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55-357
Animal Cells and Tissues
Laboratory Manual
Autumn 2007
Laboratory Date
4. Oct.3/4: Lab 4:
Quiz 1
a. Blood
b. Muscle Tissue
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This lab manual is to be used only as guide during the laboratory sections of 55-357.
Progress in this course depends entirely on knowledge and understanding of the structure of the histological
preparations on the microscope slides.
Students are encouraged to spend the full laboratory periods examining the microscope slides provided.
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There will be question for locating a cell or tissue on a slide during each quiz.
Each student must write the quiz for his or her assigned lab section (no exceptions).
There will be 4 quizzes. The top three quiz grades will be used for the lab grade assignment. Quizzes must be
written in the assigned lab period.
Any missed quiz will be assigned a grade of 0.
Professionalism – treatment of microscope, interaction with fellow students and TA
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Laboratory 1
There are several things that you need to keep in mind when working with light microscopes and slides:
Handle microscopes and slides with extreme caution –carry microscopes with two hands, supporting the scope by
the base and the arm
When you are finished with the scope, make sure you turn down the light intensity and/or turn off the light source
Put the scope back on the lowest objective before removing a slide
All the microscopes should have a number. At the end of the lab, put your microscope back in the locker with the
same number. Remember to wrap the cord around the scope and to cover it with a dustcover
Never change objective by grabbing the objective lens – use the rotating nosepiece
Replace slides in the boxes as you find them; that means right-side-up and facing forward
Failure to adhere to these rules will result in a reduction of participation/good scientist marks
A note on histological preparations: most of the slides we use in this lab are stained with hematoxylin
and eosin, otherwise known as H&E. Stained cells and tissues are either basophilic or acidophilic.
Basophilic cells/tissues are stained by hematoxylin and appear as blue or purple. Acidophilic cells/tissues
are stained by eosin and appear as pink or red.
Purpose: To direct the light from the microscope’s light source onto the specimen. If the microscope is
not properly aligned, you will be unable to achieve the sharpest image possible. The best image is always
in the centre of the field of view where the light is most focused. It is important to align your scope at the
start of EVERY LAB
Put a microscope slide onto the stage of the microscope
Swing blue filter out of the light path
Focus specimen with 10X objective, compensation lever at M, transformer at 5-6 (on older
scopes)
Close both iris diaphragm of the condenser and field stop of the illuminator
Bring field stop into focus by adjusting the condenser
Set small circle of light in center of field by manipulating the two condenser centering screws
Open field stop slowly so that the entire field can be seen
Remove eyepiece and open iris diaphragm slowly so that the entire field is illuminated
By adjusting the lamp centering screws, bring light to maximum intensity and center it (only on
older models)
Replace eyepiece and swing blue filter back into place
View tissue on slide
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Part 3. Epithelium
Epithelium is a basic tissue that covers the body surfaces, lines body cavities and constitutes glands. It is
avascular and is classified on the basis of cell shape of the uppermost layer of cells and by the number of
cell layers.
Simple epithelium consists of a single layer of cells whereas stratified epithelium is at least two cell layers
thick. A pseudostratified epithelium is only one cell thick but gives a false impression of layering.
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Modifications
The width of these cells is greater than their height, they give a scale-like appearance.
Location: Luminal lining of blood vessels (e.g. slide 15).
Cells have the same height, width and depth and appear square in cross section.
Nuclei located in the centre of each cell..
Location: Covers the surface of the ovaries (slide 66), collecting tubules of the kidney (slide 56)
The height of these cells exceeds their width and they appear column shaped with basal nuclei.
This epithelium is usually modified for secretion or absorption, and may contain mucus-producing goblet
cells. This is called simple secretory epithelium. A thin, refractive layer present on the free border of
these cells is the striated or brush border
Location: Luminal surface of the stomach and intestine (slides 34-43).
All the cells touch the basement membrane but not all cells extend as far up as the free surface.
The nuclei are visible at more than one level creating a false impression of layering. This epithelium
contains many goblet cells in most areas.
Location: Luminal surface of trachea (slide 24)
A pseudostratified columnar epithelium that is not ciliated and does not secrete mucus:
Location: Luminal surface of the ductus epididymis (slide 60 or 61)
Transitional Epithelium
An intermediate between squamous and cuboidal. The presence of this epithelium allows for
stretching. The cells appear bigger at the free surface and tend to decrease in size as they approach the
basement membrane.
Location: Luminal surface of the urinary tract (slides 57,58, or 59)
The word squamous describes the superficial cells, the basal cells are columnar and the cells in between
these cells are polyhedral. This tissue does not produce keratin.
Location: Lines the surface of the tongue (slide 28) , the esophagus (slide 31), the skin (slide 20), and the
vagina.
The cells at the apical surface (top) are small and cells closer to the basement membrane are larger. The
cells at the free surface (top) are scales of soft keratin. This epithelium provides protection to surfaces that
are constantly exposed to air, abrasion, microbial infection and resists water loss and uptake.
Location: Lines the outer surface the skin (slides 21-22).
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Part 1: Glands
Glands
Glands are epithelial cells that are specialized to synthesize and secrete a specific product. The two types
of glands are classified according to the types of secretion they produce: mucous and serous; however it is
important to remember that these are TYPES of glands, not NAMES of glands.
The entire secretory unit of a gland is called an acinus (plural: acini) and each acini is made up of several
secretory cells.
Mucous glands
There are two types of mucous glands: multicellular glands (containing acini) and goblet
cells, which are unicellular mucous-producing glands
(1) Multicellular – mucous is washed out during processing, leading to a pale-staining
secretory unit with peripherally located, flattened nuclei (e.g. slides 34, 46)
(2) Goblet cells – found in simple and pseudostratified columnar epithelia in the
respiratory and digestive systems (slides 41-143)
Serous glands
Enzymes and proteins produced by these glands remain after processing, thus the
secretory unit is triangular and dark-staining with central, spherical nuclei
Parotid gland (slide 51)
Mixed Glands
Secretory units are a combination of mucous and serous units
Usually contains serous demilunes, half-moon shaped caps sitting on top of mucous
acini
Submandibular (49) and Sublingual glands (slide 50)
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Connective tissue is another basic tissue which supports, interconnects and nourishes other tissues.
Modifications
Collagen Fiber
Wavy, unbranched, wide structures, light staining
Elastic Fiber
Straight, narrow, branching structures, dark staining
Fibroblast
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Spindle-shaped with wide cytoplasmic processes; oval nuclei which are paler and larger
than those of macrophage; nucleoli prominent due to active protein synthesis
Produce all fibers
Fibrocyte
Inactive fibroblasts – appear rounder
Appear bipolar with no processes visible
Mast Cell
Produce heparin and histamine
Large cell with a spherical nucleus
Mast cell granules are eosinophilic (red)
Macrophage
Eliminate infectious microorganisms, cell debris
Eccentric nucleus shaped like a kidney bean
Large cells which may contain ingested materials
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Fewer cells than loose connective tissue and is less vascular. There are two modifications of this tissue
based on the arrangement of the fibers.
Fat cells (adipocytes) are seen in loose connective tissue. Lipid becomes extracted from tissue sections
and therefore cells appear clear with a flattened nucleus located at the cell periphery.
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Cartilage
Supporting, flexible tissue which is avascular. Much of the cartilage that develops prenatally is replaced
by bone tissue. The cells embedded within the matrix are termed chondrocytes. There are three types of
cartilage but for the purposes of this lab, only hyaline and elastic cartilage will be examined.
Bone
Bone matrix is heavily calcified and the embedded bone cells which are called osteocytes also occupy
lacunae. Canaliculi interconnect lacunae. Bone is a vascular tissue as opposed to cartilage. There are
two types of bone development, intramembranous and endochondral ossification which give rise to the
same kind of bone tissue.
Components of bone:
The osteon (AKA Haversian system) is the basic histological unit of compact bone;
consisting of osteocytes organized around a central canal (AKA Haversian canal) and
separated by concentric lamellae
Osteoblasts produce bone matrix
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Zone of Calcifying Cartilage – This is the zone where insoluble calcium salts are
deposited into the cartilaginous matrix. Capillaries with associated osteogenic cells can
grow into this zone thus providing a vascular environment in which osteoblasts can
differentiate.
Laboratory 4
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Muscle Tissue
Muscle cells are also known as muscle fibers which produce contractions. Three distinct muscle types are
recognized: smooth (involuntary) and the striated muscle types: skeletal (voluntary) and cardiac muscle.
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**Note on this lab: this lab contains a huge amount of information, but there is very little actual
identification required. You are, however, responsible for knowing all of the details included. It is all
testable material.
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Lab 5
Nervous Tissue, Eye and Ear
Dendrites
A neuron may have one or more dendrites. Sensory neurons contain one dendrite per neuron and
motor neurons contain two or more. Dentrites are generally shorter in length than axons, and transmit
information towards the soma.
Axons
All neurons contain only ONE axon and it may vary in length. Axons transmit information away
from the soma. The area which connects the soma to the axon is called the axon hillock. The axon
hillock is the initial segment of the axon which is unmyelinated and contains no Nissl bodies.
The cytoplasm of the axons is called the axoplasma. Axons may or may not contain a myelin
sheath made up of lipids. The myelin is produced by Schwann cells that wrap the myelin around the
axon. During sectioning of the tissue the myelin is dissolved and thus appears as a clear space under the
microscope though the Schwann cells are visible. Nodes of Ranvier are points on the axon where the
myelin pinches in toward the axon. There is no myelin sheath at the Nodes of Ranvier, and electrical
impulses travel down the axon by jumping from one Node of Ranvier to another. This method of
transmission – termed saltatory conduction – is a faster method of transmitting information down the
axon
Gray Matter
In a cross section of the spinal cord the gray matter encompasses the central region of the spinal cord that
is H shape and contains the central canal. The gray matter is composed of motor neurons that elicit
responses. The axons of the neurons in the gray matter are unmyelinated and together with the dendrites
they constitiute the neuropil. The term neuropil is Greek for felt-like and thus the reason for the gray
appearance under the microscope.
White Matter
The area that surround the gray matter. It does not contain any neuron cell bodies. The axons it does
contain are myelinated, and thus appear clear under the microscope, hence white matter.
The cells that produce myelin in the CNS are called oligodendrocytes as opposed to Schwann cells in the
PNS. The white matter also contains astrocytes and microglial cells.
Neuroglia are found in the CNS. The four types of neuroglial cells are oligodendrocytes, astrocytes,
microglia and ependymal cells.
Oligodendrocytes are analogous to Schwann cells in that they produce myelin around the axons
of the white matter.
Astrocytes are cells that provide mechanical and nutritional support.
Microgial cells are resting macrophages and become active when there is damage to the CNS.
Ependymal cells are epthelial cells which line and support the central canal.
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All these cells except for the epedymal cells contain fine cytoplasmic processes that are visible under
silver or gold staining.
Ganglia (slide 72): Ganglia (singular: ganglion) are collections of sensory neuron cell bodies.
Surrounding the cell bodies is a layer of flat satellite cells (capsule cells) which provide support.
Myenteric Plexus(slides 38-42) – nerves found in-between the circular and longitudinal muscle fibers in
the muscularis externa of the digestive tract.
Nerve Fascicles (slide 75): Nerve fascicles are nerve fibers (axons) grouped into bundles. There are
three membrane layers around the nerve fibers. The three layers are as follows:
i) Endoneurium - loose connective tissue around each individual nerve fiber
ii) Perineurium - dense irregular connective tissue around a group of nerve fibers (fascicle)
iii) Epineurium - dense irregular connective tissue surrounding all groups of nerve fibers
Neurolemma is the myelin sheath produced by the Schwann cells around each axon. It takes many
Schwann cells to myelinate a single axon. The Schwann cells may also be visible in the cross sections of
the fascicles.
ii) Pacinian Corpuscle – pressure receptor found in the dermis and subcutaneous level of the
skin. It is the largest of the encapsulated receptors and it resembles an onion bulb in cross
section
Retina
The retina is the image-sensing component of the eye and is also known as the neural retina. It is the
light-sensitive portion of the eye and contains photoreceptors called cone and rod cells. There are 8
layers in the retina
In the order from which light enters the eye, they are:
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o The axons of the photoreceptors synapse with the dendrites of bipolar and horizontal
cells. Bipolar cells relay impulses to the ganglion cells and horizontal cells interconnect
photoreceptors laterally. This layer is more lightly stained
Outer Nuclear Layer
o This darkly-stained layer contains the nuclei of rod and cone cells.
Inner Segment (aka External limiting membrane)
o This layer contains the inner segments of the photoreceptor cells which contains the
cell’s metabolic machinery.
Outer Segment (aka lamina of rods and cones)
o This layer appears feathery and contains the outer segment of the rods and cone cells
which is composed of membranous disks that contains the photosensitive visual
pigment, rhodopsin.
Pigment Epithelium
o This outermost layer absorbs the light that has passed through the retina thus preventing
reflection back into the eye and maintains the photoreceptor cells. These cells are
cuboidal and contain pigment in the inner apical parts of the cells; processes with
pigment granules extend into the rod and cone layer. This layer is thin and dark.
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The ears are paired sensory organs that are responsible for the sense of hearing and enable the body to
maintain its sense of balance. Hearing involves receptor cells found in the inner ear within the Organ of
Corti that is housed within the cochlea.
Cochlea
The outer wall of the cochlear duct is formed by the stria vascularis which is a stratified columnar
epithelium (unusually in that this epithelium contains blood vessels). The spiral ligament is the lamina
propria which consists of collagenous fibers and fibroblasts. The roof of the cochlear duct is formed by
vestibular membrane which also partitions it from the vestibular duct. The vestibular membrane
extends from the stria vascularis to the spiral limbus and is two cell layers of squamous epithelium. The
spiral limbus, which is connective tissue, forms part of the floor of the cochlear duct and is covered by a
columnar epithelium. The tectorial membrane is a lateral extension of this epithelium. This membrane
overlies the hair cells. The basilar membrane is a plate of vascularized connective tissue. The organ of
Corti which includes the sensory hair cells, rests on this membrane and extends from the spiral limbus to
the spiral ligament. Bipolar cells of the spiral ganglion terminate on the hair cells.
The parts you are expected to identify (all are shown in the atlas):
Spiral ligament
Limbus spiralis
Stria vascularis
Scala vestibuli
Scala tympani
Organ of Corti
Vestibular membrane
Cochlear duct
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Lab 6 and 7
Digestive System: I. Oral cavity and pharynx
The digestive system is made up of several organs and glands working together to digest and
absorb food and eliminate waste products.
Oral Cavity
The oral cavity is the initial point of the digestive system. It is composed of the lips, the tongue, the
palate, the tonsils and the salivary glands.
The pharynx which is part of the respiratory system also plays a role in the digestive system. In
addition to conducting air between the nasal cavity to the larynx, it alos guides food from the oral cavity to
the esophagus. Therefore, the function of the epiglottis is to prevent food from going to the larynx. The
digestive portions of the phayrnx and epiglottis are both lined with stratified sqamous nonkeratinizing
epithelium. The epiglottis is supported by a plate of elastic cartilage which allows for its function as well.
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Lab # 6 and 7.
Digestive System: II. Esophagus and G-I Tract
For Lab 6, complete esophagus and stomach
For Lab 7, complete small intestine, large intestine,
Overview of components requiring ID:
Three different divisions of the stomach
Three different divisions of the small intestines
Myenteric (Auerbach’s) plexus
Esophagus - Anus (slides 31-48) The four main layers utilized to differentiate these sections of the
digestive tract are the mucosa, the submucosa, the muscularis externa and the adventitia/serosa.
iii) Muscularis Externa: beneath the submucosa – thick muscle layers (2-3 layers thick)
a longitundinal layer is muscle fibers arranged up and down the tract
a circular layer is muscle fibers arranged around the tract
an oblique layer is muscle fibers arranged in a diagonal pattern around the tract
autonomic ganglion and nerve endings found in-between the muscle layers are termed Myenteric
(Auerbach’s) plexus
iv) Serosa/Adventitia: outermost layer – loose connective tissue containing blood vessels, nerve and adipose
it is termed a serosa if the region of the digestive tract is covered by visceral peritoneum
if the tract is not covered by visceral peritonium it is termed the adventitia
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ESOPHAGUS STOMACH SMALL INTESTINES APPENDIX LARGE INTESTINES
LAYERS Cardiac Fundic Pyloric Duodenum Jejunum Ileum Colon Rectum Anus
Mucosa
Epithelium Stratified Simple Simple columnar Simple -Simple columnar Simple columnar Simple Simple Tall simple Tall simple Simple columnar
squamous columnar columnar brush border brush border columnar columnar columnar columnar (upper half)
non-keratinized Pits ~1/4 mucosa few goblet cells goblet cells brush brush border brush brush border - stratified
depth Pits ~ ½ border goblet cells border goblet cells Squamous non
mucosa depth many goblet goblet cells keratinized (lower
cells half)
L. propria Cardiac gland Gastric Gastric glands & Gastric glands Crypts of Crypts of Crypts of LCT LCT LCT Dense irregular
(top & bottom glands & pits: pits: & pits: Lieberkühn Lieberkühn Lieberkühn Big lymph Lymph Lymph CT
thirds) (straight (straight & (branched nodes Intestinal Intestinal glands -Lymph
LCT tubes) branched) tubes) Paneth cells Paneth cells Paneth cells glands No glands
Parietal, Parietal, chief, Parietal, chief,
mucus & mucus and mucus and Peyer’s-
entero- enteroendocrine entero- Patches
endocrine cells endocrine cells
cells
M. mucosa Smooth muscle 3 layers of 3 layers of 3 layers of Discontinuous Continuous NONE Discontinuous Smooth Smooth muscle Dscontinuous
smooth smooth muscle smooth muscle smooth muscle smooth muscle smooth muscle muscle (upper half)
muscle NONE (lower half)
Submucosa LCT LCT LCT LCT Brunner’s NO glands NO glands Lymph LCT LCT LCT
Esophageal No glands No glands No glands Glands NO glands NO lymph or NO lymph or NO lymph or
glands glands glands glands
Muscularis Skeletal (top 3 layers of 3 layers of 3 layers of 2 layers of 2 layers of 2 layers of 2 layers of 3 layers of 2 layers of 2 layers
Externa third) smooth smooth smooth smooth: smooth: smooth smooth: smooth: smooth: smooth (upper
Mixed (mid. inner - inner - oblique inner - oblique inner - circular inner - circular inner - inner - circular inner - inner - circular half);
third) oblique middle - circular middle - outer – outer - circular outer - circular outer - skeletal (lower
Smooth (lower middle - outer - circular longitudinal longitudinal outer - longitudinal outer - longitudinal half);
third) circular longitudinal outer - longitudinal longitudinal NO Tenae coli inner - circular
outer – longitudinal Auerbach’s Auerbach’s Tenae coli outer - longitudinal
longitudinal Plexus Plexus Auerbach’s
Plexus
Adventitia/ Adventitia Serosa Serosa Serosa Adventitia Serosa Serosa Serosa Serosa Adventitia Adventitia
Serosa
Characteristics of Cell Types Found in the Digestive System
Cardiac glands - mucous glands found in the L. propria of the top and bottom thirds of the esophagus
Gastric Glands - found in the epithelial lining of the stomach and form gastric pits in to the L. propria
- consists of four types of cells:
i) mucous neck cells - found in the top portion of the pits
secrete mucous
pale-staining
ii) parietal cells - found throuhgout the pits
secrete HCl and intrinsic factors
acidophilic
iii) chief cells - found at the base of the pits
secrete digestive enzymes basophilic
iv) enteroendocrine cells - found at the base of the pits
secret hormones
also called APUD cells
Brunner’s Glands - mucous secreting glands found in the submucosa of the duodenum of the small
intestines
Crypts of Lieberkühn - mucosal glands located in the L. Propria of the small intestines
Paneth Cells - enzyme secreting cells found at the base of the Crypts of Luberkuhn
- acidophilic (granular)
Peyer’s Patches - lymph nodules found in the L. Propria of the ileum of the small intestines
- the lymph nodules are composed of lymphocytes thus appear highly basophilic
Tenae Coli - the longitudinal muscle of the musculais externa is arranged in three longitunal bands
- appears as an extra layer of muscle only in the colon of the large intestines
Lab 8
ii) Sublingual - mucous (pale stain, nuclei flat & on side of cells)
- with serous demilunes
- well developed septa and thin capsule
iii) Parotid - serous (dark stain, nuclei round & in center of cells)
- compound tubuloalveolar glands
- well developed septa and capsule
The main function of the circulatory system is to transport blood throughout the body using the heart as a
muscular pump and the vessels connected to it. There are three main layers associated with the heart and
blood vessels. The three layers of the heart are the endocardium, which is adjacent to the lumen, the
myocardium, which is composed of muscle and the epicardium, which covers the heart. In the blood
vessels these layers are termed the tunica intima, tunica media and tunica adventitia, respectively.
IIa. Arteries There are three types of arteries: elastic arteries, muscular arteries and arterioles.
Elastic arteries transport blood out of the heart (aorta), muscular arteries transport blood to the organs and
arterioles regulate blood pressure. The three types of arteries are separated based on the characteristics of
the T. intima, T. media and T. adventitia.
Note: The lumen refers to the open space in the middle of the blood vessels.
The vasa vasorum is the collection of blood vessels supplying the walls of the larger arteries and veins
IIb. Veins: There are two types of veins: veins and venules. These two blood vessels can also be
distinguished by their three tunica layers.
LAYERS Veins Venules
Lumen ~12 or more RBCs across ~3-12 RBCs across
T. INTIMA thin thin
T. MEDIA Thin; smooth muscle Thin; ~1 layer of smooth muscle
T. ADVENTITIA Thickest; contains vasa very thin; no vasa vasorum
vasorum
IIc. Capillaries: thin tunica intima, no tunica media, thin tunica adventitia
Capillaries are another type of blood vessel that connect both arteries and veins. Capillaries function
in groups to provide tissue fluid, oxygen and nutrients for the cells of tissues. Capillaries have a very thin
T. intima and may contain a very thin T. adventitia, however, it DOES NOT contain a T. media. Capillary
are small in diameter and can hold only one RBC across.
Sinusoids
Sinusoids are capillary-like vessels that are larger in diameter than capillaries and serve as passage
ways for the movement of cells (i.e. macrophages) and large molecules.
Endocrine System
The Endocrine System involves dissemination of signal molecules over long distances by way of the
bloodstream. Signal molecules produced by end cells are hormones.
Zona glomerulosa
Cells are arranged in ovoid groups. The cytoplasm contains sparse lipid droplets
which appear as vacuoles.
Zona fasciculata
Cells are arranged in columns oriented in a radial direction. Lipid droplets give a
vacuolated appearance.
Zona reticularis
Cells in this zone form anastomosing cords which run in various directions.
Adrenal medulla
Simpler in organization than the cortex. Grouped ovoid secretory cells are visible.
Male: The major functions of the male reproductive system are to produce spermatozoa, androgens and to
facilitate fertilization.
Epididymis
This duct is lined with pseudostratified columnar epithelium with stereocilia (really microvilli). Smooth
muscle circumscribes the duct.
Primordial follicle
o The oocyte is enclosed by only a single layer of flat squamous follicular cells known as
granulosa cells.
Early Primary Follicle
o The follicular cells now are cuboidal and a zona pellucida (refractile extracellular
glycoprotein) is discernible. 1 layer of follicular cells
Late Primary Follicle
o Follicular cells are stratified. Theca folliculi or connective tissue cells surrounding the
follicle is visible.
Secondary Follicle
o The theca has layers: theca interna which is cuboidal and the theca externa which is
connective tissue and smooth muscle. A large space, the antrum, surrounds the oocyte
(This space may be so large that the oocyte may be absent from sections).
Mature (Graafian) Follicle
o The oocyte sits on top of a stack of cells that is called the cumulus oophorus. The cells
that surround the oocyte are called the corona radiata
Corpus luteum
A highly folded structure in which the remains of blood clots persist in the interior of the corpus luteum.
Granulosa cells of the follicle hypertrophy and become transformed into granulosa lutein cells; the theca
interna cells likewise become theca lutein cells. The lumen is filled with coagulated fluid and connective
tissue.
Uterus
The uterine wall consists of endometrium (mucosa), myometrium (muscularis) with smooth muscle and
connective tissue.
Uterus diestrous (slide 67)
o The endometrium is in an early proliferative phase and is thick. The top layer of cells
are not yet simple columnar epithelium but appear small and compacted. Long glands
that are growing are visible but contain no mucous secretory product.
Uterus estrous (slide 68)
o Secretory glands with secretion in the lumen of the glands is seen. Simple columnar
epithelium covers the surface of the endometrium.
Mammary Gland
Each mammary gland (breast) is a group of up to 20 compound alveolar glands that open onto a surface
elevation known as a nipple. Until pregnancy, these are in the resting or non-lactating phase and during
pregnancy, they are in the active or lactating phase.
The skin is highly resistant to abrasion and infection. It is waterproof and prevents against desiccation. It
is also a sensory organ which provides for perception of the environment: touch and temperature.
Thick skin is found on palms of the hand and the bottom of feet.
Dermis: Papillary Layer: Loose CT merges with an underlying layer of irregular dense CT. Supplied
with capillaries and extends up into the epidermis as small projections called dermal papillae
Reticular Layer: below the papillary layer, bundles of collagen. Not as vascular and fatty as the
papillary layer.
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
The Respiratory System consists of two lungs and a branching system of airways which allow for gas
exchange between the air and blood. The basic cell type in the respiratory system is pseudostratified
ciliated columnar epithelium with goblet cells.
Vocal Cords
Skeletal muscle, elastic fibers and stratified squamous non-keratinizing epithelium
This flap-like structure is the uppermost part of the larynx and is a part of both the respiratory and
digestive systems. One side is lined with stratified squamous non-keratinizing and the other with
pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium. Submucousal glands are also present and taste buds may be
seen
*Note – the epiglottis slides do not actually show the two different types of epithelium
Terminal Bronchiole
Lumen lined with simple columnar ciliated epithelium; goblet cells are absent and the
smooth muscle layer is well-developed.
Respiratory Bronchiole
Lumen lined with simple cuboidal epithelium ; alveoli extend from their walls. Smooth
muscle forms a layer close to the epithelium.
The Urinary System (omitted in 2007)
The urinary system consists of the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder and urethra. It produces, stores
and intermittently voids urine, the excretory product.
Nephron
Renal corpuscle (glomerulus), proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) and distal convoluted
tubules (DCT) lie in the cortical region of the kidney. The loop of Henle (LH) and the collecting tubules
(CT) are located in medullary region of the kidney.
Its lumen is characteristically stellate shaped and is lined with transitional epithelium. Mucosal,
submucosal glands and the submucosa are lacking. The muscular coat consists of an inner longitudinal
layer and an outer circular layer (opposite to the digestive system).
This sac’s expansive lumen is composed of many folds lined with transitional epithelium. The
thick muscular coat of the bladder is distinctive.