Running head: LITERATURE REVIEW OF TUTORING IN HIGHER EDUCATION 1

Literature Review of Tutoring in Higher Education

Ana Krstic

Northern Illinois University College of Adult and Higher Education

LITERATURE REVIEW OF TUTORING IN HIGHER EDUCATION 2

Literature Review of Tutoring in Higher Education

Center for Community College Engagement (2014) defines tutoring as “academic

assistance that is provided outside of class, either in one-on-one setting, in a group setting, or via

technology.” The Center furthermore goes on to identify tutoring as a high-impact practice on

success of students. They cite the example of students who reported receiving face-to-face or

online tutoring being 1.23 times more likely to successfully complete a developmental English

course (p. 13). I wish to provide a literature review detailing the use of tutoring in higher

education. Tutoring is an important practice that requires exploration of its implementation and

effectiveness in higher education settings. Literature cites many benefits of tutoring. They

include: increase in self-efficacy; increase in motivation and learning for students; increase in

student and tutor engagement; increase in academic proficiency; increased scores on placement

exams; increase in student and tutor deep learning; promotion of student self-sufficiency; and

mastery learning. Due to all of these benefits tutoring is justly considered a high-impact practice

on students and tutors who engage in academic support activities. The literature dealt with

following topics: graduation rates of at risk students engaged in tutoring; peer tutoring program

affecting social dynamics between students, tutors, and instructors; engagement of students who

served as peer tutors; effect of tutoring on GPA; development of deep understanding through

peer tutoring; use of scaffolding in peer tutoring; and use of tutoring to increase placement test

scores for both general population students and first year engineering students. What follows is a

literature review of various ways tutoring is utilized in higher education institutions.

Support for At-Risk Students

Tutoring is a part of academic support dedicated to aiding at-risk underprepared students.

Students are helped by tutoring through increased persistence, academic achievement, greater
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retention, and degree completion. Tutoring is especially essential for underserved and

underprepared students. It is proposed that tutoring enhances mastery of subject matter and hence

boosts academic self-efficacy (Rheinheimer, 2010, p 23). Rheinheimer (2010) proposes that

tutors serve as role models that whose good study habits and positive attitude are emulated by at-

risk students. However, it is key to have at-risk students utilize tutoring services early in their

college careers (p. 24). The author proposes tutees also be reminded that they are responsible for

their own education and should come to tutoring sessions prepared. This produces the

immediate benefit of increased knowledge and academic achievement (Rheinheimer, 2010, p

25).

Rheinhemer (2010) describes Act 101 programs in Pennsylvania which provide support

services for economically and educationally disadvantaged students. Students in this program

are provided services such as counseling and tutoring, as well as a bridge program before the

beginning of their freshman year in college (p. 25). The Act 101 Program demonstrated that

tutoring significantly improves students’ academic performance and retention. It was shown that

students who were tutored were 13.5 times more likely to graduate than students who were not

(Rheinheimer, 2010, p 27).

Peer Tutoring in Higher Education

Colvin (2007) reflects on increasing proliferation of tutoring programs who are called to

increase motivation and learning for students and tutors. She is interested in how

implementation of a peer tutoring program affects social dynamics between students, tutors, and

instructors. Peer tutors are seen as continuing classroom discussions, helping students develop

study skills, assist in resolving specific problems, and encouraging independent learning. All the
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involvement between peer tutors and students is seen as transforming learning from a private to a

social activity (p. 166).

It was determined that the role of a peer tutor was not yet established as a cultural object

and that there was some confusion as to what exactly a peer tutor does. In other words, students

needed to first be academically socialized before they could use tutors as resources. Likewise

there was the issue of expectations. Some students wanted the peer tutors to do their work, while

others wanted the tutor to be a passive observer (Colvin, 2007, p.173).

Another issue was impression management. Peer tutors were burdened by self-

presentation where they had to convince their students that they were their peers with additional

insight and credibility and therefore a valid resource. Tutors felt that they had to be helpful to

the student in order to be accepted. This was combined with power issues. Students did not

assign power to those occupying the role of tutor until the tutor demonstrated that they can be of

help to students (Colvin, 2007, p.177).

Transfer Students as Tutors

An increasing trend in postsecondary education is the number of students transferring

from one institution to another. Fauria and Fuller (2015) make the case that 60% of students

transferred or co-enrolled in college. The authors also reflect on transfers not being linear in

nature. They note reverse transfers, double dipping, and stopping out. Increased student

mobility is unfortunately related to transfer students being less likely to attain a baccalaureate

degree in a six year period. Transfer students were four times less likely to persist than non-

transfer students. Considering such a stunning statistic, the authors explore student engagement

as a promising practice for academic success (p.40).

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One way students were considered to be engaged was tutoring other students on either a

paid or voluntary basis. This was found to be a significant predictor of GPA and was considered

to be a high impact practice for transfer students. Peer tutoring was seen as key in engagement

and connection with the institution attended. This in turn gave the students a perception that they

were working hard in a subject area and strove to exceed their professor’s expectations in a given

course. This in turn resulted in a higher GPA (Fauria, 2015, p. 46).

Tutoring and Academic Performance

Tutoring has been shown to help students become more proficient in specific academic

content areas. Likewise, students have been shown to improve their time management and study

skills. A study was carried out at a midsize Midwestern university where a relationship between

weekly tutorial sessions and GPA was investigated. Additionally, student retention over the first

two semesters was investigated. The tutoring was mandatory for the student population involved

in the study because their ACT composite score was less than 20. Another criteria for mandatory

tutoring was if the students’ high school GPA was between 2.0 and 2.3. Yet another category of

students involved had a score bellow 50th percentile on their college placement exam. The study

sought to compare effects of a 30 minute versus 60 minute tutoring session on the student’s GPA

(Hetzel, 2014, p.3).

Tutors involved in the study were faculty members who have content expertise and

training in academic support skills and study strategies. Tutoring sessions were a combination of

content tutoring and coaching in study skills with emphasis on content tutoring. Tutors and

students only met once weekly. It was determined that the length of tutoring session had an

effect the students’ GPA. Those in receiving tutoring in 60 minute sessions earned an average

GPA of 2.773 while those in 30 minute sessions earned an average GPA of 2.580. The length of
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a tutoring session did not have effects on retention. After two semesters those receiving 60

minute sessions were 85 percent of students were retained, while of the students in 30 minute

tutoring sessions were retained at 84 percent (Hetzel, 2014, p. 12).

Peer Tutoring and Deep Understanding

Fetsco, Tang, and Totura (n.d.) view tutoring as beneficial to both tutor and the tutee.

They cite tutee benefits as being increased motivation and engagement. Peer tutoring is seen as a

low cost and effective method of academic support. However, tutoring is also viewed as having

the downside of tutors mostly delivering knowledge instead of helping students construct or

develop knowledge. In contrast to simply delivering knowledge there is encouragement of deep

or meaningful learning. Deep learning occurs when knowledge is transformed in to another

form, such as a visual representation. Likewise, application of to-be- learned knowledge to

problem solving is an example of deep learning. Another instance of deep learning is when a

connection is established between knowledge such as when analogies are created. Additionally,

deep learning occurs when to-be-learned knowledge is extended as when new examples are

created (p. 3).

In order to create learning for a deeper understanding it is important for tutor and student

to understand that is the stated goal of the tutoring session. This can happen if tutor and student

understand what they are doing and why. Another means for deeper understanding is building of

a respectful and caring relationship for tutor and student. Similarly, if the student and tutor

engage in reciprocal questioning they might be more likely to progress to deep understanding.

Furthermore, periodic review has been shown to increase deep understanding. Overall, the

means by which deep understanding is achieved serve to not simply have the tutor simply deliver
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knowledge, but in turn they are supporting their students in knowledge construction. (Fetsco,

n.d., p.5)

Scaffolding and Tutoring Mathematics

Scaffolding is a support strategy where the tutor works with a student at the level student

is familiar with. Tutor may use scaffolding to work on difficult aspects of material and then

reduce the level of support as the student begins to accomplish work more independently.

Scaffolding is one of many approaches to tutoring. The approach that the tutor might take varies

depending on the student level of preparedness, learning style, and personality. Therefore, the

approach and the amount of scaffolding tutor utilizes depends on the situation tutor and student

are experiencing (Valkenburg, 2010, p. 33).

Valkenburg (2010) indicates that scaffolding comes from the work of Lev Vygotsky.

Vygotsky viewed learning as social event related to communication and language. Language, in

turn allows humans to construct reality and describe their experience (p. 37). The author then

describes steps of scaffolding as the tutor solving a problem while explaining each step in the

process. Next, the tutor solves a problem while asking the student to explain particular parts that

the student now has a better understanding off. At the same time tutor is supplying correct

information when the student is experiencing difficulty. Lastly, the student solves and explains

the problem while tutor offers suggestions. Ultimately, the student is supposed to independently

solve the problem as the tutor remains silent. (Valkenburg, 2010, p. 39).

Valkenburg (2010) suggest practical applications of scaffolding. He encourages tutors to

identify difficult problems. He then offers the learning strategy of two tutors demonstrating and

discussing how to solve a difficult problem so that the student might observe them. Tutors are

also encouraged to observe and asses how a student approaches problem solving. Besides
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scaffolding, tutors are encouraged to use the Socratic Method where a series of directive

questions is asked as the tutor guides the student through solving a problem. These two

techniques are powerful tools for helping students actively engage in their work and promoting

self-sufficiency (p. 40).

Assessing Tutoring

An example of an institution with a tutoring program is Lincoln University in

Pennsylvania. This Historically Black College and University has a learning center which

provides individual tutoring for developmental courses in education, English and mathematics.

This institution also provides online tutoring program. The article written by Fullmer (2012)

strives to examine the effectiveness of online tutoring in developmental courses in reading,

writing, and mathematics (p. 68).

The author begins by describing the online tutoring which consisted of web based content

that a student worked through independently with tutors being available in the lab. English

tutoring took place through Pearson’s My Reading Lab and My Writing Lab software.

Mathematics tutoring took place through McGraw-Hill’s Aleks (Assessment and Learning in

Knowledge Spaces) software. These products were chosen because they offered pre- and post-

tests so that student progress may be assessed (Fullmer, 2012, p.69). Average reading pre-test

score for math as 7.38 and average post-test score was 8.78. Average writing pre-test score was

64.3 and post-test score was 8.97. For mathematics average pre-test score was 17.63 and post-

test score was 57.27 (Fullmer, 2012, p.87). The student progress indicates effective tutoring.

Fullmer (2012) quotes the work of Brophy, Cant, and cooper when describing effective

tutoring. Factors that contributed to effectiveness of tutoring were that students were given an

opportunity to spend additional time on a task and practice skills. This additional time related to
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increased knowledge, critical thinking and student satisfaction and confidence. Next, Fullmer

refers to work of Rheinheimer, Francois, and Kusorbor, when describing tutoring’s positive

effect on persistence, retention, and graduation. She further defines Bloom’s mastery learning as

including formative testing, feedback and corrective procedures leading to higher order thinking

skills such as analysis, evaluation and synthesis (p. 77).

Improvement of Mathematics Placement Exams

Garcia, Morales and Rivera (2014) saw the importance of mathematics placement exams

as they pertain to potentially accelerating graduation dates. Likewise, placing out of a

mathematics class lightened course load of engineering students. Ultimately, there was a benefit

to students in the reduction of cost to their tuitions as they possibly had less mathematics

coursework to complete (p. 61).

To ensure student success on the mathematics placement test students were provided peer

tutoring. In addition to tutoring’s positive effect on achievement and retention, the approach was

also chosen because it provides for a safe and non-threatening interactive learning situation.

This in turn enhances the engagement of students so that they might be retained in their STEM

field. For Garcia, Morales and Rivera (2014) particular study students participated in peer

tutoring during the summer term and an additional benefit was the deeper learning of concepts

obtained by the peer tutors. This makes tutoring a valuable experience for the tutor’s personal

and professional development (p. 62).

The setting for the study was Universidad del Turabo which is a part of the Ana G.

Mendez University system in Puerto Rico. This private university has a tradition of serving first

generation engineering students through scholarships. In order to better serve potential

engineering students, the summer mathematics tutoring program was implemented. A software
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tool Educosoft as well as Pearson’s My Math Lab were used to facilitate tutoring sessions. The

sessions were found to be highly successful as they resulted in an improvement in the passing

rates of mathematics placement exams from 16 to 42 percent (Garcia, 2014, p. 63).

Praxis

Promising practices in tutoring are many. One important feature for success of tutoring is

that underprepared students are recruited to obtain tutoring very early in academic careers.

While students are helped by tutoring through increased persistence, academic achievement,

greater retention, and degree completion, these benefits are most fruitful when underprepared

students are served by tutoring early in their careers. It might be too late for the impact of

tutoring to be felt if the students have already been discouraged by their repeated lack of success

in college. Therefore, since tutoring has been shown to have a positive impact on placement

scores, this service could me made mandatory for certain student populations with entering

college. Those with low GPA’s and low ACT scores could be required to participate in tutoring

so that their placement scores might improve.

Another promising practice involves clarifying the roles of tutors early in their

interactions with students. It was determined that students needed to first be academically

socialized before they could use tutors as resources. The process of socialization can take place

through tutors and students being explained the issue of expectations. The students cannot be

passive observers in their interactions with tutors. Instead, students should be socialized to be

active participants in the learning process.

In addition to socialization of students, tutors must be trained in understanding and

applying scaffolding as a tutoring technique. Pol (2010) breaks scaffolding down into three

components: contingency, fading, and transfer of responsibility. In regards to contingency, Pol

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explains this “as responsiveness, tailored, adjusted, differentiated, or calibrated support (p. 274).”

Essentially, the tutor adopts how they will guide the student by judging what is the students’

current level of understanding. Next characteristic of scaffolding discussed by Pol is fading.

Here, the tutor is gradually withdrawing the scaffolding. The level of guidance for the student

should lessen over time. This determines the last characteristic of scaffolding: transfer of

responsibility. Here student is taking increasing control of their learning.

Another helpful tutoring technique to improve effectiveness is Socratic questioning.

Three types exist: spontaneous or unplanned, exploratory, and focused. During spontaneous or

unplanned Socratic questioning there is a concern with intellectual standards. The tutor is

concerned with whether or not what the student thinks is true or false, logical or illogical,

reasonable or unreasonable. In exploratory Socratic questioning the tutor assesses student

thinking on a subject. Here the tutor may identify what is clear and what is confusing for the

student. In focused Socratic questioning, the tutor probes an issue or concept in depth. The

student and the tutor clarify, sort, analyze, and evaluate thoughts and perspectives. In other

words they work together to synthesize knowledge (Paul, 2008, p. 35).

The last recommended promising practice for increase in effectiveness of tutoring is that

students be given an opportunity to spend additional time on a task and practice skills. This

additional time related to increased knowledge, critical thinking and student satisfaction and

confidence. A means of providing an opportunity to spend additional time practicing a skill can

come from tutoring software. Fullmer and Garcia’s studies showed that the use of My Reading

Lab, My Writing Lab and My Math Lab software as well as Aleks software helped increase

student placement test scores. Therefore, effectiveness of tutoring can be augmented through the

use of learning software in order to provide students with more opportunities for practice.
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References

Center for Community College Student Engagement. (2014). A Matter of Degrees: Practices to

Pathways (High-impact practices for community college student success). Austin, TX:

Colvin, J. W. (2007, May). Peer Tutoring and Social Dynamics in Higher Education. Mentoring

and Tutoring: Partnership in Learning, 15(2), 165-181.

Fauria, R. M., & Fuller, M. B. (2015). Transfer Student Success: Educationally Purposeful

Activities Predictive of Undergraduate GPA. Research and Practice in Assessment, 10,

39-52.

Fetsco, T. G., Tang, W., & Totura, C. (n.d.). Peer Tutoring and Deep Understanding. Research in

Practice, (3), 2nd ser., 1-8.

Fullmer, P. (2012). Assessment of Tutoring Laboratories in a Learning Assistance Center.

Journal of College Reading and Learning, 42(2), 67-89.

Garcia, R., Morales, J. C., & Rivera, G. (2014, December). The Use of Peer Tutoring to Improve

the Passing Rates in Mathematics Placement Exams of Engineering Students: A Success

Story. American Journal of Engineering Education, 5(2), 61-72.

Hetzel, C. J., Laskey, M. L., & Hardt-Schultz, R. F. (2014, August 21). The Nuances of Tutoring

and Academic Performance of Undergraduate Students.

Paul, R., & Elder, L. (2008). Critical Thinking: The Art of Socratic Questioning, Part III. Journal

of Developmental Education, 31(3), 34-35.

Pol, J. V., Volman, M., & Beishuizen, J. (2010). Scaffolding in Teacher–Student Interaction: A

Decade of Research. Educational Psychology Review, 22(3), 271-296.

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Rheinheimer, D. C., Grace-Odeleye, B., Francois, G. E., & Kusorgbor, C. (2010, Spring).

Tutoring: A Support Strategy for At-Risk Students. Learning Assistance Review, 15(1),

23-34.

Valkenburg, J. (2010, Fall). Joining the Conversation: Scaffolding and Tutoring Mathematics.

Learning Assistance Review, 15(2), 33-41.