©2009 Society of Economic Geologists, Inc.

Economic Geology, v. 104, pp. 267–289

The Nonsulfide Zinc Deposit at Accha (Southern Peru):

Geological and Mineralogical Characterization
MARIA BONI,†
Università di Napoli “Federico II,” Dipartimento di Scienze della Terra, Via Mezzocannone, 8 80134 Napoli, Italy, and
Geologisch-Paläontologisches Institut, Universität Heidelberg, Germany

GIUSEPPINA BALASSONE,
Università di Napoli “Federico II,” Dipartimento di Scienze della Terra, Via Mezzocannone, 8 80134 Napoli, Italy

VERNON ARSENEAU,
Zincore Metals Ltd., 1650-701 West Georgia St., Vancouver, British Columbia V7Y 1C6, Canada

AND PAUL SCHMIDT

PRS Associates, 1213 Argreen Rd. Mississauga, Ontario L5G 3J2, Canada

Abstract
The Accha-Yanque zinc belt is located in the southern Altiplano of Peru, a major zinc-rich metallogenic
province hosting a number of economic mineral deposits (porphyry copper and skarn ores). Several nonsulfide-
type occurrences, showings, and mineral deposits are situated in a belt, peripheral to the northern, northeast-
ern, and northwestern edge of the Oligocene-(Miocene?) Yauri-Apurímac batholith. Mineralization is hosted
in breccias of both sedimentary and tectonic origin in the limestones of the Middle to Upper Cretaceous Fer-
robamba Formation. Primary ores belong to the carbonate replacement deposit type and are at least in part
structurally controlled. Currently, the Zn mineralization is almost fully oxidized: the Accha deposit can be as-
signed to both direct replacement and wall-rock replacement types. The mineralized zone (indicated resources
5.1 Mt @ 8.2% Zn and 0.9% Pb) occupies the hinge of an anticlinal dome that has been exposed by erosion.
The southern limb of the structure dips about 55° to the south-southwest, whereas its northern limb is trun-
cated by faults. The nonsulfide concentrations, consisting of a mineralized zone 5 to 20 m thick, are continu-
ous along strike to the west for at least 700 m.
The mineralogy of the Accha deposit shares many characteristics with that of the typical carbonate-hosted
calamine-type nonsulfide Zn ores. The nonsulfide mineral association consists mainly of smithsonite and hemi-
morphite replacing both primary ore minerals and carbonate host rocks. Hydrozincite has been detected only
in samples near the surface. Smithsonite occurs in zoned concretions with goethite, Mn (hydr)oxides and Zn
clays, as well as replacive cement in the limestone intervals. One of the most peculiar nonsulfide Zn minerals
at Accha is a sauconite-like, zincian smectite, variably concentrated throughout the deposit. Locally sauconite
occurs as replacement of detrital feldspars and/or detrital fragments occurring in marly sediments or in infills
of karst cavities. It also replaces both hemimorphite and smithsonite deposited during earlier stages.
The age of the supergene products in the whole belt is poorly constrained, although there is geomorphologic
evidence that the formation of supergene minerals postdates by more than 10 m.y. the last large-scale sec-
ondary enrichment event that terminated with central Andean climatic desiccation at ~15 Ma. The age of the
Accha deposit may be consistent with a Pliocene K-Ar date of 3.3 ± 0.2 Ma obtained for supergene alunite from
the top part of the leached cap in the nearby Cotabambas Cu deposit.

Introduction the processing challenges have been successfully overcome

THE ACCHA DEPOSIT is located in southern Peru, 70 km south
of the city of Cuzco in the 30-km-long Accha-Yanque belt,
where other Zn and Pb prospects are currently under explo-
ration (Fig. 1). Accha is a nonsulfide Zn (Pb) deposit (with
estimated resources of 5.1 Mt @ 8.2% Zn and 0.9% Pb) cur-
rently owned by Zincore Metals. The nonsulfide Zn concen-
trations of Accha are amenable to processing by leaching, sol-
vent extraction, and electrowinning, using, at least partly, the
process developed by Anglo-American at the Skorpion zinc
SXEW plant in Namibia. The increase in the Zn prices in
2006 and 2007 resulted in the revival of several zinc oxide
projects. Those with metallurgy similar to Skorpion, where
† Corresponding author: e-mail, boni@unina.it
(Cole and Sole, 2002; Gnoinski, 2007), have the best chance
of success. These deposits have a relatively simple mineral-
ogy, good extraction recovery, and higher grades. Examples
are Angouran, Iran (Boni et al., 2007a), Shaimerden, Kaza-
khstan, Jabali, Yemen, and most recently Torlon Hill,
Guatemala.
“Nonsulfide zinc” is a very general term, which comprises a
whole series of minerals (Large, 2001; Hitzman et al., 2003;
Boni, 2005a). The only minerals of current economic impor-
tance are the carbonates smithsonite and hydrozincite, and
the silicates hemimorphite, willemite, as well as Zn smectite.
Zinc can also be hosted in other types of clay minerals differ-
ent from smectites, as in chloritelike clays (Rule and Radke,
1988; Blot et al., 1995; E. Belogub, pers. commun.). High

0361-0128/09/3811/267-23 267
268 BONI ET AL.

72°00’ W 71°50’ W
N
TITIMINAS
WEST
PERU
Accha
STUDY
AREA

14°00’ S
TITIMINAS
SW CAMP ACCHA
ZONE TITIMINAS

AZULCANCHA

Quartz feldspar porphyry

( Tertiary)
Yauri-Apurímac batholith
YURAC
( Oligo-Miocene)

Puno Group
OSCOLLO ( Eocene-Oligocene)
PUYANI
Ferrobamba Fm
( Cretaceous)
MINASCCASA Mara Fm
(upper Jurassic)
14°10’ S
YANQUE
Zinc (small) prospect

Zinc deposit

10 km

FIG. 1. Schematic geology of the Accha-Yanque mineralized belt in southern Peru.

amounts of Zn have been detected also in Mn (hydr)oxides, as
in the Jabal Dhaylan prospect, Saudi Arabia (Hayes et al.,
2000). However, these concentrations are relatively uncom-
mon. The high-temperature mineralogical association of
franklinite, zincite, and gahnite, occurring in the Franklin-
Sterling Hill-type deposits in North America, is also not very
common (Johnson, 2001). Willemite-rich ores (Beltana, Aus-
tralia; Vazante, Brazil; Berg Aukas, Namibia, Kabwe, and Star
Zinc, Zambia), associated with Proterozoic carbonates, were
also probably deposited in higher temperature conditions as
hypogene nonsulfides (Sweeney et al., 1991; Brugger et al.,
2003).
Despite widespread distribution of surficial zinc oxides,
economic zinc nonsulfide deposits are much less common
than sulfide zinc deposits. Host-rock composition signifi-
cantly influences the mineralogy (and therefore metallurgy)
of nonsulfide zinc deposits. Those in limestone and dolomite
tend to be dominated by smithsonite and hydrozincite, due to
the interaction of low-pH Zn-rich ground-water fluids with
host carbonates, whereas deposits in siliciclastic rocks (where
Al and Si are available) tend to contain hemimorphite- and
sauconite-bearing assemblages. However, even with similar
host rocks, the mineralogy can vary substantially: it can be rel-
atively simple (smithsonite, hemimorphite, hydrozincite), as
in the oxidation products derived from low-temperature sul-
fide deposits (Mississippi Valley- or Irish carbonate-hosted
types) or far more complex when derived from the weather-
ing of high-temperature, pyrite-bearing ores of carbonate re-
placement deposits of skarn origin, owing to the wide range
of metals associated in the primary mineralization (Hitzman
et al., 2003). Complex nonsulfide ores can contain Fe- and
Mn-rich zinc minerals such as Fe smithsonite, Zn dolomite
and/or minrecordite, manganosiderite, hetaerolite, as well as
Cu carbonates and arsenic, phosphorous, and vanadium min-
erals (Borg et al., 2003; Boni et al., 2007b).
The entire range of nonsulfide Zn minerals, with the ex-
ception of Zn spinels are leachable in sulfuric acid. However,
because the differences in dissolution rates of the zinc miner-
als present in the deposit may have strong implications for the
production strategies and metallurgical requirements, it is
highly advisable to conduct detailed mineralogical and petro-
graphical studies early in the exploration process.
The economic value of zinc nonsulfide ores is thus depen-
dent not only on the geologic setting of each deposit but also

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 268

 NONSULFIDE ZINC DEPOSIT, ACCHA, PERU
on the specific characteristics of the mineralogical association
and the nature of the gangue minerals (Boni, 2005a; Woollett,
2005; de Wet and Singleton, 2008). As mineral processing for
a number of deposits was not available only a decade ago, a
few deposits (as Jabali in Yemen) are now about to enter into
full production. An exception was the Padaeng supergene
nonsulfide zinc deposit at Mae Sod (Thailand), which has
been in operation since 1983, using the old Vieille Montagne
extraction process (C. Allen, per. commun.).
A thorough mineralogical and petrographic examination,
aimed at identifying which zinc minerals are present in order
to understand and facilitate the mineral processing, has been
carried out on the Accha nonsulfide mineralization, the re-
sults of which are reported here.
General Geological Setting and Mineralization
The Mesozoic and Cenozoic stratigraphy of the region
south of Cuzco in Peru (Fig. 2) is chiefly made up of Jurassic
and Cretaceous sedimentary successions. These were de-
posited in two basins (western and eastern Peruvian basins)
separated by the Cuzco-Puno basement high (Jaillard and
Soler, 1996). The northeastern edge of the Western basin in-
cludes the Lagunillas and Yura Groups (Marocco, 1978) made
up of Lower Jurassic limestone and Middle to Upper Jurassic
quartzarenite and shale of the Soraya and Mara Formations,
whose total thickness is approximately 800 m. The top of the
72°30’ W 72°00’ W
CUZCO
COTABAMBAS
PARURO
14°00’ S
Accha
SANTO TOMÁS
14°30’ S
VELILLE
FIG. 2. General geologic map of the mineralized district around the Yauri-Apurímac batholith (modified from Perelló et
al., 2003).
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
269
succession consists of the massive to laminated micritic lime-
stone of the Middle to Upper Cretaceous Ferrobamba For-
mation (Marocco, 1978), containing intercalated black shales
and nodular chert. This formation hosts the Accha mineral-
ization. The Ferrobamba Formation or local early Cenozoic
successions are unconformably overlain by the subaerially de-
posited sedimentary San Jerónimo Group and the dominantly
volcanic Anta Formation. These units of Eocene to early
Oligocene age are more than 1.5 km thick. The San Jerónimo
Group consists of two main formations (Kayra and Soncco)
made up of red terrigenous and conglomeratic sediments in-
terbedded with tuffaceous horizons near the top. The San
Jerónimo is equivalent to the Puno Group of the Peruvian al-
tiplano southeast of the study region, where it is overlain by
the volcanic horizons of the Miocene Tacaza Group (Jaillard
and Santander, 1992).
The main part of the region was affected by several Late
Cretaceous to Pliocene tectonic events (Marocco, 1975).
Most significant are the Eocene to early Oligocene (Incaic)
and Oligocene to Miocene (Quechua) events. The Mesozoic
to Cenozoic strata were moderately to intensely deformed in
large, northwest-trending folds with dominantly northerly
vergence (Perelló et al., 2003). The most intense folding in
the region typically involves the carbonate and shaly succes-
sions of the Ferrobamba Formation and equivalent units that
wrap around the less deformed quartz arenites of the Yura
N Miocene to Pliocene volcanics
Oligocene to Miocene continental sediments
(Paruro, Punachanca Fms. and equivalent
units)
URCOS
Oligocene to Miocene subaerial volcanic
rocks (Tazaca and Sillipaca Gps. and
equivalent units)
Eocene to early Oligocene Apurímac-Yauri
Batholith
Eocene to early Oligocene volcanic and
ACCHA sedimentary rocks (Anta Fm.)
Eocene to early Oligocene red bed
sequences (San Jerónimo and Puno Gps.)
Mesozoic to early Cenozoic marine
sedimentary sequence (Yura and Lagunillas
Gps.; Ferrobamba Fm.)
Late Paleozoic to early Triassic mainly
LIVITACA volcanic rocks (Mitu Gp.)
Porphyry Cu cluster/deposit
Non sulfide Zn deposit Town/Village
Fe-Zn(Cu, Au) Skarn
Reverse fault Fault Syncline Anticline
25 km
269
270 BONI ET AL.
Group. Subsequently, the red beds of the San Jerónimo
Group were deposited in structurally controlled, northeast-
trending synorogenic basins (Perelló et al., 2003).
The Mesozoic sedimentary rocks, as well as the lower part
of the Tertiary ones, have been intruded by the Yauri
batholith (Fig. 2), whose age extends from Eocene to
Oligocene (Noble et al., 1984; Perelló et al., 2003). This com-
plex and polyphase magmatic body, whose emplacement was
synchronous with the Incaic orogeny, is also known locally as
the Abancay (Marocco, 1978) or Apurímac batholith (Pecho,
1981; Mendívil and Dávila, 1994). The batholith is composed
of a multitude of intrusions (consisting of gabbrodiorites,
monzodiorites, and granodiorites) that crop out discontinu-
ously for over 300 km between the towns of Andahuaylas in
the northwest and Yauri in the southeast. Subvolcanic rocks of
dominantly granodioritic and/or dacitic composition repre-
sent the last magmatic stage (Perelló et al., 2003). Until the
late 1980s, the region around the Yauri-Apurimac batholith
had received only limited geologic interest and was mainly
known for its Cu-Mo-Au–bearing, magnetite-rich skarn de-
posits located at the contact with intrusive monzonite and
granodiorite rocks. Examples are Millo, Iris, and Millohuayco
(Santa Cruz et al., 1979; Einaudi et al., 1981).
Later, important porphyry copper and gold deposits were
discovered in the area, occurring in association with multiple
intrusive and effusive phases of the Yauri batholith, best ex-
emplified by the Tintaya, Las Bambas, and Katanga ores (Sil-
litoe, 1990). Zn-Pb and Ag carbonate replacement deposits
were reported from the Ferrobamba Formation and equiva-
lent units up to distances of several kilometers from the main
porphyry intrusions (Carman et al., 2000; Perellò et al., 2003).
Perelló et al. (2003) considered the calc-alkaline magmas of
the Yauri-Apurímac batholith and associated porphyry-style
and skarn mineralization as generated during subduction flat-
tening, which triggered a pronounced crustal shortening and
tectonism, followed by strong uplift. Recent K-Ar data con-
firm that the porphyry copper mineralization, the skarn, and
possibly also most of the carbonate replacement deposits in
the region (including the primary sulfides in the Accha belt),
have ages ranging between 41.9 ± 1.1 and 28.7 ± 0.8 Ma
(Noble et al., 1984; Mathur et al., 2001; Perelló et al., 2003).
Though supergene alteration affected most of these de-
posits, secondary metal enrichments are of variable impor-
tance. Partial to complete oxidation of sulfides in skarn and
porphyry deposits in the region around the Yauri batholith
mostly reaches depths of 30 to 50 m, locally even 150 m
(Perelló et al., 2003). However, most of the porphyry systems
in the area lack significant zones of supergene enrichment.
This is due to relatively low pyrite contents and presence of
high neutralization capacities (Perelló et al., 2003) in the host
rocks (potassic alteration zones as well as carbonates of the
ubiquitous Ferrobamba Formation). The best conditions for
supergene copper enrichment (not always available in the re-
gion) include (1) country rocks other than carbonates, such as
the quartz arenites of the Yura Group, (2) appreciable
amounts of pyrite in the alteration zones, and (3) a pluvial
regime characteristic of the elevated Cordilleran topography
(Sillitoe, 2005). Consequently, most supergene cap rocks of
the orebodies in the Andahuaylas-Yauri district are immature,
typically goethitic in composition, with only a few containing
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 270
appreciable amounts of copper in the form of carbonate, sili-
cate, and associated Cu oxide minerals. Although the pre-
dominance of carbonate strata (with their strong buffering ca-
pacity) around the Yauri batholith is not favorable to
supergene Cu enrichment zones, it is ideal for the formation
of nonsulfide Zn-Pb ores from carbonate-hosted sulfide de-
posits. These are commonly associated with variably deep
karst dissolution.
The age of the supergene products in the Andahuaylas-Yauri
region is poorly constrained, even though there is good evi-
dence for a Pliocene (or even younger) timing for the main
weathering processes. A strong argument for Late Tertiary ox-
idation events is the relationship of oxidation with strong up-
lift pulses, which took place in this region of the Andes well
after the middle Miocene (Schildgen et al., 2007; Garzione et
al., 2008). In response to these uplifts and increasing runoff
due to a wetter climate recorded after 7 Ma (Thouret et al.,
2007), distinct erosion pulses occurred in the area at an aver-
age rate of 0.2 mm yr–1. These erosion pulses resulted in deep
valley incisions, which reached a total depth of 2.4 km. An ad-
ditional incision phase affected the already-established
Quechua II paleosurface between 5.1 and 2.3 Ma (Garzione et
al., 2008). Geomorphologic evidence shows that the formation
of several chalcocite blankets on top of the Cu deposits located
around the Andahuaylas-Yauri batholith are of Pliocene age
and, as in other regions of the central Andes, postdate by >10
m.y. the last global scale secondary enrichment event that ter-
minated with the central Andean climatic desiccation at ~15
Ma (Sillitoe and McKee, 1996; Brimhall and Mote, 1997). Also
the supergene Zn-Pb enrichment zones located at high eleva-
tions (~4,000 m), as at Accha and Yanque, may be associated
either with one of the Pliocene uplifts or with the multiple
topographic rejuvenations, which have been reported
throughout the region (e.g., Cabrera et al., 1991).
Absolute ages of the supergene minerals are sparse in this
part of Peru. The only existing age is a K-Ar date of 3.3 ± 0.2
Ma (late Pliocene, Perelló et al., 2003) for supergene alunite
from the top part of the leached cap in the Cotabambas Cu
deposit.
Accha geologic setting
The Accha nonsulfide Zn (Pb) deposit is located at an ele-
vation of 4,000 to 4,400 m above sea level, in the high Andes
south of the city of Cuzco. It occurs at the north end of the
30-km-long Accha-Yanque belt, along the northwestern bor-
der of the Yauri-Apurimac batholith (Figs. 1, 2). The area lies
on a broad anticline oriented west-northwest, parallel to the
predominant regional Andean trend (Carman et al., 2000).
The main nonsulfide concentrations occur in the Titiminas lo-
cality. According to the classification of Hitzman et al. (2003),
these nonsulfides can be assigned to both direct replacement
and wall-rock replacement.
Direct replacement deposits are equivalent to Zn-rich gos-
sans, where smithsonite and hydrozincite replace sphalerite
and cerussite replaces galena; whereas wall-rock replacement
deposits, where the main ore mineral is microcrystalline
smithsonite, derive from the buffering reactions between the
carbonate host rocks and acidic ground water containing zinc.
A number of poorly known zinc and lead prospects, which
locally contain copper and silver values, occur at several
 NONSULFIDE ZINC DEPOSIT, ACCHA, PERU
localities along the Accha-Yanque belt (Fig. 1). The Yanque
prospect, currently under active exploration and where Pb
minerals (cerussite>>galena) prevail over Zn nonsulfides, oc-
curs at the southwestern extremity of the belt. The inferred
mineral resource estimate for the Yanque prospect is about
10.3 million metric tons (Mt) grading 5.3 percent Zn and 5.4
percent Pb (McMahon, 2008).
The geologic setting in the Accha area was first described
by Carman et al. (2000) and Hudson et al. (2000) and then
summarized by Winter (2006). Recent mapping conducted by
Marsden (2006) offers new insights into the local geology
(Fig. 3). The schematic stratigraphic succession and lithologic
units in the Accha area are shown in Figure 4. Formations of
major geologic importance in the mining district are the
following:
1. Soraya Formation (Yura Group, Middle Jurassic).
2. Mara Formation (Yura Group, Upper Jurassic).
3. Ferrobamba Formation (Middle-Upper Cretaceous).
The Ferrobamba Formation consists mainly of carbonates
(limestone>>dolomite) with thin shaly intervals and was sub-
divided by Winter (2006) from base to top in (a) thin-bedded
to laminated limestone with interbeds of massive limestone
and limestone breccia; (b) thin-bedded, commonly dark, lam-
inated, locally shaly limestone with massive interbeds (b1 and
b2). This unit is locally brecciated and the main host to zinc
mineralization; (c) massive- to thick-bedded micritic lime-
stone (c1 and c2); (d) laminated cherty limestone with massive
micrite interbeds; (e) thin- to medium-bedded dark lime-
stone with massive interbeds containing chert nodules; (f)
medium-bedded micrite limestone, characterized by patchy
yellow dolomite and/or ankerite alteration. The topmost part
of this unit is generally lacking, except where unconformably
overlain by the San Jeronimo Group sediments.
4. San Jerónimo-Puno Group detrital succession (Eocene-
Oligocene).
The sedimentary rocks belonging to this Group generally
crop out at Accha as a coarse conglomerate with polymictic
clasts, consisting of intrusive rocks, limestone, and quartzite.
The matrix of the conglomerate is a red mud-supported sand-
stone. The San Jerónimo Group has been named “Puno
Group” in internal company reports and maps.
5. Tertiary magmatic rocks associated with the onset of the
Yauri batholith.
The Tertiary Yauri-Apurímac batholith consists mainly of
intrusive bodies, with a minor contribution of porphyry stocks
and tuffitic products. In the Accha area the composition is
dioritic to granodioritic. The most common magmatic rocks
of the area are: (a) hornblende-feldspar porphyry stocks; and
(b) feldspar porphyry and quartz-feldspar porphyry.
A local development of subrecent glacial tills, locally cover-
ing the nonsulfide concentrations, has been recorded within
the project area.
The main compressional deformation affecting the Fer-
robamba limestone commonly resulted in northward-verging
folds and thrust faults. The deformation of the thin-bedded
limestone (main host of the nonsulfides) is quite complex,
with well-developed S- or Z-shaped folds (Winter, 2006).
Whereas the Ferrobamba Formation carbonate rocks at
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 271
271
Accha are commonly tightly folded, the underlying Soraya
Formation quartzites (Yura Group) are less deformed.
Main Characteristics of the Accha Deposit
The primary sulfide mineralization in the Accha-Titiminas
zone, hosted in the Ferrobamba limestone, is genetically re-
lated to Tertiary igneous activity (Bradford, 2002) and con-
trolled by the local tectonic setting (Carman et al., 2000).
Owing to the location close to the northern outcrops of the
Yauri-Apurímac batholith and the elevated content of gra-
nophile elements like arsenic, molybdenum, strontium, and
thallium (present also in the nonsulfide minerals, Bradford,
2002), the Accha primary base metal sulfide bodies can be
considered a product of an intrusive-related mineralization
event affecting carbonate rocks, basically similar to other dis-
tal skarn deposits occurring in the region (Einaudi et al.,
1981). The ore minerals consisted originally of sphalerite-
pyrite > galena, locally associated with halos of silica and fer-
roan dolomite. This dolomite, interpreted as hydrothermal in
origin, may have contained locally a fair amount of man-
ganese, given the high content of Mn (hydr)oxides concen-
trated in the secondary deposits. However, Mn may also be
sourced by weathered fluid escape structures, which consist
of Fe- and Mn-rich carbonate veinlets commonly occurring in
the distal areas of the skarn deposits (Meinert et al., 2005).
The thicker zones of mineralization are concentrated in the
(a) and (b) carbonate units of the Ferrobamba Formation (Fig.
4) and are hosted within strata-bound, brecciated, and lami-
nated limestone. The main host to mineralization consists of
carbonate-clay matrix-supported breccias and locally by very
thin, quartz-rich conglomerate layers. The total thickness of
the brecciated interval, visible both in outcrop and in drill
core, varies from 50 to 100 m, whereas individual breccia
zones are continuous over 5 to 20 m downhole. The breccias
are polymict, consisting of angular limestone clasts and rare
quartzite. Most breccias are poorly sorted with little or no ap-
parent grading. Unmineralized breccia intervals have been
recognized in the same stratigraphic position up to several
kilometers away from the Titiminas main mineralized zone.
Bradford (2002) interpreted the breccia bodies as hydraulic
in origin, caused by fluid overpressure focused by preexisting
faults. Winter (2006) considered most breccias as being genet-
ically related to tectonic processes. It is our opinion that several
breccia packages, as well as the obvious conglomerates at the
base of the Accha succession, are synsedimentary or early dia-
genetic in origin, possibly related to the instability of the lower
Ferrobamba depositional environment. However, their charac-
teristics are difficult to unravel, due to the generally strong ox-
idation associated with the breccia intervals (Fig. 5a).
The Zn-Pb mineralization at Accha occurs in four areas:
Titiminas (Figs. 2, 3), Titiminas West, the Camp zone, and
Titiminas Southwest (Fig. 1), all located on the western side
of the main Titiminas zone. According to Winter (2006) the
Titiminas mineralized bodies are hosted by a thick carbonate
wedge between two major thrust faults, known as the Main
and Middle thrust zones and pinch out where the two thrust
zones merge to the west and east of the main bodies. The
mineralization occupies the hinge of an anticline that has
been exposed by erosion. This anticline plunges abruptly to
the east at about 50° and about 35° to 40° to the west (Fig. 3).
 186500 E 186750 E
272
186000 E 186250 E

8454000 N

TITIMINAS

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
0.1

18.4

MET-04 AC-02 MET-02

AC-03 AC-04
MET-03
AC-01 MET-01
8453750 N
AC-02 MET-02
MET-04
AC-04

272
MET-03 AC-03
BONI ET AL.

AC-01 MET-01

C D B A

Limonite breccia
Drillholes Legend Mineralization (Zinc Gossan) 8453500 N
Puno-San Jerónimo Group
Collasuyo MET drill holes (Eocene-Early Oligocene)
Collasuyo AC drill holes
Rock Data Zn% Alteration Fold Axes
Puno Group (outcrop)
Roads 0.0 - 0.1 Dolomite F1 Syncline Ferrobamba Formation
0.2 - 1.0 Dolomite breccia (Middle-Upper Cretaceous)
Core DH Sample Zn% Dolomite/hematite F1 Anticline
1.1 - 5.0 f. Upper medium bedded limestone
0.0 - 2.0% Zn 5.1 - 100.0 Fe(hydr)oxides F2 Anticline e. Upper thin bedded limestone
FeOx (stockwork)
2.1 - 5.0% Zn FeOx (magnetite) F2 Syncline d. Cherty limestone
5.1 - 10.0% Zn Accha old workings Faults c2. Massive limestone
A Section c1. Thick bedded limestone
10.1 - 20.0% Zn
0 20 40 60 80 100m b1 & b2. Thin bedded dark limestone
20.1 -100.0% Zn a. Thin bedded limestone breccia

FIG. 3. Geologic map of the Accha-Titiminas area with the location of the AC and MET drill cores (modified from Zincore Ltd.).
 NONSULFIDE ZINC DEPOSIT, ACCHA, PERU 273

Group Formation Stratigraphy Thickness Description and/or silicates are also present throughout the succession.
Quaternary 5 - 20 m
Due to the intense oxidation of the outcrops, the primary tex-
Recent soils & glacial tills
Puno-
tures of the host rock are obscured. Distinctive red lithologic
San Eocene - Flysch units occur, which host fine-grained detrital sediments con-
> 1.5 km
Jerónimo Oligocene Conglomerate & Red Beds taining abundant quartz and feldspar, possible karst infillings.
Group
The boundaries between the red, mineralized intersections,
and the Ferrobamba limestone clasts and/or inserts are very
Upper Silty (Marly) Medium
Unit (e - f)
100 m sharp (Fig. 5c).
Bedded Limestone
The Titiminas Southwest zone consists of a massive barite
vein with local galena and iron oxide, along with nonsulfide
zinc mineralization. This zone is hosted along a fault devel-
oped at the contact between the Puno Group red beds and
Laminated the lower laminated part of the Ferrobamba Formation. In
Nodular Cherty
Cherty 140 m Laminated Micritic the Corrales area, 3 km southwest of Accha, a small strata-
Limestone
(d) Limestone bound body crops out, consisting of a network of nonsulfide
Middle - Upper Cretaceous

veins with galena and barite remnants in the matrix of lime-

Ferrobamba Formation

stone breccias. Along the same horizon also occurs a large

barite body with zebra texture. The zebra texture consists of
several layers of microcrystalline barite, dark dolomite, and
Massive almost completely oxidized sphalerite.
Limestone 120 m Fine Grained Massive
Micritic Limestone Several mineralogical studies have been carried out on the
(c)
Accha nonsulfides; results are found mainly in unpublished
company reports (Pontifex and Assoc., 1999; Pasminco, 2000;
Bradford, 2002; Boni, 2005b, 2007) and in the only publication
Transitional
Succession 50 -100 m Thin Bedded Limestone
by Carman et al. (2000). All the quoted reports recognize the Zn
(b2) hydrosilicate hemimorphite and the Zn carbonate smithsonite
as the main ore minerals occurring at Accha. Also the local oc-
Laminated Brecciated, Laminated & currence of Zn smectite has been mentioned, as well as the pos-
Succession 80 -100 m Foliated Bituminous Limestone sibility of zinc being partly hosted within the goethite lattice.
(b1)
Minor components also occur, like a few remnants of un-
weathered honey-colored sphalerite and pyrite, galena,
Footwall 100 m Fine Grained hematite, illite, and kaolinite clays. The possible occurrence
Limestone Micritic Limestone & of the Zn silicate willemite has also been mentioned. Smith-
(a) Limestone Breccia sonite should have locally replaced the host limestones, while
Red Bed Shale &
hemimorphite occurs preferentially in the Fe-rich gossanous
Mara Upper
Fm Jurassic
50 - 100 m Conglomerate parts of the deposit (Pasminco, 2000). A common association
exists between Mn oxides and smithsonite (in regular inter-
Yura Soraya Middle
growths), as well as Zn smectite in the fines (Pontifex and
Group > 8 km Quartzite & Shale Assoc., 1999; Pasminco, 2000). Fair amounts of hydrozincite
Fm Jurassic
were detected for the first time by Boni (2005b) in the gos-
sanous samples from the Titiminas trenches.
FIG. 4. Schematic stratigraphic section (not in scale) of the Accha area Quartz as well as K-feldspar is ubiquitous and fairly abun-
(modified from Winter, 2006). dant at Accha, whereas plagioclase is only a minor con-
stituent. These mineral species are detrital and generally as-
Strike-slip and transtensional northeast-trending faults trun- sociated with the mineralized intervals. The detrital minerals
cate the mineralized bodies in several places. Currently, the may have been concentrated in karst cavities and joints of the
orebodies are completely oxidized and only rare sulfide rem- Ferrobamba limestone. Another possibility is that they may
nants are recognizable in the Titiminas trenches (Fig. 5a) or have occurred as thin intercalations in the lower part of the
in drill cores. In the resource area Fe-rich nonsulfide con- Ferrobamba Formation, near the stratigraphic contact with
centrations containing zinc carbonate, silicate, and oxide min- the red beds of the Mara Formation. Such a stratigraphic po-
erals are exposed at the surface over an area measuring about sition has been recently hypothesized for the quartz- and
300 by 200 m (Winter, 2006; Fig. 3). Drilling has shown that feldspar-rich conglomerates and breccias hosting the Yanque
the oxide mineralization consists of zones 5 to 20 m thick, dip- Pb-Zn deposit (Collasuyo geologists, per. commun.).
ping 50º to 60 º to the south, traceable along strike to the west
for at least 700 m and at depth for at least 400 m. Sample Preparation and Analytical Methods
The mineralization generally consists of laminated, highly Mineralogical, petrographical, and geochemical research
porous, brown to yellow-brown lithotypes (Fig. 5b), contain- reported in this paper has been performed on 80 samples
ing Fe (hydr)oxide and banded nonsulfide Zn minerals. from the Accha prospect (Boni, 2007). The bulk of the ana-
Galena, with associated anglesite, can be found only locally. lytical work has been carried out on the MET 1, MET 2,
Stockwork to isolated pods of iron oxides and zinc carbonates MET 3, and MET 4 cores, spaced across a 200-m strike length

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 273

274 BONI ET AL.

Lms

Zinc Nonsulfides
Lms
a

Sm + Sau
Hem
10 cmLms
Sm + Sau

b 2 cm bc

Zinc Zap Sau

reaction

Mn-(hydr)oxides)

2 cm d 3 cm e
FIG. 5. a. Nonsulfide concentrations cropping out in a trench at Titiminas (Accha). Note the interfingering of oxidized ore
(red) and carbonate rocks (gray). b. Typical ore lithology (2A) from the MET1-23-86.0 drill core, mainly smithsonite,
goethite, and sauconite. c. Sharp ore-limestone contact in MET2-21-85.2. d. Typical reaction of Zinc Zap solution in a Zn-
rich section of MET1 core. e. Lithology 2C, consisting mainly of sauconite (yellow) with bands of Zn-rich Mn (hydr)oxides
(dark; from MET1-26-98.55).

of the eastern part of the Accha deposit and drilled between
2006 and 2007 by Zincore Metals for metallurgical purposes.
These holes (Figs. 3, 6a-d) were selected to be representative
of at least parts of the deposit. However, because drilling con-
tinued along strike the distribution and occurrence of the var-
ious minerals may differ from those detected in the prelimi-
nary holes. The MET cores are overall quite comparable (with
some minor but significant variations) to the parallel explo-
ration drill holes AC 01, AC 02, AC 03, and AC 04 (Fig. 3), on
which the resource calculation study has been made. The
MET and AC holes were differentiated by changing the dip
angle by 2º to 5º; their drill collars were not coincident.
Before sampling, a rough evaluation of the higher grade
cores was made both visually and by testing with Zinc Zap re-
actant (a solution of 3% potassium ferricyanide (K3Fe(CN)6)
and 0.5% diethylaniline dissolved in 3% oxalic acid, which
causes a bright red coloration on the rocks when zinc is pre-
sent; Fig. 5d). All the chosen core fragments were pho-
tographed in situ before being sampled.
For polished thin section preparation, the samples were
impregnated with Araldite D and Raku Hardener EH 2950.
The remaining samples, which were too friable to allow the
preparation of good thin sections, were observed as fragments
under a stereoscopic microscope and used for X-ray diffrac-
tion and chemical analysis.
Samples were divided in half: a thin polished section for
petrography (when possible) was prepared from the first half;
X-ray diffraction was carried out on the second half to acquire
a broad summary of the mineral phases present. A SEIFERT
MZVI automated diffractometer (XRD), with CuKα radia-
tion, 40 kV, and 30mA, 5 s/step and a step scan of 0.05° 2θ was
used. Some of the X-ray analyses were repeated on selected

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 274

 8453600 8453700 8453800 8453900 8454000 8453600 8453700 8453800 8453900 8454000

4350 4350

N
4300 MET - 01 4300

MET - 02
4250 4250 4300 4300

4200 4200 4250 4250

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
4150 4150 4200 4200

4100 4100 4150 4150

4050 4050 4100 4100

4000 4000 4050 4050

SECTION 186750E SECTION 186650E

0 100 a 0 100 b
4000 4000
8453600 8453700 8453800 8453900 8454000 8453600 8453700 8453800 8453900 8454000
8453500 8453600 8453700 8453800 8453900 8454000 8453600 8453700 8453800 8453900 8454000

275
4400 4400 4350 4350
N

N
MET - 04
4350 4350 4300 4300

MET - 03
4300 4300 4250 4250
NONSULFIDE ZINC DEPOSIT, ACCHA, PERU

4250 4250 4200 4200

4200 4200
4150 4150

4150 4150 4100 4100

4100 4100 4050 4050

SECTION 186550E SECTION 186600E

0 100 c 0 100 d
4000 4000

8453500 8453600 8453700 8453800 8453900 8454000 8453600 8453700 8453800 8453900 8454000

Massive Limestone (c) Thin Bedded Limestone (b1-b2) Mineralized interval Soil/Overburden

Cherty Limestone (d) Ferruginous Limestone Breccia Layer

FIG. 6. a-d. Geologic cross sections of the mineralized zone, with the location of the MET 1 to MET 4 drill cores (modified from Exploraciones Collasuyo).
275
276 BONI ET AL.

parts of the samples with different color or aspect. Semi-
quantitative XRD analyses were performed on 26 samples
from MET 1, 29 samples from MET 2, seven samples from
MET 3, and 18 samples from MET 4.
Quantitative XRD analysis (wt %) was carried out on 30
samples, chosen among those analyzed by the semiquantita-
tive XRD method, representing the better characterized min-
eralized lithologic units. The quantitative phase analysis
(QPA) was performed using the Rietveld method (Rietveld,
1969; Bish and Howard, 1988; Hill, 1991; Bish and Post,
1993). The results are given in Table 1. These data were com-
plemented with the assay data of the same samples, measured
at the chemical laboratory of Mintek (Johannesburg). Table 2
shows the summary results obtained from the assays carried
out at the ALS Chemex laboratory in Lima on the equivalent
intercepts of the AC one to four drill holes. The latter results
were used for resource calculation.
X-ray powder diffraction data were analyzed using the Gen-
eral Structure Analysis System package (GSAS; Larson and
Von Dreele, 2000) and its graphical interface EXPGUI (Toby,
2001). The XRD data for QPA were collected using the
Seifert-GE instrument with 2- and 3-mm divergence slits,
0.1-mm antiscatter slit, and 1-mm receiving slits. The data
were collected from 2° to 100° 2θ with 18 s counts per step
(step scan 0.02° 2θ). The XRD spectra were converted to
ASCII format by ConvX software and then interpreted by
Expgui software. Multiple refinements were performed due
to the large number of phases present in most samples.
Polished thin sections (~30 µm thick) were observed under
a petrographic microscope (transmitted and reflected light).
Many samples were examined by cathodoluminescence (CL)
petrography, utilizing a CITL 8200 Mk3 cold cathodolumi-
nescence instrument at the Institut für Geowissenschaften,
Universität Heidelberg (Germany), operating at 23- to 25-kV
voltage and a 500- to 550-µA beam current. The use of a
cathodoluminescence microscope is an easy way to distin-
guish different nonsulfide minerals, even if occurring in com-
plex intergrowths.

TABLE 1. Selected Samples from the Accha Metallurg

Quantitative analyses

Sm Hem Sa Goe Qz Kf Cc Ka Ill Ha Cha Ce Ja Co Pr

(wt %)

MET 1
MET1-22-83.45 36.1 22.1 36.6 4.0 1.2
MET1-22-84.00 2.0 75.4 2.6 18.8 1.2
MET1-22-85.4 38.0 23.4 2.9 35.0 0.6 0.1
MET1-23-86 35.0 9.6 8.1 40.9 1.0 5.5
MET1-24-90.8 43.2 6.4 10.4 39.9
MET1-24-91.5 83.9 12.0 1.9 2.2
MET1-26-98.25 76.0 17.8 6.1
MET1-26-98.35 2.8 47.8 3.3 1.2 7.0 38.0
MET1-26-98.55 2.6 36.0 22.6 38.9
MET1-26-99.25 2.0 92.3 0.5 2.7 2.6

MET 2
MET2-15-54.7 76.2 8.5 4.9 2.8 1.6 6.0
MET2-15-54.9 80.5 3.0 15.5 1.1
MET2-16-59.1 49.5 10.2 17.4 15.3 1.0 6.6
MET2-21-75.2 90.3 1.2 4.2 1.6 2.7
MET2-21-76.55 90.1 1.3 2.6 1.6 4.4
MET2-22-78.55 4.7 30.5 6.8 58.0
MET2-22-80.25 20.5 30.7 48.9
MET2-22-80.55 2.5 17.5 50.8 7.8 18.7 2.8
MET2-28-99.3 1.8 63.8 7.6 25.7 1.2

MET 3
MET3-27-102.1 17.9 22.6 35.9 23.6
MET3-28-103.2 39.3 23.2 5.4 25.2 6.8

MET 4
MET4-29-104.05 27.1 13.9 21.2 13.0 20.1 3.0 1.8
MET4-29-105.45 25.1 9.2 27.9 7.6 25.8 2.9 1.5
MET4-30-109 65.4 5.3 12.1 5.8 5.2 2.3 3.9
MET4-31-111.4 88.0 4.1 6.0 1.9
MET4-31-112.3 65.7 18.2 16.1
MET4-31-113.2 86.0 4.6 6.1 3.2
MET4-35-126.85 72.0 20.3 3.7 4.0
MET4-37-136 7.6 13.6 9.6 3.5 64.0 1.8
MET4-38-139.00 27.1 1.6 12.8 53.2 1.9 3.5

Notes: Cc = calcite, Ce = cerussite, Cha = chalcophanite, Co = coronadite, Goe = goethite, Ha = halloysite, Hem = hemimorphite, Sm = smithsonite,
Sa = sauconite, Qz = quartz, Kf = K-feldspar, Ka = kaolinite, Ill = illite, Ja = jarosite, Pr = pyrolusite

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 276

 NONSULFIDE ZINC DEPOSIT, ACCHA, PERU 277

Secondary electron imagining by scanning electron mi-
croscopy (SEM) was carried out with a Jeol JSM 5310. Ele-
ment mapping and qualitative energy-dispersive (EDS) spec-
tra were obtained with the INCA microanalysis system
(Oxford). To get the mineralogical composition of selected
phases, we used a wavelength dispersion spectrometry (full
WDS) on a Cameca SX50 electron microprobe operating at
15 kV, 15 nA, and 10-µm spot size. Silicates, oxides, and pure
elements were used as standards.
Results
Mineral composition of nonsulfide ores
The data derived from X-ray analysis (partly complemented
by EDS), including a listing of all minerals that have been de-
tected at Accha in order of decreasing abundance, are shown in
Table 3a. Table 3b lists all nonsulfide Zn and Pb minerals oc-
curring in the deposit, with their stoichiometric Zn and Pb con-
tent. The Zn clay sauconite is among the most common miner-
als found in several samples. According to Ross (1946),
sauconite is a Zn-Na trioctahedral smectite. In this paper we use
the term “sauconite” as referring to the typical Zn-rich smectite
found at Accha, even though we were not able to determine the
actual Na wt percent in this clay mineral due to strong Na Kα-
Zn Lα peak overlap in both EDS and WDS analyses.
MET 1
The Zn-rich interval of this core (20–50% Zn) occurs be-
tween 80- and 100-m depth (Figs. 6a, 7a). A fairly high con-
centration of smithsonite has been detected in MET 1 starting
from 82.3 down to 99.25 m. Hemimorphite (occurring from
85.8–99.50 m) is generally spatially associated with Fe
(hydr)oxides, but not always with smithsonite, occurring with
two different associations: hemimorphite-smithsonite and
hemimorphite-sauconite. Sauconite is ubiquitous (from 79
down to 98 m) and locally very abundant. Quartz and K-
feldspar have also been detected. The occurrence of K-feldspar
in most samples is commonly correlated with the presence of

ical Drill Cores MET 1, MET 2, MET 3, and MET 4

Chemical assays

Mg Al Si Ca Mn Fe Zn Pb S K Na As Cl Cd Tl

(wt %) (ppm)

0.08 2.06 8.09 0.49 0.53 21.60 22.30 0.05 0.01 0.43 106 28 89 150 41

0.05 1.04 4.45 0.53 0.79 24.70 25.71 0.07 0.01 0.75 95 16 93 139 31
0.12 0.88 4.93 2.41 0.52 26.30 21.52 0.06 0.01 0.84 146 22 105 115 38
0.05 0.33 5.96 16.10 1.38 9.28 19.72 1.03 0.01 0.26 78 25 125 95 29
0.05 0.31 11.32 0.77 1.42 6.95 43.21 1.95 0.01 0.11 93 19 89 186 27
0.05 1.26 13.21 0.43 2.95 0.42 43.52 0.09 0.01 0.16 109 20 68 192 40
0.05 5.34 12.32 0.52 11.40 1.01 24.61 0.05 0.01 0.29 126 19 95 125 28
0.13 3.42 12.31 0.75 15.80 0.74 21.31 0.05 0.01 0.68 158 16 112 119 61
0.05 0.26 12.01 0.09 2.55 0.19 51.81 0.09 0.01 0.25 58 28 82 195 15

0.05 5.08 0.36 0.36 3.22 6.15 36.70 1.29 0.01 0.25 83 19 85 175 69
0.11 1.45 11.52 0.31 1.02 11.60 34.70 0.43 0.01 0.68 103 23 125 162 57
0.44 3.07 14.41 0.47 0.84 5.82 32.90 0.07 0.01 0.45 125 28 121 135 28
0.12 0.56 5.51 7.48 0.28 5.56 35.50 0.11 0.01 0.23 70 15 96 185 65
0.05 0.26 1.38 0.39 0.71 5.01 45.80 0.13 0.01 0.19 78 35 105 124 29
0.19 0.77 3.55 21.20 0.82 20.01 2.43 0.38 0.01 0.25 85 42 112 58 52
0.32 5.41 19.00 0.41 0.74 14.42 8.63 0.12 0.01 0.19 69 28 89 102 24
0.69 3.89 16.80 0.29 0.05 26.41 2.01 0.35 0.01 0.83 126 22 99 63 16
0.05 0.44 8.45 0.15 0.85 23.12 32.22 0.45 0.16 0.13 63 19 103 182 28

0.05 0.09 10.90 0.18 0.11 25.11 1.42 23.50 1.62 0.11 531 36 135 25 81
0.11 1.38 9.77 0.47 0.65 7.81 37.70 1.32 0.02 0.32 83 28 129 176 65

0.78 6.32 21.22 0.62 1.15 6.93 14.70 1.49 0.01 2.25 378 41 121 87 59
0.62 5.06 16.71 0.63 0.40 18.40 11.30 1.01 0.01 2.06 348 45 68 69 48
0.21 2.21 13.41 0.49 2.95 5.71 31.70 1.02 0.01 0.31 126 28 79 135 71
0.05 0.39 2.56 0.44 2.97 4.97 44.10 1.42 0.01 0.13 60 36 125 182 38
0.05 0.25 1.93 0.52 1.51 11.91 39.80 0.66 0.02 0.09 54 29 132 165 69
0.08 0.91 3.81 1.05 0.39 14.70 32.30 1.23 0.16 0.28 60 15 98 157 48
0.05 0.36 4.32 0.28 0.08 5.74 43.60 0.91 0.38 0.09 43 12 115 191 35
0.06 1.74 7.93 26.01 0.33 1.83 7.42 0.07 0.04 0.73 119 27 128 58 62

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 277

278 BONI ET AL.

TABLE 2. Summary Results Obtained from the Pb-Zn Assays (chalcophanite?), containing scavenged lead and thallium
on the Intercepts from Drill Holes AC-01 to AC-04 occur in the smectite-rich samples.
Hole no. From (m) To (m) Interval (m) Zn (%) Pb (%) MET 2
AC-01 The Zn-rich zones of this core (about 30–40% Zn) are be-
60.93 65.10 4.17 1.63 0.13 tween 54- to 60- and 75- to 78-m depth (Figs. 6b, 7b). The
79.00 90.20 11.20 4.51 0.18 MET 2 core seems to be of lower Zn grade, though, compared
82.75 86.42 3.67 8.09 0.02 to MET 1. Irregular amounts of Pb minerals, mainly cerussite,
118.27 119.96 1.69 6.46 0.42 but also beudantite and plumbojarosite, are also contained in
134.35 136.60 2.25 13.67 0.45
this core; the latter is particularly abundant in the samples be-
tween 65 and 75 m. Smithsonite commonly occurs in the
AC-02 lower part of the mineralized core, from 75 to 100 m, whereas
47.81 82.70 34.89 9.31 1.27 hemimorphite could be detected from 55 to 102.8 m. Zn
52.20 61.03 8.83 17.88 0.64 smectite can be locally very abundant. Crystalline goethite is
69.78 73.05 3.27 22.67 1.02
ubiquitous, as well as amorphous Fe (hydr)oxides. Illite and
84.50 98.80 14.30 1.95 0.08 kaolinite exist in minor, though detectable concentrations.
98.80 104.77 5.97 11.00 0.17
MET 3
AC-03 The higher Zn values of this core (max 37% Zn, contained
101.80 114.85 13.05 8.65 2.41
103.00 106.70 3.70 23.37 2.78 in smithsonite, hemimorphite, and lesser Zn smectite) have
been detected between 102- and 112-m depth (Figs. 6c, 7c).
AC-04 Plumbojarosite and cerussite prevail in the top of the sampled
102.84 120.10 17.26 8.65 0.97 section. Quartz, K-feldspar and illite-sericite (the latter de-
109.90 118.40 8.50 13.64 1.07
rived from the hydrothermal alteration of the K-feldspar)
125.35 130.66 5.31 5.87 0.18 have been detected locally.
188.45 193.40 4.95 5.64 1.30
MET 4
The higher Zn values of this core (10–44% Zn) are localized
between 102- to 119-m and between 126- to 136-m depth (Figs.
smectite and other clays, which may be derived from weath- 6d, 7d). Smithsonite is very common, whereas hemimorphite
ering of the same feldspars. Crystalline goethite is also abun- occurs only sporadically. Goethite is ubiquitous, and sauconite
dant, as well as possible forms of amorphous Fe (hydr)oxides has been detected in several samples. K-feldspar is locally
(typical evidence is the consistently high background de- present and coexists with Zn smectite, quartz, and small
tected on the X-ray traces). Abundant Mn (hydr)oxides amounts of illite, kaolinite, and probably halloysite.

TABLE 3. Most Common Ore and Gangue Minerals Occurring in the Accha Deposit (a) and
Ideal Chemical Formula of Nonsulfide Zn and Pb Minerals (b)

(a)

Minerals

Drill core Sm Hm Goe Ce Sa Ja Ox-1 Ox-2 Qz Cc Kf Ka Ill Ha

MET 1 䡬䡬䡬䡬 䡬䡬䡬 䡬䡬䡬䡬 䡬䡬 䡬 䡬䡬 䡬䡬䡬 䡬 䡬 䡬

MET 2 䡬䡬䡬䡬 䡬䡬䡬䡬 䡬䡬䡬 䡬 䡬䡬 䡬 䡬 䡬 䡬䡬 䡬䡬 䡬 䡬 䡬
MET 3 䡬䡬䡬䡬 䡬䡬䡬 䡬䡬 䡬䡬䡬䡬 䡬䡬 䡬䡬䡬 䡬 䡬 䡬䡬䡬 䡬䡬 䡬 䡬 䡬
MET 4 䡬䡬䡬䡬 䡬䡬䡬䡬 䡬䡬䡬 䡬䡬 䡬 䡬䡬 䡬䡬䡬 䡬 䡬 䡬 䡬

Notes: Cc = calcite, Ce = cerussite, Goe = goethite, Ha = halloysite, Hem = hemimorphite, Ill = illite, Ja = jarosite, Ka = kaolinite, Kf = K-feldspar, Ox-
1 = Fe-Zn-Mn hydr(oxides), Ox-2 = Mn-Pb hydr(oxides), Qz = quartz, Sa = Zn smectite, Sm = smithsonite; 䡬䡬䡬䡬 = very common, 䡬䡬䡬 = common, 䡬䡬 =
rare, 䡬 = very rare

(b)

Minerals Formula Wt % Zn Minerals Formula Wt % Pb

Smithsonite ZnCO3 52.15 Cerussite PbCO3 77.54

Hemimorphite Zn4Si2O7(OH)2⋅2H2O 54.29 Plumbojarosite PbFe6(SO4)4(OH)12 18.33
Zn smectite (sauconite) Na0.3(Zn,Mg)3(Si,Al)4⋅OH2⋅nH2O 33.81 Coronadite Pb(Mn4+,Mn2+)8O16 24.41
Hydrozincite Zn5(CO3)2(OH)6 59.55
Chalcophanite (Zn,Fe2+,Mn2+)Mn4+3O7⋅3(H2O) 17.09

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 278

 NONSULFIDE ZINC DEPOSIT, ACCHA, PERU 279

a HOLE ID: MET - 01 b HOLE ID: MET - 02 c HOLE ID: MET - 03 d HOLE ID: MET - 04
Final Depth: 168 ELEVATION: 4287 Final Depth: 130 ELEVATION: 4302 Final Depth: 180 ELEVATION: 4315 Final Depth: 200 ELEVATION: 4308
NORTHING: 8453672 NORTHING: 8453734 NORTHING: 8453694 NORTHING: 8453704
EASTING: 186758 EASTING: 186661 EASTING: 186556 EASTING: 186606

Lithology Lithology Lithology Lithology

symbol code symbol code symbol code symbol code
0 0 0 0
MLS SO
BX
GOUG
MLS
SO
10 10 10 10
MLS BX
MLS
MLS MLS NR
20 20 20 BX 20
GOUG
GOUG
NR
30
MLS
30 30 30

MLS
LLS MLS
ORE
40 40 40 40
BX

MLS
50 MLS BX
Zn 30 to 40 %

50 50 50
54.70 - 36.7% Zn
2A - 2C

ORE 54.90 - 34.7% Zn

59.10 - 32.9% Zn MLS BX
60 LLS 60 BX 60 60
BX LLS GOUG
LLS ORE
BX LLS
ORE
Pb 1.3 %

BX ORE
70 70 70 BX 70
LLS
LLS
GOUG 75.20 - 35.5% Zn LLS MLS
LLS ORE 76.55 - 45.8% Zn
2B

ORE 83.45 - 22.3% Zn LLS 78.55 - 2.45% Zn

80 80 ORE 80.25 - 8.65% Zn 80 GOUG 80
BX
2A - 2B - 2C

LLS 85.40 - 25.7% Zn LLS 80.55 - 2.01% Zn

Zn 20 to 50 %

ORE BX
86.00 - 21.5% Zn LLS LLS
LLS
BX 90.80 - 19.7% Zn
90 BX 90 90 LLS
90
MLS 91.50 - 43.2% Zn
LLS GOUG
98.25 - 43.5% Zn BX
ORE 98.35 - 24.6% Zn BX LLS
Pb max 23 %

98.55 - 21.3% Zn LLS

100 99.25 - 51.8% Zn ORE 99.30 - 32.2% Zn 100
BX 100
LLS
100
ORE 102.10 - 1.42% Zn
BX 103.20 - 37.7% Zn 104.05 - 14.7% Zn
2A

ORE
105.45 - 11.3% Zn

2C
BX LLS
BX
ORE 109.00 - 31.7% Zn
Zn max 37 %

BX ORE
110 LLS LLS
BX 110
BX 110 110 111.40 - 44.1% Zn
2A

112.30 - 39.8% Zn
Zn 10 to 44 %
LLS ORE 113.20 - 32.3% Zn
BX LLS
LLS
2A

ORE
2D

120 ORE
NR 120 120 120 GOUG
BX LLS
BX
LLS
LLS LLS 126.85 - 43.6% Zn
BX LLS ORE
130 130
2B

130 LLS 130

BX
BX LLS
ORE
ORE 136.85 - 7.44% Zn
BX
140 BX
BX 140 140
LLS

BX LLS
LLS
150 150 150

BX
LLS BX ORE
160 160 LLS
160
BX
BX
170
170 LLS 170 LLS

SO-soil; GOUG-gouge; ORE-mineralized zone;

ORE
180 180

LLS-laminated limestone; BX-breccia; LLS

BX
MLS-massive limestone; NR-no recovery. 190
LLS
BX
ORE
Colors as in Fig. 3 : Zn interval; : Pb interval; 2A: sublithotypes LLS
200

FIG. 7. a-d. Graphic core logs of the MET 1 to MET 4 drill cores with Zn assay data (modified from Exploraciones
Collasuyo).

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 279

280 BONI ET AL.

In conclusion, as a result of both semiquantitative and
quantitative analyses, we have been able to detect in the
MET cores several different combinations of Zn minerals.
The most common mineral association in MET 1 consists of
smithsonite (35–38%) and hemimorphite (9–23%). A similar
combination has also been found in MET 3 (smithsonite 39%
- hemimorphite 23%) and MET 4 (smithsonite 66–88% -
hemimorphite 4–20%). In MET 2, smithsonite prevails in the
mineralized sections.
The association between hemimorphite and sauconite is also
commonly present in all cores: MET 1 (hemimorphite 43–76%
- sauconite 6–18%), MET 2 (hemimorphite 50% - sauconite
10%), and MET 4 (hemimorphite 25–65% - sauconite 5–14%).
In a few samples from MET 4, sauconite is associated with
other (barren) clays, as illite and halloysite, and with minerals
of the jarosite group. In the section comprised between 98.35
and 98.55 m of MET 1, sauconite is particularly abundant
(36–48%) and complex Mn oxides of the chalcophanite group
have been found here together with sauconite. Small amounts
of chalcophanite (which can contain up to 17% Zn) have been
detected also throughout the MET 1 core.
Goethite is ubiquitous, except where Mn (hydr)oxides pre-
vail, in MET 1 (10–41%), MET 2 (3–37%), MET 3 (18–25%),
and MET 4 (4–28%) and might contain variable, though low
amounts of Zn. Quartz is another abundant mineral phase. It
can range from <1 up to 53 percent. With few exceptions, it
is generally positively correlated with sauconite and/or with
an early hemimorphite generation. This is a further evidence
of the association of the latter two Zn phases with siliciclastic
rather than carbonate sediments.
Petrography
Several types of both carbonate and mixed carbonate-silici-
clastic lithologic units that host nonsulfide minerals have
been detected at Accha. The most common are calcimicrites
of the Ferrobamba Formation cemented by several genera-
tions of sparry calcite. A few ghosts of (now calcitized) sulfate
minerals are also visible. Thin layers of siliciclastic sediments
occur in vugs of the host carbonates (Fig. 8a): they contain
abundant quartz clasts and a few weathered K-feldspar
and/or plagioclase grains (Fig. 8b). In some samples from
MET 2 and MET 4, small fragments of weathered volcanic
ashes have been also detected.
Through visual examination and subsequent petrographic
analysis, it was possible to identify in the Accha cores a lim-
ited number of cyclically recurring mineralized lithotypes, or
lithology groups, where Zn and Pb nonsulfide associations are
concentrated (Table 4).
Pb nonsulfides (carbonates and sulfates): This lithotype was
observed and analyzed in MET 2 and MET 3 (Table 4). It has
a yellowish powdery appearance and the highest lead con-
centrations detected at Accha (locally more than 23% PbO).
The Pb minerals consist mainly of cerussite and Pb jarosite
(plumbojarosite). The sulfoarsenate beudantite has been also
detected.
Zn nonsulfides (carbonates and silicates): The second litho-
type (Table 4) corresponds to samples containing smithsonite
and hemimorphite as the most common nonsulfide zinc min-
erals. Several different sublithotypes could be differentiated:
(2A): This association was recognized in all MET cores, espe-
cially in MET 1, MET 3, and MET 4 (Fig. 8c-d). Smithsonite
occurs in several generations, only some of which are lumi-
nescent under cathode luminescence (CL). When associated
with Zn smectite, smithsonite is fairly opaque and only barely
visible under cathode luminescence; when reasonably clean
and well zoned with goethite (Fig. 8f), it shows striking lumi-
nescence under CL (Fig. 8g). Several smithsonite-lined cel-
lular boxwork structures have also been found in this litho-
type (Fig. 9a). The last smithsonite generation (luminescing
dark blue under CL) occurs at the border of small geodes
(Fig. 9b), which are filled in turn by crystalline, nonlumines-
cent hemimorphite (Fig. 9c). Hemimorphite is also common
in late veinlets cutting most samples (Fig. 9d). Cd- and Zn-
rich calcite fills the remnant porosity. Some zinc might sub-
stitute for iron in goethite. (2B): This sublithotype, detected
in MET 1 and MET 2, is yellowish-brown in color and has

TABLE 4. Mineralized Lithotypes Established in the Accha Cores (see text for explanation of the labels 2A, 2B, 2C, 2D, hm1, hm2)

Drill core MET 1 MET 2 MET 3 MET 4

Lithologic Group
Pb nonsulfides Cerussite xx
Cerussite, Pb jarosite, beudantite xx

Zn nonsulfides 2A
red, compact, fine-grained
with geodes and veinlets
2B
yellowish-brown, large
cavities and geodes
2C
fine-grained, clayey with
Mn concretions
2D
dark red laminated with
detrital quartz and K-feldspar
xx x xx
Smithsonite, goethite, hemimorphite,
Zn clay, quartz, K-feldspar
xx x x
Smithsonite, Zn clay,
hemimorphite
xx xx x
Zn smectite, Fe and Mn hydr(oxides),
hemimorphite (hm1 and hm2), smithsonite
x x
Hemimorphite (hm1), quartz, goethite,
Zn clay, Mn hydr(oxides), chalcophanite

Notes: xx = very common, x = common

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 280

 NONSULFIDE ZINC DEPOSIT, ACCHA, PERU 281

Qz

Qz Fd

Qz Qz

0.2 mm C
a 0.1 mm b
0.5mm
0.5 mm
Sau + Sm
Sau + Sm 10 cm

Hydr
hem 2 bc
hem 2

3 cm 1 cm 0.5 mm e
EE
c d e
Sm Sm

Sau + Sm
Sau + Sm

Sm Sm
0.1 mm f 0.1 mm g
FIG. 8. a. Siliciclastic intercalation in the Ferrobamba Formation limestone with prevailing quartz clasts, MET2-14-54.7
thin section N+. b. Same as (a) with quartz and K-feldspar clasts, MET4-37-136.3 thin section N+. c. and d. Lithotype 2A,
fragments from the drill cores MET1-21-82.3 and MET3-28-103.2 consisting of smithsonite, goethite, and sauconite: in the
cavities and microfractures white crystals of hemimorphite (hem 2). e. Banded concretion of hydrozincite (from Titiminas
trench). f. Lithotype 2A: zoned concretion of smithsonite (several generations) and sauconite, MET3-28-103.2A, thin section
NII. g. Same as f, under CL

larger cavities and empty geodes. It contains smithsonite as
the prevailing Zn phase and is less common at Accha than 2A.
Sauconite and hemimorphite are very scarce or absent. Sev-
eral smithsonite generations can be detected in this sub-
group, from the early ones mixed with goethite and clays to
the zoned, clear crystals growing in the cavities. The CL col-
ors of the different smithsonite generations vary greatly be-
tween strong red tones to drab blue (Fig. 9e-f). A late
replacement of Zn carbonates by hemimorphite has been
observed only in a few samples. Zn concentration in this sub-
group can be higher than 45 percent Zn. (2C): This sublitho-
type is represented by fine-grained, yellowish-brown, clay-rich
sediments with local zones of blackish Mn concretions and
veins (Table 4, Figs. 5e, 10a) and has been detected in the
MET 1, MET 2, and MET 4 cores. It consists generally of Zn
smectite (Fig. 10b-d), commonly mixed with Fe and Mn
(hydr)oxides, as well as minor hemimorphite and smithsonite.
Associated with the Mn (hydr)oxides, high amounts of lead
(up to few %) and traces of thallium have been detected.
Abundant quartz and K-feldspar fragments have been also
observed in this lithotype. Several Zn smectite types in the
form of crystals and concretions (Fig. 11a-b) growing in cavi-
ties occur in MET 1. An interesting mineral association, still
belonging to the 2C sublithotype and consisting primarily of

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 281

282 BONI ET AL.

Sm

Sm
Sm

Goe
Sau + Goe
1 cm 0.1 mm
a bB

Sm

Sm hem 2
Sm hem 2
Lms
Sau + Goe

0.1 mm 0.2 mm
c d

Sm + Sau + Goe
Sm + Sau + Goe

Sm + Sau Sm + Sau

0.1 mm 0.1 mm
e f
FIG. 9. a. Lithology 2B consisting of a network of smithsonite associated with goethite and/or hematite. Fragment from
the drill core MET4-35-126.85. b. Concretion consisting of several generations of smithsonite; the first generation (dark) is
intergrown with sauconite, the following generations are relatively clean; thin section from MET2-21-76.55A NII. c. Smith-
sonite intergrown with sauconite (dark), bordered by pure smithsonite crystals followed by late diagenetic hemimorphite (hm
2; blue) filling the cavity; thin section from MET1-22-85.80, N+. d. hm 2 filling a vug in the host limestone; thin section from
MET3-28-103.2, N+. e. Concretion consisting of several generations of smithsonite intergrown with sauconite, MET2-21-
76.55A NII. f. Same as e, well-zoned under CL.

Zn smectite with at least two hemimorphite generations,
could be locally observed in MET 1. The first generation (hm
1) occurs as small concretions (“stars”) with a dusty appear-
ance, growing in fine-grained siliciclastic sediments (Fig.
10e). The second generation (hm 2) appears as clear elon-
gated crystals growing in veins and in cavities together with
Mn (hydr)oxides (Fig. 10f). Generation hm1 is partly altered
to Zn clays. Zinc concentration in subgroup 2C is generally
directly correlated with that of manganese. (2D): This sub-
lithotype consists of dark-red laminated sediments, with detri-
tal quartz and feldspars (Table 4). Numerous hemimorphite
“stars” (hm 1) are seen to grow in a groundmass of sauconite
(with Mg, Fe, and Mn added) and Fe (hydr)oxides, but in
MET 4 they have also been locally detected in the carbonate
host rocks. The hemimorphite “stars” are up to 1 mm in di-
ameter and have been completely transformed into sauconite.
Spotty manganese concretions, commonly associated with
moderate Zn enrichments (chalcophanite), have been de-
tected locally. 2D is not very common in the MET cores,
where it represents a special variation of the 2C sublithotype.
WDS analyses of important mineral phases
The results of the WDS analyses of the most common eco-
nomic and noneconomic minerals at Accha are listed in

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 282

 NONSULFIDE ZINC DEPOSIT, ACCHA, PERU 283

sauconite
Mn-Ox
Zn-clay

1 cm 3 cm
a Db

Zn-clay

Zn-clay

c d
F
E
hm 2

hm F1
hm 1 3 cm
Zn-clay
A c
hm 1
C
Ee B
f
FIG. 10. a. Lithology 2C, consisting of Zn clays (mainly sauconite) and Mn (hydr)oxide concretions, fragment from the
drill core MET1-26-98.25. b. Alternating Mn (hydr)oxides (dark) and Zn clays, thin section MET1-26-98.35, NII. c. Ag-
glomerate of Zn clays (mainly sauconite), thin section MET1-26-98.25, NII. d. Same as c. N+. e. hm 1 concretions (“stars”),
gradually altered to Zn clays, in a fine-grained sediment, thin section MET4-30-109, NII. f. hm 1 remnants in a Zn clay
groundmass. In the upper part a vein of clear hm 2, thin section MET1-26-98.25, NII

Tables 5 and 6. Due to the common intergrowths between
mineral phases, it was not always possible to measure the
composition of single minerals. Therefore, some analyses pos-
sibly record a mixture of minerals.
Smithsonite: Smithsonite is commonly finely intergrown
with Fe (hydr)oxides and clay; as a result WDS measurements
do not always conform to the stoichiometric value of Zn car-
bonate. Nevertheless, most analyses show a metal content
ranging between 60 and 62 percent ZnO (stoichiometric
value for smithsonite is 64.9% ZnO). FeO is also commonly
present in the lattice of the Accha smithsonite, as is MgO and
CaO (Table 5). CdO values are generally below 1 percent and
not strictly correlated with Zn. Minor to trace contents of Mn,
Pb, Sb, and As have locally been recognized.
Hemimorphite: The abundance of this mineral at Accha sug-
gests similarities with many other nonsulfide deposits (Table 6).
In hemimorphite ZnO ranges between 65 and 70 percent (sto-
ichiometric value for hemimorphite is 67.58% ZnO), whereas
SiO2 varies between 25 and 26 percent. Both hemimorphite-1
(early diagenetic “stars” in sediment) and -2 (late diagenetic
crystals in veins and cements) show similar compositions.
However, Al2O3 amounts up to 2 percent, K2O up to 0.5 per-
cent, FeO up to 1 percent and MgO up to 0.5 percent have
been detected throughout the concretions of hemimorphite-1.

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 283

284 BONI ET AL.

a b

10 µm 5 µm
FIG. 11. a. and b. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) images of the Zn smectite (sauconite) at Accha (from MET1-26-
98.35).

We took this as evidence of partial alteration of hemimorphite-
1 to Zn smectite, as observed in thin section. Traces of MnO,
PbO, CdO, and Sb2O3 have been locally detected.
Sauconite (Zn smectite): Sauconite is one of the most com-
mon authigenic minerals detected at Accha (Table 7). The
SiO2 content of this trioctahedral smectite ranges between 30
and 36 percent, generally higher than published values, and
ZnO between 34 and 44 percent. The Al2O3 value of the most
reliable analyses is between 4 and 7 percent. FeO, CaO, and
MgO are below 2 percent, thus confirming the prevalence of
the Zn ion in the octahedral site. Sauconite is also intergrown
with several other minerals, coexisting with it. These were

TABLE 5. Wavelength Dispersion Spectrometry (WDS) Analyses of Several Smithsonite Types

Sample ZnO FeO MgO CaO MnO PbO CdO CO21 Total

MET 1 61.96 0.50 0.52 0.26 0.17 0.02 0.08 34.87 98.38
62.95 1.56 0.13 0.22 35.39 100.25
64.42 0.16 0.36 0.78 0.03 0.27 34.19 100.21
62.71 0.23 0.34 0.21 0.15 34.79 98.43

MET 2 60.00 0.06 0.02 0.88 0.16 0.42 35.52 97.06

61.47 0.34 0.02 0.19 0.13 35.62 97.77
61.59 0.27 0.01 0.93 0.78 34.86 98.44
60.85 0.41 0.02 0.83 0.75 0.08 0.14 35.46 98.54

MET 3 59.94 0.63 0.23 0.59 0.52 0.70 34.22 96.83

60.41 0.23 0.20 0.58 0.62 0.17 0.33 34.54 97.08

MET 4 60.87 0.25 0.40 0.12 33.65 95.29

60.22 0.13 0.80 0.80 0.20 33.99 96.14
61.34 0.13 0.49 0.46 0.33 34.12 96.87
61.99 0.08 0.43 0.48 0.35 0.29 34.53 98.15

1 Calculated from stoichiometry

TABLE 6. Wavelength Dispersion Spectrometry (WDS) Analyses of Hemimorphite

Sample SiO2 Al2O3 ZnO FeO MgO CaO K2O MnO Total

MET 1 25.50 67.22 0.08 0.02 0.02 92.84

24.72 70.02 0.32 0.08 0.02 1.36 96.52
25.87 0.27 65.81 0.16 0.05 0.06 0.07 92.29
26.63 0.63 65.42 0.32 0.07 0.12 0.08 0.04 93.31
MET 2 25.89 65.08 0.05 0.06 91.08
25.67 0.24 64.75 0.37 0.05 91.08
MET 3 26.51 67.81 94.32
25.65 64.07 0.06 0.25 0.33 0.07 90.43
MET 4 26.74 0.75 59.50 0.55 0.09 0.08 0.16 0.13 88.00
26.41 62.52 0.14 89.07
25.18 0.52 67.29 0.29 0.11 0.08 93.47
26.44 0.69 60.91 0.17 0.21 0.17 0.04 0.04 88.67

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 284

 NONSULFIDE ZINC DEPOSIT, ACCHA, PERU 285

TABLE 7. Wavelength Dispersion Spectrometry (WDS) Analyses of Zn Smectite and Partly Weathered Feldspars

MET 1 MET 2 MET 3 MET 11 MET 21

SiO2 36.19 39.47 30.94 34.36 32.78 30.81 30.39 37.69 36.64 42.20 46.09
Al2O3 6.12 7.29 14.18 8.77 10.46 5.90 6.64 6.55 6.26 28.95 21.33
Fe2O3 2.22 1.48 1.09 2.24 0.80 0.43 1.85 0.03 2.45 1.62 2.66
MgO 0.90 0.37 0.72 0.58 0.11 0.50 0.62 0.93 1.09 1.45
ZnO 43.68 36.34 38.89 40.71 43.24 35.39 40.80 30.63 31.06 2.49 6.91
CaO 0.94 1.18 0.79 1.21 0.78 0.61 0.63 0.43 2.09 0.07 0.34
K2O 0.41 0.71 0.55 0.75 0.47 0.14 1.03 0.03 0.34 9.00 8.99

Total 89.56 87.37 86.81 88.76 89.11 73.39 81.84 75.98 79.77 85.42 87.77

Structural formulas based on 22 O atoms 32 O

Si 6.715 7.038 5.737 6.317 6.066 6.807 6.260 7.469 7.078 9.206 10.084
Al 1.338 1.532 3.099 1.901 2.282 1.537 1.868 1.531 1.425 7.444 5.500
Fe 0.345 0.199 0.152 0.311 0.111 0.071 0.287 0.004 0.356 0.266 0.438
Mg 0.239 0.102 0.197 0.161 0.036 0.154 0.183 0.268 0.354 0.473
Zn 5.984 4.784 5.325 5.527 5.909 5.774 6.205 4.482 4.431 0.401 1.116
Ca 0.186 0.224 0.156 0.237 0.154 0.144 0.138 0.091 0.431 0.016 0.080
K 0.097 0.162 0.130 0.176 0.111 0.039 0.271 0.008 0.084 2.505 2.509

1 Altered feldspars

tentatively identified as hemimorphite, smithsonite, calcite,
and Fe (hydr)oxide. The composition of the sauconite mea-
sured near weathered K-feldspar tends to gradually approach
the feldspar composition (as revealed by the changing Al2O3
values). This is indirect evidence of a genetic relationship be-
tween K-feldspar and sauconite at Accha. The latter mineral
could be derived either from the supergene transformation of
the potassic alumosilicates or fill the remaining porosity cre-
ated through their alteration and partial dissolution.
Hydrozincite: Hydrozincite is far less abundant at Accha
than other nonsulfide minerals (Boni, 2005b). It occurs lo-
cally as newly formed colloform crusts that locally replace the
smithsonite-rich bands but most commonly occurs as convo-
luted cements draped around all the existing minerals and fill-
ing porosities (Fig. 8e; Boni, 2005b). Hydrozincite (59.55%
Zn) is paragenetically the most recent Zn nonsulfide mineral
at Accha and has been found only in surface trenches.
Calcite: Calcite associated with supergene Zn-Pb mineral-
ization is relatively common, with crystals filling the vugs in
several samples especially from MET 1 and MET 4. FeO
content is negligible in calcite (<0.4%), whereas small
amounts of ZnO have been detected (0.2–1.9% ZnO). Cd can
be strongly enriched in these calcites, reaching values up to
1.5 percent CdO. One particular calcite sample in MET 1
contains up to 13.73 percent CdO.
K-feldspar: Detrital fragments of K-feldspar have been
found in many samples. Most of them are slightly altered to
sericite. The SiO2 values of the unaltered K-feldspar range
between 65.4 and 66.4 percent, whereas Al2O3 ranges be-
tween 18 and 19 percent. K2O values are constrained be-
tween 10 and 15 percent and FeO is negligible. FeO, MgO,
and ZnO values are much higher in the altered samples, when
the feldspars (and the locally occurring sericite) are increas-
ingly replaced by sauconite (Table 7).
Fe-Zn-Pb-Mn (hydr)oxides: A series of different minerals
containing variable Zn, Fe, Mn, and Pb concentrations are
shown in Table 8. Usually they contain also minor amounts of
SiO2 and Al2O3. The most common minerals in this group are
Fe hydroxides of the goethite type. Goethite concretions al-
ways retain variable amounts of Zn and less Pb in their struc-
ture. Local intergrowths between goethite, clays, and Zn car-
bonates have been observed. Very characteristic at Accha are
also a series of Mn (hydr)oxides of the chalcophanite group
and several coronadite-type minerals, which all contain fair
amounts of Pb and Fe. Both these mineral types have been
recorded in abundance in the mineralized lithotype 2C.
Discussion
To evaluate the mineral assemblages in the Accha prospect,
XRD qualitative analyses and QPA (Rietveld) results were
compared with the bulk mineralogic, petrographic, and geo-
chemical data obtained with optical microscopy, SEM, and
WDS analyses. Smithsonite is the main nonsulfide zinc mineral
at Accha, found in the most Zn-rich sections of the MET cores,
where it replaces both host carbonate and primary sulfide min-
erals. The first generation of smithsonite, opaque in transmit-
ted light but strongly luminescent under CL, is finely (mµ) in-
tergrown with goethite and Zn smectite. A late generation of
smithsonite is transparent and less luminescent under CL.
Hemimorphite can be quite abundant, occurring in at
least two generations. A first generation is intergrown in the
sauconite-rich groundmass, whereas a later hemimorphite
generation occurs as larger crystals (up to 500 µm in length)
devoid of clays and other impurities. The latter hemimor-
phite fills the remaining porosity in the Fe-rich gossan and
occurs in the cavities of the smithsonite-goethite ore and in
a network of thin veinlets. Neither hemimorphite nor
sauconite are luminescent under CL. The two heminorphite
generations occur before (hm1) and after (hm2) the main
phase of smithsonite precipitation.
The zinciferous variety of smectite is present at Accha in
most samples analyzed. However, it was not always possible to
distinguish between typical sauconite (as defined by Ross,
1946) and a Zn-rich smectite. Sauconite occurs in small

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 285

 286

TABLE 8. Wavelength Dispersion Spectrometry (WDS) Analyses of Fe and Mn (hydr)oxides (containing Zn and Pb)

Sample SiO2 Al2O3 ZnO FeO MgO CaO K2O MnO PbO CdO P2O5 Sb2O3 As2O3 SO3 Total

MET 1 Red-brown concretions 1.69 0.19 28.71 22.11 0.08 0.50 5.07 0.08 58.43
3.82 0.31 12.95 58.30 0.04 0.30 0.03 0.70 0.02 76.47
3.82 0.31 12.95 58.30 0.04 0.31 0.03 0.02 75.78

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
2.72 0.27 25.87 27.46 0.04 0.38 0.07 56.81
3.62 0.33 18.59 44.73 0.05 0.34 0.04 0.15 0.09 0.07 68.01
Fine-grained matrix 6.25 2.52 8.46 65.84 0.23 0.36 0.19 83.85
5.99 2.09 7.91 65.44 0.21 0.34 0.21 82.19
Concretions 1.13 0.19 58.11 24.71 0.03 1.09 0.04 0.03 0.20 85.53
2.75 0.44 50.62 34.46 0.12 0.69 0.08 0.05 0.25 89.46
1.94 0.46 44.18 42.07 0.17 0.79 0.06 0.15 89.82
Vug rims 1.28 0.22 41.74 39.41 0.12 0.78 0.12 0.14 0.03 83.84
2.84 4.45 11.62 64.99 0.30 0.04 0.03 0.04 84.31
Concretions 2.06 0.37 52.36 27.46 0.18 0.78 0.63 0.07 83.91
6.15 0.63 8.43 68.91 0.23 0.03 84.38
3.73 0.51 14.63 55.75 0.20 74.82
4.43 1.59 22.17 0.09 0.53 0.08 52.04 0.19 0.28 0.23 0.02 81.65
Chalcophanite1 - black matrix 7.02 2.79 25.58 0.33 58.63 0.11 94.46
1.83 1.83 21.09 0.29 63.31 0.12 88.47
Black matrix 0.71 2.06 16.36 0.31 56.66 0.20 0.28 76.58
0.75 2.09 16.09 57.41 0.16 0.24 76.74
0.91 1.85 19.67 0.20 54.04 0.07 0.20 76.94

286
0.42 0.84 13.52 60.19 0.21 0.19 0.11 75.48
BONI ET AL.

Red matrix 3.35 1.21 66.89 4.08 0.08 0.38 0.79 0.09 0.39 0.25 77.26
2.28 0.90 3.29 67.53 0.07 0.24 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.49 0.62 75.52
MET 2 Dark matrix 0.13 0.09 51.18 0.24 0.38 7.01 2.35 0.34 61.72
2.39 0.64 7.80 0.59 0.15 46.91 5.17 0.04 63.69
Red matrix 2.40 0.59 43.52 17.72 0.10 0.72 0.14 0.09 0.09 65.37
2.11 0.26 46.54 15.61 0.06 0.52 0.07 0.12 65.29
3.54 1.00 36.85 24.91 0.21 0.45 0.12 0.02 67.10
Dark matrix 2.14 0.27 41.04 23.67 0.40 0.64 0.13 68.29
2.25 0.19 37.59 28.72 0.45 0.09 69.29
MET 3 Coronadite-like phase 0.64 0.20 4.62 1.47 49.46 32.16 0.13 0.21 88.89
Dark matrix 4.62 0.61 4.89 67.03 0.11 1.76 0.09 79.11
1.07 55.87 1.54 0.16 0.23 58.87
4.94 0.66 21.74 33.86 0.07 0.24 0.08 0.25 0.81 0.07 0.10 0.06 0.21 0.04 63.13
1.70 0.17 42.28 16.52 0.18 0.24 0.44 0.37 0.17 0.04 0.04 0.02 0.03 62.20
5.01 0.94 27.17 29.92 0.12 0.28 0.15 0.22 0.71 0.18 0.06 0.14 0.09 64.99
1.39 0.16 46.26 12.12 0.18 0.18 0.50 0.38 0.18 0.02 0.02 61.39
MET 4 Brown-black matrix 2.70 0.89 6.51 51.31 0.40 0.71 1.18 0.02 0.44 0.02 2.50 66.68
2.17 0.25 25.21 8.51 0.33 40.56 1.40 1.00 0.08 1.18 0.09 80.78
5.21 1.30 12.23 11.39 0.46 17.93 7.56 0.12 0.15 0.51 56.86
4.81 0.78 11.97 13.00 0.45 21.36 9.55 0.55 0.15 0.30 62.92

1 Thallium oxide up to approx 1.3 wt percent

 NONSULFIDE ZINC DEPOSIT, ACCHA, PERU
amounts (<5%) in the samples where smithsonite is predom-
inant but is more abundant (>30%) in the lithotypes that con-
tain detrital quartz and partially weathered K-feldspar. The
lithologic units hosting Zn in sauconite correspond geologi-
cally to (1) original siliciclastic interbeds in the carbonates of
the Ferrobamba Formation, (2) karst and fracture fillings,
and (3) breccia matrix associated with primary sulfide miner-
alization. Zinc in sauconite originated (as is the case for smith-
sonite and hemimorphite) from the supergene alteration of
sphalerite, whereas K-feldspar was the main source of alu-
mina and silica. The acidic breakdown of aluminosilicates by
supergene fluids can be extremely variable depending on cli-
matic conditions. According to Gerrard (1994) the formation
of sauconite from aluminosilicates is favored in relatively
closed alkaline environments, leading to the retention of al-
kaline earths and silica (Kärner, 2006). This results in the ap-
parent relationship between sauconite and semiarid climates,
as at Skorpion (Borg et al., 2003) and now at Accha. However,
the abundance of Zn smectite in this area could also be a pos-
sible indicator of poor drainage conditions during weathering
with retention of the metals in the waters above an imperme-
able layer, as evidenced by the presence of shaly limestone of
the lowermost Ferrobamba unit (b) at the bottom of the sec-
ondary Zn concentrations. Besides sauconite, which is the
most abundant clay mineral at Accha, illite and halloysite
could be detected in a few samples, as well as kaolinite asso-
ciated with Mn (hydr)oxide concretions. None of these clays
are important volumetrically, however. Minor Zn, as well as
traces of Tl are associated with goethite and with Fe and Mn
(hydr)oxides. As shown by Bidoglio et al. (1993), surface pre-
cipitation of Tl2O3 can take place on δMnO2 as a result of Tl
sorption and oxidation at the mineral surfaces.
Pb carbonates and/or sulfates are concentrated only locally in
the Accha deposit. Lead minerals are generally less common
than zinc minerals, as indicated by the overall Zn/Pb ratio of 9/1.
The three main Zn nonsulfide minerals (smithsonite, sauconite,
hemimorphite) detected in the MET cores are irregularly dis-
tributed throughout the deposit, with local concentrations in
each sublithotype (2A, 2B, 2C; Fig. 7). The association of the
2A-2B-2C-2D mineralized lithotypes with the Zn mineral
weight fractions allows visual identification of the lithotypes 2A
and 2B with a combination of high smithsonite (>35%), minor
hemimorphite (about 20%), and moderate sauconite (5–8%).
Both 2A and 2B are dark red, due to Fe (hydr)oxides, and are
hard and heavy. Lithotype 2C, characterized by high sauconite
(>35%) and hemimorphite (>40%), and by the common ab-
sence or the relative paucity of smithsonite, is characterized by
its brown-black color related to the abundance of Mn minerals.
Lithotype 2D is a rather complicated mixture of several mineral
phases, which cannot be easily identified visually.
Based on the above summary, it is relatively easy to identify
(at least roughly) the mineralogical composition of the different
mineralized lithotypes in the Accha deposit. This is an extremely
useful technique for metallurgical mapping and to develop an
economically viable mineral processing flowsheet for the Accha
nonsulfide concentrations (de Wet and Singleton, 2008).
Conclusions
The Accha deposit in southern Peru shares many charac-
teristics with the typical carbonate-hosted calamine-type
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 287
287
nonsulfide Zn ores (Large, 2001; Hitzman et al., 2003; Boni,
2005a), as those occurring in the famous Belgian deposit
(Coppola et al., 2008). These deposits form in the supergene
environment and are derived from the weathering of strata-
bound Zn-Pb mineralization in carbonate rocks (Large,
2001). Also the Accha nonsulfide Zn >> Pb deposit is derived
from the weathering of primary sulfide ores (sphalerite-pyrite
> galena), occurring in impure Cretaceous limestone (lower
Ferrobamba Formation) intruded by the Yauri-Apurímac
batholith. The main hosting lithology consists of matrix-sup-
ported carbonate breccias. The emplacement of the original
sulfide mineralization (carbonate replacement deposits) is
constrained between Paleogene and lower Miocene. The age
of the supergene deposit is poorly understood, even though
there is both geological and geochemical evidence for
Pliocene or even younger weathering events in the region,
which could be responsible for the Accha enrichment.
The nonsulfide Zn mineral association at Accha consists
mainly of smithsonite and hemimorphite, which replace both
primary sulfide minerals and carbonate host rocks. Smith-
sonite occurs locally in zoned concretions with goethite, Mn
(hydr)oxides, and Zn clays, as well as replacive cements in the
Ferrobamba Formation limestone. One of the peculiarities of
the nonsulfide paragenesis in the Accha project is the pres-
ence of sauconite (up to 30% of the deposit), which can occur
partly as replacement of the detrital feldspars in cavities and
as fracture filling in the carbonate host rock. Sauconite can
also replace other supergene zinc minerals as hemimorphite
and smithsonite, deposited in earlier diagenetic stages. The
presence of abundant Zn smectite, together with an early de-
posited hemimorphite generation, is distinctive at Accha.
The secondary enrichment of the Accha mineralized bodies
can be assigned to both the direct replacement (of sulfide by
nonsulfide minerals) and wall-rock replacement (of carbonate
host rock by nonsulfides) types after the Hitzman et al. (2003)
classification. However, in contrast to other typical calamine
deposits, the Accha nonsulfides have a strong association with
siliciclastic (internal?) sediments, which locally dominate over
the carbonate component. These sediments with their abun-
dance of K-feldspar have a reactive behavior in regard to the
supergene metal-rich fluids, leading to deposition of
sauconite and other Zn-rich clay minerals.
Because even small differences in mineralogy of the ore
and gangue minerals, as well as the composition of the host
rock can have a profound impact on zinc recovery from
nonsulfide ores, a thorough mineralogical and petrographic
examination is an essential prerequisite for the economic
evaluation of the Accha deposit, as well as for other nonsul-
fide-type deposits.
Acknowledgments
We want to thank K. Hart for his help during the sampling
of the cores and A. Workman (WGM) for discussion. We thank
also M. Serracino (CNR, Rome) for assistance on the WDS
microprobe and M. Reyes (Collasuyo) for the graphic logs and
sections. The careful reviews of C. Allen, D. Sangster, and R.
Sherlock, as well as the final editing of L. Meinert have greatly
improved the quality of the manuscript. Special thanks are due
to Zincore Metals and Exploraciones Collasuyo for supporting
basic research and for permission to publish.
288 BONI ET AL.
July 1, 2008; February 18, 2009
REFERENCES
Bidoglio, G., Gibson, N.P., O’Gorman, M., and Roberts, K.J., 1993, X-ray ab-
sorption spectroscopy investigation of surface redox transformations of
thallium and chromium on colloidal mineral oxides: Geochimica and Cos-
mochimica Acta, v. 57, p. 2389–2394.
Bish, D.L., and Howard, S.A., 1988, Quantitative phase analysis using the Ri-
etveld method: Journal of Applied Crystallography, v. 21, p. 86–91.
Bish, D.L., and Post, J.E., 1993, Quantitative mineralogical analysis using the
Rietveld full-pattern fitting method: American Mineralogist, v. 78, p.
932–940.
Blot, A., Barros de Oliveira, S.M., and Magat, P., 1995, La chloritisation su-
pergène zincifère des phlogopites de Canoas (PR, Brésil): Comptes Ren-
dus Académie des Sciences de Paris, t. 321(IIa), p. 651–658.
Boni, M., 2005a, The geology and mineralogy of nonsulfide zinc ore deposits:
LEAD and ZINC ’05, Kyoto 17–19 October 2005, Proceedings, 15 p.
——2005b, Preliminary report on the samples from Accha prospect, Minera
del Suroeste S.A.C.: Mineralogy and Petrography, 5 p.
——2007, Mineralogy and petrography of drill cores MET-1, MET-2, MET-
3, and MET-4, Accha property: Vancouver Canada, Zincore Metals, 31 Oc-
tober 2007, Internal Report, 22 p.
Boni, M., Gilg, H.A., Balassone, G., Schneider, J., Allen, C.R., and Moore F.,
2007a, Hypogene Zn carbonate ores in the Angouran deposit, NW Iran:
Mineralium Deposita, v. 42, p. 799–820.
Boni, M., Terracciano, R., Evans, N., Laukamp, C., Schneider, J., and Bech-
städt, T., 2007b, Genesis of vanadium ores in the Otavi Mountainland
(Namibia): ECONOMIC GEOLOGY, v. 102, p. 441–469.
Borg, G., Kärner, K., Buxton, M., Armstrong, R., and Schalk, W.V.D., 2003,
Geology of the Skorpion supergene zinc deposit, southern Namibia: ECO-
NOMIC GEOLOGY, v. 98, p. 749–771.
Bradford, J.A., 2002, Accha property, Department of Cusco, Peru: South-
western Resources Corp., Technical Report 43–101, 16 p.
Brimhall, GH., and Mote, T., 1997, Optimal secondary mineralization in the
Andes: Response to global Cenozoic cooling events, glaciation, eustasy, and
desiccation [abs.]: Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs,
v. 29, p. 17.
Brugger, J., McPhail, D.C., Wallace, M., and Waters, J., 2003, Formation of
willemite in hydrothermal environments: ECONOMIC GEOLOGY, v. 98, p.
819–835.
Cabrera, J., Sébrier, M., and Mercier, J.L., 1991, Plio-Quaternary geody-
namic evolution of a segment of the Peruvian Andean Cordillera located
above the change in the subduction geometry; the Cuzco region: Tectono-
physics, v. 190, p. 331–362.
Carman, G.D., Nicholson, P., Ianos, S., Bernuy, E., Salinas, C., Ormsby, W.,
and Perkins, J., 2000, Geology and exploration progress of the Accha zinc
deposit, Cusco, Peru: ProExplo’99, Primer Volumen de Monografía de
Yacimientos Minerales Peruanos: Historia, Exploración y Geología. Lima,
Instituto de Ingenieros de Minas del Perú, Volumen Luis Hoschschild
Plaut, p. 245–250.
Cole, P.M., and Sole, K.C., 2002, Solvent extraction in the primary and sec-
ondary processing of zinc: Journal of the South African Institute of Mining
and Metallurgy, November-December, v. 2, p. 451–456.
Coppola, V., Boni, M., Gilg, H.A., Balassone, G., and Dejonghe, L., 2008,
The “calamine” nonsulfide Zn-Pb deposits of Belgium: Petrographical,
mineralogical and geochemical characterization: Ore Geology Reviews, v.
33, p. 187–210.
Einaudi, M.T., Meinert, L.D., and Newberry, R.J., 1981, Skarn deposits:
ECONOMIC GEOLOGY 75TH ANNIVERSARY VOLUME, p. 317–391.
Garzione, C.N., Hoke, G.D., Libarkin, J.C., Withers, S., MacFadden, B.,
Eiler, J., Ghosh, P., and Mulch, A., 2008, Rise of the Andes: Science, v. 320,
p. 1304–1307.
Gerrard, A.J., 1994, Weathering of granitic rocks: Environment and clay min-
eral formation, in Robinson, D.A., and Williams, R.B.G. eds., Rock weath-
ering and landform evolution: Chichester, NY, John Wiley and Sons, p.
3–20.
Gnoinski, J., 2007, Skorpion zinc: Optimization and innovation: Journal of
the Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, v. 107, October
2007, p. 657–662.
Hayes, T.S., Kadi, K., Balkhiyour, M., Siddiqui, A., and Beshir, Z., 2000,
Phanerozoic sediment-hosted base-metal mineralizing systems in Saudi
Arabia: Saudi Geological Survey Technical Report USGS-TR-00–3 (IR-
964), 29 p.
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 288
Hill, R.J., 1991, Expanded use of the Rietveld method in studies of phase
abundance in multiphase mixtures: Powder Diffraction, v. 6, p. 74–77.
Hitzman, M.W., Reynolds, N.A., Sangster, D.F., Allen, C.R., and Carman,
C.E., 2003, Classification, genesis, and exploration guides for nonsulfide
zinc deposits: ECONOMIC GEOLOGY, v. 98, p. 685–714.
Hudson, M., Carman, G., Salinas, C., and Mclnnes, D., 2000, Accha joint
venture information memorandum: Metallurgical testwork review: Mel-
bourne, Australia, Pasminco Exploration.
Jaillard, E., and Santander, G., 1992, La tectónica polifásica en escamas de la
zona de Mañazo-Lagunillas (Puno, sur del Perú): Bulletin de l’Institute
Français d’Etudes Andines, Lima, v. 21, p. 37–58.
Jaillard, E., and Soler, P., 1996, The Cretaceous to Early Paleogene tectonic
evolution of the northern central Andes and its relations to geodynamics:
Tectonophysics, v. 259, p. 41–53.
Johnson, C.A., 2001, Geochemical constraints on the origin of the Sterling
Hill and Franklin zinc deposits, and the Furnace magnetite bed, north-
western New Jersey: Society of Economic Geologists Guidebook Series, v.
35, p. 89–97.
Kärner, K., 2006, The metallogenesis of the Skorpion non-sulphide zinc de-
posit, Namibia: Unpublished Ph.D. thesis (Dr.rer.nat.), Wittenberg, Ger-
many, Mathematisch Naturwissenschaftlich-Technischen Fakultät der
Martin-Luther-Universität Halle, 133 p.
Large, D., 2001, The Geology of non-sulphide zinc deposits—an overview:
Erzmetall, v. 54, p. 264–276.
Larson, A.C., and Von Dreele, R.B., 2000, GSAS: New Mexico, Los Alamos
National Laboratory Report LAUR 86–748.
Marocco, R., 1975, Geología de los cuadrángulos de Andahuaylas, Abancay
y Cotabambas: Lima, Instituto de Geología, Minería y Metalurgia, no. 27,
51 p.
——1978, Un segment EW de la Cordillère des Andes Péruviennes: la
déflexion d’Abancay. Etude géologique de la Cordillère Orientale et des
Hauts-plateaux entre Cuzco et San Miguel (Sud du Pérou): Paris, France,
Travaux et Documents de l’ORSTOM, no. 94, 195 p.
Marsden, H., 2006, Mapping report and drill proposal, Titiminas area, Accha
project, Cuzco, Peru: Vancouver, Canada, Zincore Metals Internal Report.
Mathur, R., Ruiz, J., and Munizaga, F., 2001, Insights into Andean metalloge-
nesis from the perspective of Re-Os analyses of sulfides [ext. abs.]: South
American Symposium on Isotope Geology, 3rd, Sociedad Geológica de
Chile, Santiago, Chile, Extended Abstracts Volume, p. 500–503. (CD-ROM)
McMahon, A.M., 2008, Technical report for the Yanque deposit, Peru, Pin-
cock, Allen & Holt: Zincore Metals Internal Report.
Meinert, L.D., Dipple, G.M., and Nicolescu, S., 2005, World skarn deposits:
ECONOMIC GEOLOGY 100TH ANNIVERSARY VOLUME, p. 299–336.
Mendívil, S., and Dávila, D., 1994, Geología de los cuadrángulos de Cuzco y
Livitaca (Hojas 28–S y 29–S): Lima, Instituto Geológico, Minero y Met-
alúrgico, Carta Geológica Nacional, Boletín 52, 115 p.
Noble, D.C., McKee, E.H., Eyzaguirre, V.R., and Marocco, R., 1984, Age
and regional tectonic and metallogenetic implications of igneous activity
and mineralization in the Andahuaylas-Yauri belt of southern Peru: ECO-
NOMIC GEOLOGY, v. 79, p. 172–176.
Pasminco Exploration, 2000, Accha joint venture—information memoran-
dum, Melbourne, Australia, Pasminco Exploration, 20 p.
Pecho, V., 1981, Geología de los cuadrángulos de Chalhuanca, Antabamba y
Santo Tomás: Lima, Instituto de Geología, Minería y Metalurgia, Boletín
no. 35, 67 p.
Perelló, J., Carlotto, V., Zárate, A., Ramos, P., Posso, H., Neyra, C., Caballero,
A., Fuster, N., and Muhr, R., 2003, Porphyry-style alteration and mineral-
ization of the middle Eocene to early Oligocene Andauaylas-Yauri belt,
Cuzco region, Peru: ECONOMIC GEOLOGY, v. 98, p. 1575–1605.
Pontifex and Associates, 1999, Mineralogy of Accha samples: Adelaide, Aus-
tralia, Pontifex Internal Report, 25 p.
Rietveld, H.M., 1969, A profile refinement method for nuclear and magnetic
structures: Journal of Applied Crystallography, v. 2, p. 67–71.
Ross, C.S., 1946, Sauconite—a clay mineral of the montmorillonite group:
American Mineralogist, v. 31, p. 411–424.
Rule, A.C., and Radke, F., 1988, Baileychlore, the Zn end member of the tri-
octahedral chlorite series: American Mineralogist, v. 73, p. 135–139.
Santa Cruz, S., Guerrero, T., Castilla, F., Caro, E., and Candiotti, H., 1979,
Geología de yacimientos de cobre en “skarn” en la región sur-oriental del
Perú: Boletín Sociedad Geológica del Perú, v. 60, p. 153–174.
Schildgen, T.F., Hodges, K.V., Whipple, K.X., Reiners, P.W., and Pringle,
M.S., 2007, Uplift of the western margin of the Andean plateau revealed
from canyon incision history, southern Peru: Geology, v. 35, p. 523–526.
 NONSULFIDE ZINC DEPOSIT, ACCHA, PERU
Sillitoe, R.H., 1990, Copper deposits and Andean evolution: Circum-Pacific
Council for Energy and Mineral Resources, Earth Science Series, v. 11, p.
285–311.
——2005, Supergene oxidized and enriched porphyry copper and related
deposits: ECONOMIC GEOLOGY 100TH ANNIVERSARY VOLUME, p. 723–768.
Sillitoe, R.H., and McKee, E.H., 1996, Age of supergene oxidation and en-
richment in the Chilean porphyry copper province: ECONOMIC GEOLOGY,
v. 91, p. 164–179.
Sweeney, M.A., Pattrick, R.A.D., Vaughan, D.J., and Turner, P., 1991, The
nature and genesis of the Willemite deposits of Zambia, in Pagel M., and
Leroy J.L. eds. Source, transport and deposition of metals: Rotterdam,
Balkema, p. 139–142.
Thouret, J.-C., Wörner, G., Gunnell, Y., Singer, B., Zhang, X., and Souriot.,
T., 2007, Geochronologic and stratigraphic constraints on canyon incision
and Miocene uplift of the Central Andes in Peru: Earth and Planetary Sci-
ence Letters, v. 263, p. 151–166.
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 289
289
Toby, B.H., 2001, EXPGUI, a graphical user interface for GSAS: Journal of
Applied Crystallography, v. 34, p. 210–213.
de Wet, K., and Singleton, J.D., 2008, Development of a viable process for
the recovery of zinc from oxide ores: Southern African Institute of Mining
and Metallurgy, LEAD and ZINC ’08, Durban, Proceedings, p. 177–192.
Winter, L.D.S, 2006, National Instrument 43–101: Accha-Yanque zinc belt
project, Department of Cusco, Peru: Vancouver, Canada, Zincore Metals
Technical Report, 30 p.
Woollett, A., 2005, The processing of non-sulphide zinc deposits [abs.]: Eu-
ropean Science Foundation (ESF) Workshop on Nonsulfide Zn-Pb De-
posits, Iglesias, 21–23 April 2005, 1 p.
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 290