THEME 1: A PERIOD OF TRANSITIO

1. The Beginning of the Modern World

History in most countries is classified into three periods-ancient, medieval and
modern. Each period has some characteristics- political, economic, religious and
social-that sets it apart from other periods. This Classification helps to bring a sense
of order and continuity to the bewildering array of historical events and historical
processes that have taken place over centuries of evolution. It helps to put the past
into perspective and to see turning points and transition periods with greater
understanding and clarity.

A PERIOD OF TRANSITION

Historical periods differ from country to country depending on the stage of

development of that region. In Europe the Modern Age started in the 15 th century. In
India the Modern period is generally regarded as having begun in the mid-18th
century.

The major turning point in India’s transition, from the Medieval to the Modern Age,
was the conquest of India by the British. In the past, India had been invaded and
conquered by foreigners. However, unlike the earlier conquerors, the British did not
settle down and adapt to an Indian way of life. For the first time, India was ruled from
outside by foreigners and subjected to an alien rule for about 200 years. The sharp
divide between the British rulers and the Indians was never bridged.

Some of the characteristic features of the Modern Period are: urbanization,

technological advancement, democratic institutions, fundamental civil liberties,
rationalism and humanism and industrialization.

SOURCE MATERIALS

The vast range and quantity of source materials for the Modern Age in India helps us
to study the history of this period in great details and with great accuracy.

The source material for the Modern Period is of two kinds-primary and secondary.

Primary Sources

Many of these primary sources have ben preserved in archives and museums.They
include:

 Original documents like British official records

 Literary works like accounts of European residents, visitors and Indian officials,
novel, plays, short stories and poems by British and Indian authors of this period
 Historical works by contemporary historians
 Artistic works like paintings, sketches engravings and drawings.
 Photographs, audio cassettes, films and videotapes of incidents and interviews of
important personalities
 Newspapers in both English and in Indian languages
 Archaeological remains like monuments and artefacts
 Oral history
Secondary Sources

Secondary sources include books, reviews, reports and articles written by historians
and scholars who study and research primary source material, interpret evidence
and arrive at conclusions.

Since the Modern Age in India began with the advent of the British rule, the roots of
the transition from the Medieval period must be traced to Europe. To understand the
impact of British rule on Indian history, it is imperative to understand the changes
that were taking place in Europe.

MODERN PERIOD IN EUROPE

Europe entered the Modern Age in the 15th century. Important changes had occurred
by that time- feudalism had increased and the rights of the individual had become
stronger. Despite these changes, much of the European continent still remained
feudal in the 16th Century; eastern Europe remained backward till almost the 18th
century.

THE RENAISSANCE

In the tree centuries between 1300CE and 1600 CE, a great movement of change
and discovery spread across Europe, which radically altered the pattern of people’s
lives and thinking.

This movement, representing a new spirit in every field of life , is referred to as the
Renaissance. It is a French word that means ‘rebirth’ or ‘revival’. The Renaissance
ushered in revolutionary changes in Europe and marked the transition from the
Medieval to the Modern age in Europe. The expansion of trade, the voyages of
discovery by Italian merchants, their interaction with various societies and their
wealth and prosperity were all important factors that contributes to the beginning of
the Renaissance.

Another important event was the capture of Constantinople, the capital of the
Byzantine empire (Eastern Roman Empire), in 1453 by the Ottoman Turks, which
had important effects.

A large number of Greek scholars fled from Constantinople, (a great centre of

classical Greek and Roman learning) to Italy with rare manuscripts. These scholars
were patronized and encouraged by the rulers, schools and the rich Italian
merchants of Rome, Florence, Milian and Venivce. Libraries were set up and
universities were established to promote classical and modern learning.

THINK AND ANSWER

Think of the period between 13000 and 1600CE in India. What do you think were
the major differences between India and Europe at this point of time?
The Renaissance, or the revival of classical Graeco-Roman learning inspired and
encouraged people to question and challenge long established ideas and institutions
that had been imposed on them by the church and their kings. They refused to
blindly accept the dictates of their rulers and the Church. They demanded to know
the truth based on logic and reason and rejected everything that did not satisfy the
yardstick of reason. This new spirit of rationalism led to the rise of a scientific temper
and the spirit of inquiry. This scientific temper and the desire to inquire or seek the
truth led to new and varied developments in the fields of art, architecture, sculpture,
painting, literature, science and technology.
Renaissance scholars and thinkers shifted the focus from divine affairs to human
affairs. The spirits of humanism was central tp new learning. Medieval preoccupation
with religion, afterlife, heaven and hell was replaced with a deep and abiding interest
in human affairs-their joys and sorrows, desires and fulfilment. Freedom and
creativity.
The spirit of the Renaissance period found expression in the fields od art,
architecture, sculpture, painting, literature, science and technology, explorations and
discoveries. This period saw a great outburst of creativity and brilliance.
Dicuss
Which aspect of Renaissance thought do we still follow in our lives? Discuss.
VOYAGES OF DISCOVERY
The Renaissance also fostered a spirit of exploration and discovery. This period bred
a spirit of adventure and the desire to explore the unknown, which in turn led to
exploration and the discovery of many new lands.
In the middle of the 15th century CE, the Ottoman Turks captured Asian Minor and
cut off direct land links between Asia and Europe. The Turks also took control of the
main ports of the eastern Mediterranean Sea, raided European ships, and imposed
heavy taxes on goods passing through their lands. This was a great blow to
European trade with the East. This gave rise to an urgent need to find and alternate
sea route to the East. Great voyages of explorations were undertaken, leading to
great discoveries of new routes and new lands.
Important Discoveries
In the 15th century, a Portuguese prince, Henry the Navigator, sent out several
expeditions to explore the west coast of Africa. He prepared maps based on these
explorations. In 1498 CE, an expedition led by Bartholomew Diaz reached the
southern tip of the African continent. This came to be known as the Cape of Good
Hope because the prospects of finding India seemed bright. In 1497 CE another
Portuguese explorer, Vasco da Gama, followed the same route and then sailed
around the Cape of Good Hope. He crossed the Indian Ocean and reached Calicut
(present-day Kozhikode) on the west coast of India in 1498 CE. Vasco da Gama
discovered the sea route to reach India, which later became an important trade route
for other foreign powers to reach India.
In 1492, an Italian sailor living in Spain, Christopher Columbus sailed westwards
from Europe with the help of the king and queen of Spain. Columbus was sure that
the could reach the East if he sailed westwards from Europe. After sailing westwards
across the Atlantic Ocean for two months, he landed on the Caribbean Islands of
Central America. He undertook more voyages and discovered several more island in
the Caribbean Sea and the coast of Venezuela. Until his death, Columbus believed
that he had found a route to the East Little did he know that he had actually
discovered America, a new continent.
Spain and Portugal divided the newly discovered lands in the East and the West
between themselves.

These discoveries led to a steady growth of trade and commerce. A new class of rich
merchants emerged in society. These merchants accumulated enormous wealth and
helped their rulers to build prosperous, strong and stable states. The king’s
dependence on feudal lands gradually declined. The wealthy merchants and the
professional class consisting of doctors, lawyers, teachers etc., formed and the
middle class. The middle class in general and the merchants in particular became
the most influential section of society and contributed greatly to the progress of
mankind. These discoveries also enriched people’s knowledge of world geography,
brought about revolutionary economic changes in Europe and set in motion the
process of colonization of Asia, Africa and Latin America.

REFORMATION

During the Medieval Period, religion was central to human existence. The lives of all
in Europe revolved around the Roman Catholic Church and its supreme head the
Pope. The authority of the Pope was absolute and could not be questioned or
challenged.

A painting showing a group of Renaissance thinkers, discussing new theories in

science and mathematics

People were taught to focus only on divine and spiritual matters throughout their
lives and prepare for a life after death. Blind faith was propagated and people were
conditioned to believe that the only path to salvation was through complete and total
surrender to the doctrines of the Church.

Christian monasteries had become exclusive centres of education. The monopoly of

education armed the Church with absolute power and authority to increase its
stranglehold on society.

Opposition to the teachings of the Church (heresy) would incur the wrath of the
papacy and often lead to terrible punishments. Heretics were sometimes burnt alive,
at the stake.
Apart from spiritual powers the papacy was also deeply involved in the political
affairs of Christian European states. Ruler of these states were appointed and
dismissed by the Pope and subjected to the doctrines and regulations, of the
Church.
As the Church became increasingly wealthy and powerful, the clergymen and priests
began to lead a worldly life of ease, luxury and opulence. They became corrupt and
immoral and lost interest in the welfare of the people.
Meaning of Reformation
The Reformation was a protest movement against the authoritarianism and evil
practices of the Roman Catholic Church. It was a revolt against its orthodoxy,
conservatism and blind faith that was stifling and regressive and a stumbling block to
the intellectual and spiritual advancement of the people. It was also known as the
Protestant Movement.
Cause
Renaissne
The Renaissance had radically altered the pattern of thinking and outlook of the
people. It had set in motion the advent of new and powerful ideas of humanism,
rationalism, scientific spirit and the spirit of Inquiry. These revolutionary ideas
unleashed unstoppable force that completely charged the way people thought and
behaved. It was like awakening of a sleeping giant.
People had finally found truthful and rational answers to their questions and
discovered the real truth about themselves and their environment. Everything based
on blind faith was questioned. The teachings of the Church were rejected and its
authority challenged.
The invention of the printing press helped to spread the ideas of the Renaissance
thinkers quickly and far and wide. The bible was translated from Latin to the regional
languages and everybody got to know the real facts about the teachings of the Bible.
Evil Practices of the Roman Catholic Church
During the early Medieval Period, the Pope and the clergy (priests) led pious, simple
and saintly lives dedicated to the services of the people.
With the passage of time the clergy, with some exceptions, began to lead immoral
lives of luxury, wealth and comfort. The monasteries owned nearly one-third of the
landed property in Europe. Religious duties and services to mankind were largely
ignored or forgotten.
The Roman Church levied various taxes such as ‘tithe’ and ‘Peter’s Pence’ on all
European Christians under their control. High fees were charged for conducting
religious services.
Bribery and corruption became common. Church offices were sold, bringing many
unworthy people into the Church.
The Church started the practice of selling ‘Indulgences’ to those who had committed
sins. It was like a certificate of pardon by God for their sins and a ‘passport to
heaven’ without having to undergo ant penance.
Writings of Eminent Scholars
Learned scholars like John Wycliffe and John Huss, exposed the evil of the Church
through their writings and suggested reforms. Their ideas aroused he conscience of
the people and spread awareness about the real character of the Roman Catholic
Church.

Rise of Strong Rulers

With the decline of feudalism in Europe strong rulers emerged. They defied the
authority of the Pope and refused to let him interfere in their administrative affairs.
They resented the papal taxes and the drain of their wealth to Rome in the form of
papal taxes.

Rise of National Consciousness

As national consciousness began to take shape in Europe the people of nation

states wanted their own ruler to be independent and free from papal control. They
also wanted their own national churches.

The immediate cause of the Reformation was a protect movement by Martin Luther.

Role of Martin Luther

Martin Luther was as German Christine monk and preacher at the University town of
Wittenburg. A visit to Rome and his observations of the church left him shocked and
disillusioned. Enraged by the sight of the sale of indulgences he nailed on the door of
a local church, a list of objections (95 Theses) for public debate.

By his attack on indulgences issued by the Pope, Luther appeared to be challenging

the power and authority of the papacy. He immediately found himself in the eye of a
religious storm that would sweep through Europe, shake the very foundations of the
Papacy and set in motion the Reformation Movement.

Luther publicly announced that the authority of the Bible, not that of the Pope, was
the final authority on Christianity. Emboldened by the increasing support for his
views, he raised the pitch of protest and savagely attacked the Church practices and
position of the papacy. A national German Church (Lutheran Church) was
established, free from the control of the Roman Church. Luther was condemned as a
heretic and excommunicated by the Pope. In a show of open defiance, Luther
Publicly burnt the order issued by the Pope.

The Pope directed the German Emperor (Charles V) to punish Luther for heresy.
Luther was ordered to withdraw all his anti-church statements. He boldly, fearlessly
and firmly refused to do so, knowing fully well that his life was now in grave danger.

The Duke of Saxony hid Luther in his castle for about a year during which time,
Luther translated the Bible (New Testament) from Latin into German. A large number
of German ruling princes supported Luther and broke away from the Roman Catholic
Church. Lutheran churches were established in many German states. Their followers
come to be known as Protestants.

A long and bloody civil war broken out between the supporters of the Catholic
Church in Rome and Protestant Church in Germany. By the end of the war (1555
CE), Europe was split into two camps-Roman Catholics and Protestants. The seed
of protest that Luther had planted in a German principality within the Holy Roman
Empire flowered, bore fruit and gave birth to some of the great Protestant churches
in northern and Western Europe.

Impact of Reformation

 The church was split up permanently.

 Civil wars broke out in many countries between the Catholics and the
Protestants.
 Religious intolerance, hatred and persecution of Protestants in Catholic countries
and Catholics in Protestant countries became the order of the day, and led to
many wars in Europe.
 Religious persecution of the Protestants in England was a major reason for their
migration to and colonization of North America (New England). By the end of the
18th century the colonists would establisg the United States of America.

Counter Reformation

The Reformation had a positive impact on the Catholic Church. The Pope realized
that it was imperative to introduce reforms to revive and revitalize the Catholic
Church and restore its lost position and prestige.

The reform movement within the Catholic Church in response to the Protestant
Movement is known as the Counter Reformation. The Catholic Church became
virtuous, liberal and compassionate and more tolerant of different and opposing
views.

Rise of Nation States

The Protestants championed the cause of independent and strong rulers, totally free
from the control of the Catholic Church. Several European rulers assumed power as
head of the Church as well as the government. The loyalty of the people was now
confined only to their own ruler (who was both their temporal as well as spiritual
leader) and no longer divided between the Roman Church and their government.
This marked the beginning of the evolution of nation states comprising of people
bound by common ties of culture, history language and territory, united under one
government and one ruler.

Economic Development
After the Reformation, the drain of wealth form Christian countries to Rome came to
an end. The ruler of these nation states used their improved financial resources to
introduce various reforms and improve the economic conditions of the people. Trade
agriculture and industry flourished. The welfare of the people was a primary concern
of the ruler who won the loyalty and support of the people and became strong and
powerful.

VALUES AND LIFE SKILLS

We should challenge and question every belief and idea that does not satisfy the
yardstick of reason. We must be guided by a pririt of rationalism and should not
accept all things blindly.

 What will you do if you are not convinced of certain beliefs that are imposed on
you by your family members?

List of Images

1.1 A painting depicting British conquest of India in the ‘war of Seringapatnam’.

Modern Age in India began with the conquest of India by the British.

1.2 The Victoria Memorial in Kolkata-an archaeological source of the Modern Period
in India.

1.3 A news report of the French newspaper, Le Petit Parisien, showing the famine of
1897 in India.

1.4 A painting showing European explorers discovering new land.

1.5 Martin Luther was a German monk and preacher who protested against the evil
practices of the Catholic Church.

Important Words

The Modern Period started in Europe in the 15th century and India in the mis-18th
century. The major turning point in India’s transition from the Medievel to the Modern
Age was the conquest of India by the British.

Primary sources are the original documents, official records, literary works, works of
art, photographs, newspapers and archaeological monuments and artefacts.

Secondary sources include books, reviews, reports and articles written by historians
and scholars who study and research the primary source material, interpret evidence
and arrive at conclusions.

Middle class during the Renaissance in Europe comprised the wealthy merchants
and professionals, consisting of doctors, lawyers, teachers, etc.,
Humanism is a system of thought that considers that solving human problem with the
help of reason is more important than religious beliefs.

Rationalism is a philosophy or belief that all behaviour, opinions, etc. should be

based on reason rather than on emotions or religious beliefs.

Reformation was a protest movement against the evil and authoritarian practices of
the Catholic Church with a view to reform the Catholic Church.

Counter Reformation refers to the reform movement within the Catholic Church in
response to the ideas and action of Protestant Reformation

Nation States refers to the rise of strong and independents countries, in 14 th century
Europe, that had a common territory, with a well-defined boundary, and whose
people were bound by common ties of culture, history, language and territory. The
people of these nation states were also lived united under one government/ruler.

Exercises

A. Fill in the balnks:

1. The Modern Age in India began with the conquest of India by the - .
2. India was ruled by the British for nearly - years.
3. The two kinds of source material for the Modern period are - sources and -
sources.
4. The - ushered in revolutionary changes in Europe and marked the transition from
the - Age to the - Age.
5. The four characteristic features of the Renaissance period are - , -, and -.
B. Match the following:
A B
1. Archaeological sources (a) Humanism
like monuments
2. Renaissance (b) Primary source
3. Constantionople (c) Martin Luther
4. Reformation (d) Taxes levied by
Roman church
5. Tithe and Peter’s Pence (e) Capital of the
Byzantine empire
C. Choose the correct answer:
1. In India the Modern Period is generally regarded as having begun in the mid-
15th/mid-18th/mid-16th century.
2. The primary sources for the study of the Modern Period are preserved in archives
/banks/factories.
3. The wealthy merchants and the professional class consisting of doctors, lawyers,
teachers etc., formed the upper class/ middle class/lower class.
4. The invention of the printing press/telegraph/telephone helped to spread the ideal
of the Renaissance thinkers far and wide.
5. Martin Luther was an Italian /a German/a French Christian monk.
 D. State whether the following questions in one or two words/sentences:
1. The source material of the Modern period is of two kinds-primary and secondary.
2. Primary sources of history includes books, reviews, reports and articles.
3. Renaissance scholars shifted the focus from divine affairs to human affairs.
4. The voyages of discoveries led to a decline of trade and commerce.
5. The Reformation was also known as the Protestant Movement.
E. Answer the following questions in one or two words/ sentences:
1. The history of most nations can be divided into a number of periods. Name them.
[2]
2. What distinguishes one historical period from another? [2]
3. In what way is the classification of historical period useful to us? [2]
4. When did the Modern Period begin in (a) Europe (b) India? [2]
5. Mention any four characteristic features of the Modern Period. [2]
6. Mention any two (a) primary and (b) secondary source materials of the Modern
Period. [2]
7. Why is it important to study developments in Europe to understand the history of
modern India? [2]
8. What is the meaning of Renaissance? [2]
9. What is meant by Reformation? [2]
10. What do you understand by nation states? [2]
F. Answer the following briefly:
1. The capture of Constantinople by the Ottoman Turks led to the beginnings of
Renaissance in Europe. With reference to this statement answer the following
questions:
(a) How did it lead to the revival of classical Greek and Roman learning in Europe?
[3]
(b) What effect did it have on the outlook and attitudes of the people of Europe?
[4]
(c) What effect did it have on trade? [3]
2. With reference to the causes of the Reformation, how did the following contribute
to the movement:
(a) Renaissance [3]
(b) Evil practices of the Roman catholic Church [4]
(c) Rise of strong and powerful rulers
G. Picture study:
This is a portrait of the German monk who opposed certain activities of the
Catholic Church.
(a) Identify the person in the picture.
(b) With which great religious movement is his name associated?
(c) Where was he born and in which country did he lead his movement?
(d) Mention any four effects of the movement started by him.

DO AND LEARN
Use your imagination:

Imagine you were Martin Luther, teaching at the University of Wittenberg. Prepare a
lecture to give in class, explaining why you oppose the priests and challenged the
power and authority of the Catholic Church of his time.

Project work:

1. Collect pictures and information on the impact of the Renaissance and make a
scrapbook.
2. Make a report to show how in post Refoemation period religion has affected the
political history of Europe.

Websites:

For more information, go to:

 http://www.mrdowling.com/704renaissance.html (Accessed on 11 december

2016)
 http://www.history.com/topics/reformation (Accessed on 11th december 2016)