Exam of Microbiology

1. Microbiology. Branches of microbiology. Scope and tasks of medical microbiology. The historical
foundations of microbiology. The role of scientists A. Leeuwenhoek, L. Pasteur, R. Koch, I.
Mecinicov in the development of microbiology.

2. Types of microbiological laboratories and their tasks. Biosecurity rules in a microbiological

laboratory. Classification of laboratories according to biosecurity level.

3. Characteristics of microorganisms. Taxonomy, classification and name of microorganisms.

Acellular and cellular types. Differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms.

4. Microbiological methods of diagnosis and their essence. Microscopic method in the diagnosis of
infectious diseases. Types of microscopes, practical use. Features and the role of immersion oil.

5. Morphology of bacteria. Morphological groups of bacteria. Draw a main form of bacteria.

Tinctorial characters of bacteria. Basic dyes used in microbiology. Staining methods. Practical
application.

6. Stages and smear preparation techniques of bacteria from liquid media. The technique of smear
preparation of sputum and smear-prints. Method of fixation.

7. Smear preparation techniques of bacteria from solid media. The technique of smear preparation
of blood, pus. Method of fixation.

8. Bacterial cell structure. Permanent (obligatory) and non-permanent (elective) structure.

Cytoplasmic membrane and cytoplasm. The structure, chemical composition and biological
functions. Identification methods.

9. Bacterial cell wall, function. Peculiarities of the structure of the cell wall of gram-positive
bacteria. Gram stain. Staining technique and mechanism. Practical importance. Examples of
gram-positive bacteria.

10. Bacterial cell wall, function. Peculiarities of the structure of the cell wall of gram-negative
bacteria. Gram stain. Technique and mechanism of staining. Practical importance. Examples of
gram-negative bacteria.

11. Peculiarities of structure and chemical composition of the cell wall of acid fast bacteria. Ziehl-
Neelsen stain. Components, mechanism and technique of staining. Example of acid fast bacteria.

12. Nuclear apparatus of bacteria. Chemical composition and biological functions. Identification
methods. Bacterial plasmids, the types and functions.

13. Bacterial endospore. Chemical composition and biological functions. Sporulation stages. The
arrangement in the cell. Examples of pathogen sporulated species, draw. Identification methods
of endospores.

14. Bacterial capsule. Chemical composition and biological functions. Positive and negative staining
methods of the capsule. Examples of capsulated bacteria, draw.

15. Flagella. The structure and chemical composition. Classification according the arrangement and
number of bacterial flagella. Methods of flagella identification. Loeffler stain. Bacterial pili,
types.
16. Volutin (metachromatic) granules. Chemical composition and biological functions. Identification
methods. Loeffler and Neisser stain. The staining mechanism and technique. Examples of
bacteria with volutin granules. Practical importance.

17. Morphology and ultrastructure of spirochetes. Identification methods. Classification. Pathogen

species. Draw.

18. Morphology and ultrastructure of mycoplasma and chlamydia. Identification methods. Pathogen
species.

19. Sterilization, sterile and non-sterile object. Sterilization by steam under pressure and dry heat.
Objects and sterilization schedules. Control of sterilization efficiency.

20. Microbial metabolism. Peculiarities. Bacterial enzymes. Classification, role in microbial

physiology. Practical application in microbiology.

21. Nutrition of bacteria. Type of nutrition and nutrient transport mechanisms in bacterial cell.
Classification of microorganisms against carbon sources. Name saprophytic and parasitic
microbs.

22. Culturing the bacteria. Stage of bacteria multiplication in the media. Necessary conditions
needed for bacteria cultivation.

23. Culture media. The principles of classification. Usual media. Components. Their destination.
Manifestation of bacterial growth on liquid and solid media.

24. Bacteriological method in diagnosis of infectious diseases. Purpose. Pathological specimens

from patients and from environmental objects. Principles of prelevation, preservation and
transportation of specimens to the laboratory. Primary preparation of specimens for laboratory
investigations.

25. Bacteriological investigation. Isolation stages of the pure cultures of aerobic bacteria. Principles
of identification of pure culture.

26. Principles of anaerobe bacteria cultivation. Methods of creating anaerobiosis, special medium
for anaerobes culturing. Identification of anaerobe pure cultures.

27. Antibiotics. Definition. Classification according the origin, action spectrum and effect on
bacterial cell. Mechanisms of action of antibiotics. Examples.

28. The methods of microbial sensitivity detection to antibiotics: diffusion (disks), successive
dilutions. Definition of minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal
concentration (MBC).

29. Viruses. Nature. Biological peculiarities. The principles of classification. The shape and size of
viruses. Methods of study.

30. Simple and complex viruses. The general structure. The stages of virus multiplication.

31. Cell cultures. Types. Isolation of virus in cell cultures. Methods of indication and identification of
virus isolation.

32. Role of microorganism in the infectious process. Definition of pathogen microorganism.

Pathogenicity and virulence. Units of virulence.
33. Characteristics of pathogen bacteria. Pathogenic factors. Classification. The role of structural
pathogenic factors and of the pathogen enzyme in infection evolution.

34. Microbial toxins. The types of toxins and their characteristics. Role in the pathogenesis of
infection.

35. Nonspecific resistance of macroorganisms. Definition. Factors that provide nonspecific

resistance. Role of tissue factor (barrier) and humoral immunity in infection prevention.

36. Nonspecific resistance of macroorganisms. Definition. Cellular factors of nonspecific resistance.

Phagocytosis: phagocytic cells, stages of phagocytosis. The role of the phagocytosis in initiating
of the immune response.

37. Definition of antigen. General properties of antigens (immunogenicity and antigenicity).

Complete and incomplete antigens (hapten) and their characteristic. T-dependent antigens and
T-independent. Antigenic determinants (epitopes), types.

38. Immune system, functions. Organs of the immune system. The role of central and peripheral
immune system organs. The cells of the immune system and their functions.

39. Immunocompetent cells. Developing of T and B lymphocytes, surface receptors. The

differentiation of naive T lymphocytes and B as against antigenic stimulus. Functions of effector
cell.

40. Immunoglobulins (Ig). The structure of immunoglobulin monomer. Complete and incomplete
antibodies. Ig classes and their properties.

41. Immune response, consequences. Stages of the immune response. Characteristic of humoral
and cellular immunity. Functions.

42. Hypersensitivity reactions (HSR). Definition. Peculiarities. Classification based on immunological

mechanisms.

43. Type I hypersensitivity reaction (immediate, anaphylactic). Involved factors, allergens. Local and
general anaphylaxy, mechanism of the reactions. Detection of type I hypersensitivity reaction.
Control methods.

44. Type II hypersensitivity reactions (cytolytic-cytotoxic). Involved factors, consequences. Diagnosis

and control of HSR type II.

45. Type III hypersensitivity reactions (mediated by soluble immune complex). Involved factors.
Mechanism, pathological manifestations. Detection of HSR type III.

46. Type IV hypersensitivity reactions (cell mediated, late). Types. Involved factors, allergens.
Detection of HSR type IV.

47. Artificial active immunization. Vaccines. Characteristic of postvaccination immunity. Primary and
booster vaccination. Requirements for vaccines. Definitions of vaccine prevention.

48. Live attenuated vaccines. Method of obtaining, the advantages and disadvantages of live
vaccines. Examples.
49. Inactivated (killed) vaccines. Method of obtaining, the advantages and disadvantages of
inactivated vaccines. Examples. Autovaccin, practical use.

50. Subunitary vaccines (fragmented, chemical) and toxoids. Method of obtaining, the advantages
and disadvantages of subunitary vaccines. Adjuvants. Adsorbed vaccines.

51. Artificial passive immunization, characteristics. Immune serum, types, requirements to them.
Classification of curative immune serum according the origin and mode of action. The
characteristics, advantages and disadvantages of homologous and heterologous sera.

52. Serological reactions antigen (Ag) - antibody (Ac) in vitro. Particularities of Ac-Ag reaction.
Phases of Ag-Ac interaction. The practical application of serological reactions.

53. Agglutination reaction (AR). Components, mechanisms. Direct agglutination reactions (on slide,
in tubes). Interpretation of the results. Practical application.

54. Coombs reaction. Components, the mechanisms. Interpretation of the results. Practical
application.

55. Precipitation reactions. Mechanism. Ring precipitation reaction. Components. Interpretation of

the results. Practical application.

56. Complement fixation reaction (CFR). Components, the mechanisms. Interpretation of the
results. Practical application.

57. Immunofluorescence reaction (RIF, the reaction Coons) direct and indirect. Components, the
mechanisms. Interpretation of the results. Practical application.

58. Immunoenzymatic assay (RIE, ELISA). Components, the mechanisms. Interpretation of the
results. Practical application.

59. Haemagglutination reactions (RHA) and inhibition of haemagglutination reactions (RIHA).

Components, the mechanisms. Interpretation of the results. Practical application.

60. Staphylococcal infections. Classification of staphylococci (family, genus, sp.). Pathogen factors.
Habitat, the diseases. Microbiological diagnosis. Pathological specimens. Microscopic method.
Isolation of pure culture and identification. Specific prevention and treatment of staphylococcal
infections.

61. Streptococcal infections. Classification of streptococci (family, genus, sp.). Classification against
the presence of hemolysis and antigenic structure. Pathogenic factors (structural, exotoxin
pathogen enzymes). Diseases. Microbiological diagnosis. Pathological specimens. Microscopic
method. Isolation of pure culture, identification.

62. Pneumococcal infections. Classification (family, genus, sp.). Pathogenic factors. Diseases.
Microbiological diagnosis. Pathological specimens. Direct microscopy. Isolation and
identification of pure culture. Specific prevention of pneumococcal infections.

63. Meningococcal infections. Classification of meningococci (family, genus, sp.). Pathogenic factors.
Diseases. Microbiological diagnosis. Specimens. Microscopic method. Isolation and identification
of pure culture. Detection of meningococcal antigen in cerebrospinal fluid. Specific prophylaxis.

64. Gonococcal infection. Classification of gonococci (family, genus, sp.). Pathogenic factors. Acute
and chronic gonococcal infections. Microbiological diagnosis. Pathological specimens. Direct
 microscopy. Isolation and identification of pure culture. Peculiarities of sample prelevation and
diagnosis in chronic gonorrhoea.

65. Gas gangrene. Classification of etiological agents (family, genus, sp.). Pathogenic factors
(exotoxin, enzymes). Clinical manifestations according the microbial species. Microbiological
diagnosis. Specimens. Microscopic method, pure culture isolation and identification. Specific
prophylaxis and treatment of gas gangrene.

66. Tetanus. Classification of causative agent (family, genus, sp.). Pathogenic factors. Pathogenesis
of tetanus, the evolution of clinical symptoms. Microbiological diagnosis. Specimens.
Microscopic method. Pure culture isolation and identification. Specific prophylaxis and
treatment of tetanus.

67. Botulism. Classification of causative agent (family, genus, sp.) Pathogenic factors. Pathogenesis
of botulism, the main clinical symptoms of botulinum poisoning. Microbiological diagnosis.
Specimens. Detection of botulinum toxin. Isolation and identification of C. botulini. Specific
prophylaxis and treatment of botulism.

68. Diphtheria. Classification of the pathogen (family, genus, sp.). Pathogenic factors. Pathogenesis
and clinical forms of diphtheria. Microbiological diagnosis. Pathological specimens. Direct
microscopy, isolation and identification of pure culture (toxin determination, differentiation of
biovariants). Specific prophylaxis and treatment of diphtheria.

69. Whooping cough. Classification of causative agent (family, genus, sp.). Pathogenic factors.
Pathogenesis of pertussis, stages of disease. Microbiological diagnosis. Specimens. Isolation and
identification of pure culture, serological methods. Specific prophylaxis and treatment of
pertussis.

70. Tuberculosis. Classification of causative agents (family, genus, sp.). Pathogenic factors. Primary
TB infectious - tuberculosis granuloma "primary complex". Evolution of infectious process.
Microbiological diagnosis. Allergic method (tuberculin properties), rapid methods. Specific
prophylaxis of tuberculosis.

71. Tuberculosis. Classification of pathogens, pathogen factors. Evolution of infectious process in

pulmonary tuberculosis. Microbiological diagnosis. Specimens: prelevation, homogenization,
decontamination, the concentration of mycobacteria in sputum. Direct microscopy, isolation
and identification of mycobacteria. Determination of sensitivity spectrum to antibiotics and
chemotherapy. Specific treatment of tuberculosis. DOTS strategy.

72. Syphilis. Classification of causative agent (family, genus, sp.) Pathogenic factors.
Pathophysiology and stages of infection. Congenital syphilis. Microbiological diagnosis of
syphilis. Specimens depending on the disease stages. Microscopic method. Serological method.

73. Borrelia. Classification of the causative agent of Lyme disease (family, genus, sp.). Lyme disease
pathogenesis, clinical manifestations. Microbiological diagnosis of Lyme disease. Specimens.
Microscopic examination. Isolation and identification B. burgdorferi. Serological diagnosis.

74. Leptospirosis. Classification of pathogens (family, genus). Pathogenic factors of leptospira.

Pathogenesis of infection. Microbiological diagnosis. Specimens, microscopic examination,
isolation and identification of pure culture. Biological, serological diagnosis (RHAI, RFC). Specific
prophylaxis and treatment of leptospirosis.

75. Escherichiosis. Classification of E. coli by antigenic structure. Habitat, role in human physiology.
Pathogenic factors. Diarrheal, bacterial, uropathogen phenotypes. Phenotypes of E. coli.
 Extraintestinal infections caused by E. coli. Specimens. Isolation, accumulation and identification
of pure culture (biochemical, serological), serological diagnosis.

76. Dysentery. Classification of pathogens (family, genus, and species) Pathogenic factors of shigella.
Dysentery pathogenesis, clinical symptoms. Microbiological diagnosis. Specimens. Microscopy
(RIF), isolation, accumulating and identification of pure culture (biochemical, serological).
Serological diagnostic. Specific prophylaxis and treatment of dysentery.

77. Salmonellosis. Salmonella, classification (family, genus, species, subspecies). Kauffmann-White

classification against antigenic structure. Thypho-parathyphoid salmonella. Pathogenesis of
thypho-parathyphoid salmonella. Specimens and diagnostic methods depending on the period
of illness. Isolation, identification of culture from blood and faeces (biochemical, serological).
Specific prophylaxis and treatment. Serological diagnosis. Widal agglutination reaction.

78. Salmonellosis. Salmonella non-thyphoidal (bipathogene). Classification (family, genus, species,

subspecies). Antigenic structure. Pathogenic factors. Salmonella pathogenesis, clinical forms.
Microbiological diagnosis. Specimens, isolation, accumulation and identification of pure culture
(biochemical, serological). Serological diagnosis.

79. Cholera. Vibrio classification (family, genus, sp.). The criteria for classification of the V. cholerae
into serogroups, biovariants, serovariants. Pathogenic factors of V. cholerae. Pathogenesis of
cholera. Microbiological diagnosis. Specimens. The principles of rapid test, reading and
interpretation of results. The importance of serological methods for diagnosis of cholera.

80. Cholera. The criteria for the classification of V. cholerae (serogroups, biovariants, serovariants),
pathogenic factors. Microbiological diagnosis. Specimens. Microscopic method. Bacteriological
method: enrichment, isolation, accumulating and identification of pure culture (biochemical,
biological, serological). Stages of bacteriological examination. Specific prophylaxis of cholera.

81. Morphobiological characteristics of influenza viruses, classification, antigenic structure, genetic

variability. Laboratory diagnosis of influenza. Specimens, diagnostic methods (viroscopic,
virological, serological). Specific prophylaxis and therapy of influenza.

82. Hepatitis viruses. Classification of hepatitis A and E viruses (family, genus, sp.). Morphobiological
characters. Serological markers. Pathogenesis of hepatitis A and E. The laboratory diagnosis of
hepatitis A and E. Specimens, diagnostic methods. Specific prophylaxis.

83. Hepatitis viruses. Classification of hepatitis B virus (family, genus, sp.). Morphobiological
characters. Serological markers. Pathogenesis of hepatitis B, consequences. Laboratory
diagnosis of hepatitis B. Specimens, diagnostic methods. Specific prophylaxis.

84. Hepatitis viruses. Classification of hepatitis C virus (family, genus, sp.). Morphobiological
characters. Serological markers. Pathogenesis of hepatitis C, consequences. Laboratory
diagnosis of hepatitis C. Specimens, diagnostic methods. Specific prophylaxis.

85. Hepatitis viruses. Classification of hepatitis D virus (family, genus, sp.). Morphobiological
characters. Serological markers. Pathogenesis of hepatitis D superinfection and coinfection.
Laboratory diagnosis of hepatitis D. Specimens, diagnostic methods. Specific prophylaxis.

86. HIV infection. HIV virus. Classification (family, type, options). Virion structure. Serological
markers. Target cells. Pathogenesis of HIV infection. AIDS. Laboratory diagnosis of HIV (direct
and indirect detection test, confirmation tests). Specific therapy.
87. Herpesviridae family. Classification (subfamilies, genera, spp.) Morphobiological characters of
herpes viruses. HSV 1 and HSV-2 viruses. Pathogenesis of infections (primary, latent infection,
reactivation). Peculiarities of evolution in immunocompromised persons. Laboratory diagnosis
of infections caused by HSV. Specimens. Diagnostic methods. Specific prophylaxis and therapy.

88. Herpesviridae family. Varicellovirus genus. Morphobiological characters Varicella Zoster virus
(VZV). The pathogenesis of chickenpox and herpes zoster. Peculiarities of evolution in
immunocompromised persons. Laboratory diagnosis of infections caused by VZV. Specimens.
Diagnostic methods. Specific prophylaxis.

89. Herpesviridae family. Genus Cytomegalovirus. Morphobiological characters of cytomegalic virus

(CMV). Pathogenesis of infections caused by CMV, clinical manifestations (primary infection,
reactivation). Laboratory diagnosis of infections caused by CMV. Specimens. Diagnostic
methods. Specific prophylaxis.