of morphemes and words, because they
combined following certain rules to form these units; likewise, words were
the immediate constituents of phrases (sintagmas), and phrases were in
turn the immediate constituents of clauses and sentences. The rules
explaining how words combine to form phrases and, in turn, clauses (e.g.
subj + vb + D.Obj, …) were the object of study for syntax.

A very important principle of structural linguistics was that the

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primary medium of language is oral: language is Speech . Following
structuralism, language should be seen as an oral phenomenon, and
writing was considered a residual product. Therefore, it was assumed that
speech had a priority over writing in language teaching, which was contrary
to previous traditional views on language and language teaching (e.g. the
grammar translation method).

A number of these structuralist assumptions about the language were

adopted by the Audio Lingual Method and became the foundation for their
methodological principles:

3 Speech: el habla, el lenguaje oral.

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- Since linguists normally described languages beginning with the

phonological level and finishing with the sentence level, it was
assumed that this was also the appropriate sequence for learning
and teaching.

- Since speech was now held to be primary and writing secondary, it

was assumed that language teaching should focus on mastery of
speech. Therefore, they thought writing should be postponed until
reasonably late in the language learning process.

- Since the structures of a language were claimed to be the most

important aspect of that language, it was believed that early practice
should focus on the mastery of phonological and grammatical
structures rather than on vocabulary. Moreover, meaning was
considered secondary to structure, as can be observed in the
exercises practiced in the ALM (see video).

In conclusion, Audiolingualism is largely based on structuralist

assumptions and beliefs about the nature of a language. Since language
was described as a formal, rule-governed system, it could be formally
organised into a set of structures to maximize teaching and learning
efficiency. Audiolingual teaching methodology thus stresses the mechanistic
learning of those structures (or language habits).

1.5 Behaviourism and language teaching: The Audiolingual method

As we have shown along this chapter, the principles and hypotheses of

Structuralism and behaviourism became learning principles for the
Audiolingual approach and shaped its methodological and classroom
practices and techniques. Among the more central principles in this
audiolingual method are the following:

Foreign language learning is basically a process of mechanical habit

formation. Good habits are formed by giving correct responses rather
than by making mistakes. Language is verbal behaviour and so
students need to learn language structures only by repeating (drilling)
the desired response many times and almost automatically (i.e. without
taking time to reflect). That way, learning will take place mechanically
and no mental processes will be involved.

Language skills are learned more effectively if the items to be learned in

the target language are presented in spoken form before they are seen

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in written form. Aural-oral training provides the foundation for the
development of the other language skills.

Explanations of rules are not given until students have practiced a

pattern in a variety of contexts. In doing so, we will promote
mechanical learning from the beginning, rather than reflection about
the language.

The design of language teaching courses and materials of the time

were based upon these principles. A demonstration of some of these
characteristics principles can be seen in the video we will see in class.

Learner’s roles in audiolingualism:

Learners are viewed as organisms that can be directed by conditioning to

produce correct responses. Teaching focuses on the external
manifestations of learning (the observable behaviours) rather than on the
internal processes. Learners simply respond to stimuli, and thus have little
control over the content, pace, or style of learning. They are not encouraged
to initiate interaction (to start a conversation), because this may lead to
mistakes.

Classroom Procedures:

Audiolingualism involves extensive oral instruction. The focus of

instruction is on immediate and accurate speech; there is little provision
for grammatical explanation or talking about the language. As far as
possible, the target language is used as the medium of instruction, and
translation or use of the native tongue is discouraged. Some other
characteristics of audiolingual classes include:

- Early and continued training of the ear and tongue is targeted . No

use of written symbols until sounds are thoroughly known.

- The shortening of the time that passes between a performance and

correction.

4 Aural: auditivo y oral: oral. Práctica auditiva y oral.

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The decline of Audiolingualism: Chomsky’s innate theory

During the 1950s and 1960s, the theoretical foundations of

Audiolingualism were accused of being unsound both in terms of language
theory (structuralism) and learning theory (behaviourism). Moreover,
practitioners found that the practical results fell short of expectations.
Students were often unable to transfer skills acquired through
Audiolingualism to real communication outside the classroom, and many
found the experience of studying through audiolingual procedures boring
and unsatisfying.

The theoretical attack on audiolingual beliefs resulted from changes

in American linguistic theory in the sixties. The linguist Noam Chomsky
rejected the structuralist description of the language as well as the
behaviourist theory of language learning. In his own words:

“Language is not a habit structure. Ordinary linguistic behaviour

characteristically involves rules […] of great abstractness and
intricacy” (Chomsky 1966: 153).

Chomsky's theory of transformational grammar claimed that the

fundamental properties of language are related to innate aspects of the
mind and to how humans process experience through language. His
theories were to revolutionise American linguistics and focus the attention
of linguists and psychologists on the mental properties people employ for
language use and language learning.

Chomsky also proposed a theory of language learning as an

alternative to the behaviourist theory. Behaviourism regarded language
learning as similar in principle to any other kind of learning; it was subject
to the same laws of stimulus and response, reinforcement and association.
Chomsky on the other hand argued that such a learning theory could not
possibly serve as a model of how humans learn a language, since much of
the language humans produce is not imitated behaviour but is created
anew from underlying knowledge of abstract rules. Sentences are not
learned by imitation and repetition but "generated" from the learner's
underlying competence."

Suddenly the whole audiolingual paradigm was called into question:

pattern practice, drilling, memorisation. These procedures might lead to

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learning parts of the language like behaviours, but they were not resulting
in real competence, in other words, learners were unable to communicate
profficiently. This created a crisis in American language teaching circles. In
the following decades several methods sprung up (Innatist methodologies
like Cognitive Code Learning; Humanistic methods such as Suggestopedia,
The Silent Way, Community Language Learning; input-based approaches like
the Natural Approach). However, it was not until the arrival of the
Communicative Approach in the 80s, that a language teaching method was
able to fill the huge gap left by the ALM.

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REVISION TASK. 1. Behaviourism and the audio-lingual paradigm

After reading the basic principles on which the behaviourist theory is based, consider the
possible implications of this theory for teaching and leaning:

1. Can you learn a language by watching and hearing other people use that language[e3]?

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2. Can you learn a language by having a teacher describe or explain to you how the language is
used (i.e. by teaching grammar)?

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3. Why should writing be considered as less important than speech[e4] in L2 learning?

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4. Will a child learn a first language regardless the conditions of his learning environment[e5]?

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5. Why aren’t animals able to learn languages? Do you know of any animal who has learned a
human language? Do you know of any human who has failed to learn his own L1?

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