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Int J Fatigue 1,5 No 2 (1993) pp 119-131

The effect of stress amplitude on the


c a u s e of fatigue crack initiation in a
spring steel
A. Melander and M. Larsson

Hour-glass-shaped specimens of a hardened spring steel were fatigue tested with


fully reversed loading at five different stress amplitudes. The corresponding Weibull
diagrams for failure probability were determined and the failure causes were
established by fractographic studies. The failure curves in the Weibull diagrams
showed a double linear appearance at the lower stress amplitudes and a linear
appearance for the higher stress amplitudes. The low-life part of the broken Weibull
curve at low stress amplitude was associated with crack-initiating inclusions sitting
close to the surface of the specimens. The high-life end of the curve was caused by
inclusions sitting in the specimen interior. At high stress amplitudes the specimen
failures were caused by inclusions situated at the specimen surface. The inclusion
size distribution of the steel was determined with three different techniques based
on optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy and a chemical dissolution
technique. The three techniques gave results in fair agreement with one another for
large inclusion sizes. Long crack growth data were established with three-point
bending. Residual stresses on the specimen surfaces were measured with X-ray
techniques. A model for the failure probability of specimens is presented. It considers
the growth of cracks from spherical pores. The pores are used to model inclusions.
Crack growth is considered from a crack length of one Burgers vector to final failure
of the specimen. Crack growth curves for short and long cracks are designed so
that the growth can be calculated. The short cracks are assumed to grow at a
constant rate until the threshold for long cracks is reached and growth proceeds
according to the Paris law. The constant crack growth rate for short cracks is found
to be a function of the applied stress amplitudes and different for inclusions sitting
at the specimen surface and in the specimen interior. The failure probability is
calculated for distributions of pores corresponding to the experimentally determined
size distributions of inclusions. Reasonable agreement is obtained between experimen-
tal and theoretical failure probabilities.

Key words: steel; inclusion; fracture mechanics

In hardened steels, such as spring steels or bearing steels, specimens of a hardened spring steel. Distributions of
fatigue failure is usually caused by intrinsic material defects inclusions are determined experimentally and are related to
(inclusions, for example) situated at the specimen surface or failure-initiating defects on fracture surfaces. Fatigue crack
in the specimen interior, or extrinsic defects (notches, for propagation data are determined for long cracks. Starting
example) on the specimen surface. The magnitude of surface from this experimental information, models based on fracture
notches varies with the manufacturing process of the speci- mechanics are used to predict fatigue life. Special interest is
mens, and ranges from macroscopic notches, through turning devoted to the behaviour of very short cracks at defects.
patterns and grinding furrows, to polishing marks. The fatigue
process involves a competition between different crack- M a t e r i a l characteristics
initiating defects. The defect which first generates a fatal
crack controls the life of the specimen. It is often a large Chemical composition and heat treatment
defect situated close to the specimen surface and can generate A commercially produced spring steel is studied in the present
a microcrack early in fatigue life. work. The composition of the steel is given in Table 1. The
It is known that the fatigue loading level can have a steel was cast in a 3 t ingot taken from a 72 t melt. It was
significant influence on the location of critical defects. At hot rolled to a bar diameter of 28 mm. Fatigue bars were
low loading levels internal defects can cause the majority of machined after spheroidizing the steel. The specimens were
failures; at high loading levels defects near the surface can be subsequently heat treated to a hardness of 50 HRC. The
more important to the fatigue process. details of the heat treatment are given in Table 2. The
The purpose of the present work is to analyse by microstructure after heat treatment consists of tempered
experimental and theoretical means the effect of fatigue martensite. The austenite grain size was 6 Izm as determined
loading level on the site of crack initiation for polished with the intercept method.

0142-1123/93/020119-13 (~ 1993 Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd


Int J Fatigue March 1993 119
Table 1. Chemical composition of the spring steel
in wt%
I0.0 1
C 0.67 Mo 0.007
Si 0.25 V 0.16
Mn 0.65 AI 0.049
P 0.007 Cu 0.02 A
S 0.019 Ti 10 ppm
Cr 0.43 0 6.5 ppm
Ni 0.06 N 60 ppm ~" 1.o
c
2

HE
Table 2. Heat treatment of steel E
o.1
Austenitizing temperature 860 °C
Austenitizing time 60 min o

Quench medium Oil


Oil temperature 60 °C
Tempering temperature 420 °C
Tempering time 60 min
Final hardness 50 HRC E 0.01
D
Z

\
\
Inclusion characterization \
Three different techniques were used to measure the distri- 0.001
~' B
bution of inclusions in the steel. In two cases longitudinal \
I n I I • I
sections of the bars were studied with optical and scanning
10 20
electron microscopy respectively. The third method was based
on chemical dissolution of the steel matrix and extraction and Inclusion thickness, d(IJm)
counting of the remaining particles.
Optical microscopy Fig. 1 Accumulated size distribution of four inclusion types (A,
B, C and D) determined on two-dimensional longitudinal
Optical microscopy was used to determine the size distri- sections of bars with optical microscopy. Inclusion size is given
butions of inclusions on longitudinal sections of the rolled as thickness in radial direction of bars
bars. The measurements were made manually according to
Swedish Standard SS 111116. The magnification was xl00
and a specimen area of 30 cm 2 was analysed. The inclusion Table 3. Coefficients in exponential representation
distribution was divided into four groups. Manganese sulphide of inclusion size distribution (Equation (1)) corre-
inclusions correspond to type A, alumina inclusions to type sponding to B-type inclusions after optical
B and duplex inclusions containing alumina and manganese microscopy. The fitting is performed for inclusion
sulphide correspond to type C. Equiaxed oxide inclusions sizes larger than 3 I~m
which were not believed to be alumina were referred to as
type D inclusions. The inclusion distributions were evaluated f k
with the help of comparative pictures. Inclusion size d was Inclusion type (mm -1 ) (ixm -1 )
measured in the radial direction of the bar. This is the relevant
size parameter since fatigue cracks in the present case are
B, large 0.027 0.30
orthogonal to the axial direction of bars. Figure 1 shows the
accumulated size distributions. NA is the number of inclusions
per unit area with a section thickness larger than d.
The A-, C- and D-type inclusions show similar slopes
in Fig. 1. The B-type inclusions have a smaller slope than Scanning electron microscopy
the other inclusion types for inclusion thicknesses above 3 tzm. Automatic image analysis based on scanning electron
The B-type inclusions dominate the inclusion population for microscopy (Jeol 6400) and X-ray analysis (Link eXL) was
larger thicknesses. used to quantify size distributions of different inclusion types.
The accumulated size distribution of B-type inclusions The magnification was × 80 and the total area searched was
beyond the transition point of Fig. 1 was fitted to a straight 4.1 cm 2. Longitudinal sections of the rolled bars were studied.
line according to the expression Based on the X-ray analysis, four main groups of inclusions
were identified: sulphides, nitrides, duplex and oxide
NA = f e x p ( - k d ) (1)
inclusions. The sulphides correspond to manganese sulphide,
The fitting parameters are presented in Table 3. the nitrides to vanadium containing nitrides, the duplex

120 Int J Fatigue March 1993


If the size distributions from optical and scanning electon
10.0 microscopy (Figs 1 and 2 respectively) are compared, it can
be seen that in most cases optical microscopy gives lower
values of NA. However, the alumina inclusions, B, from
optical microscopy give densities which are similar to data
from scanning electron microscopy in the size range above
6 I~m. As yet there is no satisfactory explanation for the
-~" 1.o differences between the two types of microscopy at small
t" inclusion sizes. Factors such as different lateral resolution

D'I
L
O /o
D~
and different categorization of inclusions probably contribute
to the differences.
Calculation of three-dimensional size distribution
~E from two-dimensional distribution
E 0.100
The inclusion size distributions studied so far were obtained
from plane sections through the steel. In the models for
Q fatigue failure to be presented later, three-dimensional size
distributions are needed. A simple procedure to transform
from two- to three-dimensional size distributions was sug-
~ O.OLO gested in Ref. 1. Assuming that the inclusions are spherical
the three-dimensional frequency distribution can be written
..Q A ~N
E
Z gv(D) = ~ k D f exp(-kD) (2)

based on the two-dimensional distribution Equation (1). The


0.001 frequency distribution gv(D) dD corresponds to the expected
number of spherical inclusions per unit volume with a
I
diameter between D and D+dD.
I
1o 20
The accumulated three-dimensional distribution of
Inclusion thickness, d(Mm) inclusions can be obtained from Equation (2) by integration
up to a certain inclusion size:
Fig. 2 Accumulated size distribution of four inclusion types
determined on two-dimensional longitudinal sections of bars
with scanning electron microscopy. Inclusion size is given as
thickness in radial direction of bars. O, oxides; N, nitrides; D, Nv(D) = f: gv(D') dD' (3)
duplex; S, sulphides
Dissolution technique
The three-dimensional size distribution of inclusions was
inclusions to alumina inclusions surrounded by manganese determined experimentally using a chemical technique in
sulphide, and the oxides to calcium oxide and silica. which the steel matrix was dissolved with the aid of a mixture
Accumulated size distributions of different inclusion of nitric acid and organic acid. The size distribution of the
types are presented in Fig. 2. The slopes of the duplex and remaining inclusions was measured manually in a scanning
nitride inclusions are similar. The sulphides show a larger electron microscope. The technique is optimized for pure
slope than these two inclusion types. The oxide inclusions alumina inclusions which are not dissolved. Calcium oxide
show a smaller slope for small inclusion sizes than for large and manganese sulphide inclusions are dissolved with the
ones. The slope of the oxides was high compared with other steel matrix. Other inclusions, such as magnesia, silica and
inclusion types for large inclusion sizes. The straight line for carbonitrides, fall in between these categories. Figure 3
the oxides was fitted to the experimental data for large illustrates the accumulated three-dimensional size distribution
inclusion sizes. If the data of Fig. 2 are extrapolated beyond of inclusions based on the dissolution technique. A fitting
10 ~m, duplex and nitride inclusions dominate the size calculation was performed to find the parameters f and k of
distribution. The fitting parameters corresponding to the Equation (3) which can represent the experimental data of
straight lines of Fig. 2 are given in Table 4. Fig. 3. The parameters are given in Table 5 and the
corresponding curve is presented in Fig. 3.
For comparison, Fig. 3 also illustrates the transformed
Table4. Coefficients in exponential size distri- three-dimensional accumulated size distributions (Equation
butions (Equation (1)) of inclusions from SEM (3)) of oxides, nitrides plus duplex inclusions based on
analysis scanning electron microscopy and the corresponding curve
for large B-type inclusions from optical microscopy. The
f k curves of the diagram are plotted as full lines in those size
Inclusion type ( m m -1 ) (t~m -1 ) ranges where experimental data are available. It can be
observed that the curve representing SEM data gives the
O, oxides 422 1.44 highest values of Nv for small inclusion sizes and the data
N, nitrides 0.13 0.46 corresponding to the dissolution technique give the highest
D, duplex 0.39 0.51 values for large inclusion sizes. The data from optical
S, sulphides 4.64 0.96 microscopy fall between these two curves. The degree of
agreement between the three curves must be considered

Int J Fatigue March 1993 121


-G 10.7
u
SEM, nitrides and duplex E

\
"o

o
"O

10-8

c-
10-1 _ o

/
o
e~

0- 9 o
2~ t
db
E
E
~ 10 -2 i i I °l I i I I i f I i I
1o 100
t-
O AK (MPa/m)
o¢- Fig. 4 Fatigue crack growth rate determined for long cracks
with three-point bending specimens. Plotted as a function of
Dissolution techniques range of stress intensity
~, 10-s \
E
,-,I
Figure 4 illustrates the crack growth curve for one
sample. The range of stress intensity at a crack growth rate
of 10-9m cycle -1 is 6 MPa~/'m. The growth rate is often

7 10-4tOpticaIB typemiCr°Sc°PY"~\ ~\
used to define in a technical sense the threshold AKth. It can
be seen, however, that the growth rate also decreases
significantly below that range of stress intensity. Crack
I I closure was determined by considering the development of
0 10
I
20
I I
30
~I
40
I
50 60 load versus displacement across the notch mouth. At a range
Inclusion diameter, D(tam) of stress intensity corresponding to the threshold the stress
intensity at closure was found to be Kc] = 2.5 MPax/-m for
Fig. 3 Accumulated size distribution of inclusions determined the sample of Fig. 4.
with chemical dissolution technique on a volume of steel.
The dissolved inclusions are counted in a scanning electron Table 6 presents average values from the three tested
microscope. For comparison two size distributions are shown samples. The threshold value AKth is defined at a crack
which are converted from two-dimensional distributions growth rate of 10-9m cycle-L The effective value of the
threshold is defined as fiJ£e~f = AKth-Kcl. The crack growth
curve is characterized with the aid of the Paris law, da/dn
Table 5. Parameters of exponential inclusion size = C (AK)", as a function of the full range of stress intensity.
distribution fitted to data from dissolution tech- The constant C is expressed in terms of the units in Fig. 4.
nique
Fatigue tests on smooth specimens
f k
Inclusion type ( m m -1 ) ( ~ m -1 ) Testing geometries and procedures
Fatigue testing was performed on an Amsler HFP 5000
Oxides 0.016 0.25 pulsator at a frequency of 110 Hz. Fully reversed loading
with R = =
Pmin/Pmax --1 was used. The specimen geometry
is illustrated in Fig. 5. Heat treatment according to the
procedure of Table 2 was performed on the turned specimens.
satisfactory in view of the differences between the techniques Subsequently grinding was done followed by mechanical
to determined the size distributions. polishing with 3 ~m diamond paste first in the circumferential
Fatigue crack growth data for SEN specimens direction of the bar and finally in the axial direction.
Alignment of specimens in the testing machine was achieved
Long crack growth data for the present steel were determined
with three-point bend testing of side edge notched (SEN)
specimens according to ASTM standard E399/E647. The Table 6. Long crack growth data from triple SEN
specimens had a dimension of W = 24 mm. The specimens tests
were heat treated according to the procedure of Table 2
resulting in a hardness of 48 HRC, which is slightly less than AK,. Kc, AK~'# m C
for the smooth fatigue bars. Testing was performed with the (MPa ~/-m) (MPa ~/-m) (MPa ~/-m)
compliance method for crack length measurement. Crack
closure was studied by evaluating non-linearities in the load
displacement curves. The load ratio .R=Pmin/Pmax 0.1.= 6.3 2.6 3.7 3.1 5.0 × 10 -12
Triple tests were performed.

122 Int J Fatigue March 1993


Table 7. Residual. stresses in axial direction of es-
Z

I
polished fatigue bars

Fatigue Fatigue
loaded loaded
RH = 3.0 +0.1 at stress at stress
amplitude amplitude
Reference 800 MPa 1100 MPa

O0
Number of
2 R rain = 7 . 0 +
_ 0.02 Rc = 75 fatigue
O +1 loading cycles 0 9 x 10e 6 x 103
o

,7- Axial residual


stress (MPa) -136 -150 -10

+0 0
, .O_oi .-[
+0 0
Probabilities of specimen failure
10.0_0[ 1
The distributions of fatigue lives were plotted in the Weibull
diagram of Fig. 6. The individual probabilities for each
specimen were calculated according to the optimized procedure
^+0.00 of Ref. 5. The diagram shows a trend towards longer lives
25 .U_o.o 3
for lower stress amplitudes. The failure probabilities can only
Fig. 5 Geometry of hour-glass-shaped specimen used in fatigue be represented by a single straight line for the highest stress
life determination amplitudes. The lower amplitudes require a double-line
representation.
with a specially designed device. The stress concentration Identification of failure causes
factor at the minimum section of the bar is 1.02. 3 This value
The fracture surfaces after fatigue loading were studied in the
is applicable at the surface and is reduced further into the
scanning electron microscope to identify causes of failure.
specimen. The stress concentration effect was considered so
Table 8 presents results for the test series of the stress
small that it was neglected.
amplitude of 800 MPa. Inclusions were found to initiate all
Fatigue test series were performed at five stress ampli-
failures except one which was caused by a surface scratch on
tudes: Act/2 = 800, 900, 1000, 1100 and 1200 MPa. The tests
the specimen. The crack-initiating inclusions were alumina,
were run to failure or 9 × 106 cycles, whichever occurred
calcium aluminates or duplex inclusions also containing
first. At three of the amplitudes 18 specimens were tested,
manganese sulphide. The failures at short lives corresponding
ie at A~/2 = 800, 900 and 1100 MPa. A smaller test series
to the line with large slope in Fig. 6 are caused by inclusions
was performed for amplitude 1000 MPa with only 10
in the size range around 10 I~m and they are situated at or
specimens. Two tests were performed at 1200 MPa.
very close to the specimen surface. The failures at longer
The tests were performed at ambient temperature. A
lives corresponding to the line with smaller slope in Fig. 6
certain temperature raise occurred in the specimens during
are associated with inclusions situated well inside the specimen
fatigue loading, especially at high loading amplitudes. Tem-
and with a size around 20 I~m. The different slopes of the
perature measurements on the minimum section of the bars
failure probability curve for the stress amplitude 800 MPa
indicated a temperature of 40 °C at a stress amplitude of 1100
can thus be associated with different locations and sizes of
MPa and 180 °C at amplitude 1200 MPa. The large temperature
inclusions.
increase at 1200 MPa was the main reason for the limitation
Figure 7 shows the duplex inclusion situated close to the
of the test series at that amplitude.
Residual stresses in fatigue specimens
The present heat treatment operation is known to produce
relatively small residual stresses, of the order of 100 MPa, in p1100 MPa =/900 MPa
fatigue bars. 4 The mechanical working of the specimen surface o 90 1200 MPa/ ' / / 1000 MPa
D
introduces additional residual stresses in the surface region 70 • ¢

,/
of the specimens. 4 50 / oo
.J / "
The residual stresses were measured with X-ray techniques 800 MPa
on the polished surface of three fatigue specimens. One of
the specimens was not exposed to fatigue loading and the u~
20 / oI
other two specimens were fatigue loaded at stress amplitudes 48
800 and 1100 MPa respectively. Table 7 presents the number ,0 / i I"

of fatigue cycles of each specimen and the residual stress in / ,,'


the axial direction of the specimens at the surface of the mid
o . . . . i , , . , L . . , ,
section of the specimens. Compressive residual stresses of , , , , i

0-
103 104 105 106 107
the order of 100 MPa are present on the specimen surface
before fatigue testing and after long life at a stress amplitude Cycles
of 800 MPa. A relaxation of the surface residual stresses has Fig. 6 Weibull plot of probability of specimen failure at five
occurred at the fatigue loading level of 1100 MPa. stress amplitudes fatigue loaded at R = -1

Int J Fatigue March 1993 123


T a b l e 8. Failure causes of s p e c i m e n s t e s t e d at a stress a m p l i t u d e of 800 M P a

Distance from
Equivalent inclusion to Detected
Cycles to diameter specimen surface elements in
Sample failure Nf (l~m) (~m) inclusions Comments

1 7.3 X 10a 8 2 AI
2 1.2 × 105 8 1 AI, Mn, S, Ca
3 1.5 × 105 12 1 AI, Ca
4 1.8 x 10 ~ 8 0 AI
5 2.0 × 10 s Scratch
6 3.4 X 10 s 24 7 AI Ca, Mn, S
7 7.2 × 10 ~ 25 123 AI Ca
8 1.0 X 106 27 655 AI Ca
9 1.4 × 106 25 600 AI Ca
10 3.2 × 106 13 89 AI Ca
11 3.8 X 106 29 15 AI Ca, Mn, S
12 3.9 X 106 25 115 AI Ca
13 5.1 x 106 24 557 AI Ca
14 >9.0 x 108 No failure
15 >9.0 × 106 No failure
16 >9.0 × 106 No failure
17 >9.0 x 106 No failure
18 >9.0 x 106 No failure

Fig. 7 The crack-initiating inclusion of specimen 6 tested at Fig. 8 The crack-initiating inclusion of specimen 9 tested at
stress amplitude 800 MPa. The inclusion is situated just below stress amplitude 800 MPa. The inclusion is a calcium aluminate
the specimen surface and is of duplex type and it is situated well into the specimen interior

specimen surface which caused the failure of specimen 6 of The failure causes at stress amplitude 1000 MPa (Table
Table 8. The calcium aluminate inclusion of Fig. 8 initiated 10) show the same characteristics as in Table 9 at 900 MPa.
the failure of specimen 9. It was situated approximately half The causes of crack initiation at stress amplitude 1100
a millimetre from the specimen surface. MPa in Table 11 are associated with the same types of surface
Table 9, corresponding to a stress amplitude of 900 MPa, cutting inclusions as in the tests at 900 and 1000 MPa. The
shows that almost all failures at that loading level were caused inclusion sizes are around 10 ~m.
by alumina, calcium aluminates, duplex combinations of these N o detailed data are presented for the few tests at stress
inclusion types with manganese sulphide, or holes probably amplitude 1200 MPa since the test temperature, close to
originating from inclusions. All initiation points were close 200 °C, was considered too high to give data relevant for
to the specimen surface. N o difference in crack initiation site comparison with the other tests.
can be seen in the two life regimes with different slopes in It can be stated that alumina-containing inclusions
the Weibull diagram (Fig. 6). Surprisingly, there seems to be dominate both on fracture surfaces and for large inclusion
a slight tendency towards larger inclusions for longer lives. sizes above 10 ~m, in both the statistical distributions based
The range of inclusion sizes was from around 10 to 20 ~m. on optical microscopy type B (Fig. 1) and scanning electron
Figure 9 illustrates a duplex inclusion situated at the surface microscopy type D (Fig. 2). A clear correlation thus exists
of specimen 7 tested at stress amplitude 900 MPa. between the most frequent occurrence in those cases. No

124 Int J Fatigue M a r c h 1993


Table 9. Failure causes of s p e c i m e n S t e s t e d a t a stress amplitude o f ~ MPa

Distance from
Equivalent inclusion to Detected
Cycles to diameter specimen surface elements in
Sample failure Nf (l~m) (l~m) inclusions Comments

1 2.5 × 10 a 8 0 Only hole


2 3.6 x 104 8 0 AI, Ca
3 4.0 × 10 a 8 2 AI, Ca, Mn, S
4 4.0 x 10a 10 2 AI, Ca
5 4.0 x 104 12 0 Only hole
6 4.5 x 10a 10 0 AI, Ca, Mn, S
7 4.7 × 104 10 0 AI, Ca, Mn
8 5.0 × 10a 12 1 AI
9 5.0 × 10a 16 0 AI, Ca, Mn, S
10 5.7 × 104 11 0 AI, Ca
11 6.8 x 104 No cause identified
12 8.0 x 104 Edge deformed

13 1.0 × 105 19 Only hole


14 1.0 x 105 No cause identified
15 1.2 × 105 22 AI, Ca, Mn, S

16 1.4 × 105 Only hole


17 1.4 × 105 Only hole
18 1.5 × 105 Edge deformed

their elongated shape, which can make crack initiation and


early growth difficult. The presence of residual stresses around
the sulphide inclusions might also be favourable since the
sulphides are known s'9 to shrink more rapidly than the matrix
after heat treatment, which can generate compressive stresses
in the matrix. This situation is opposite to the one for alumina
and calcium aluminates which are surrounded by tensile
residual stresses. These inclusion types also can have a more
equiaxed shape than sulphides with irregularities with locally
high stresses. Both these factors can increase the tendency to
form cracks at these inclusions.
It must be stated that the lines with double slopes in the
Weibull diagrams for the three lower tested stress amplitudes
could only be explained based on different patterns of crack
initiation sites on fracture surfaces for stress amplitude 800
MPa. No differences below and above the transition points
could be seen for amplitudes 900 and 1000 MPa.
Fig. 9 The crack initiating inclusion of specimen 7 tested at
stress amplitude 900 MPa. The inclusion, which is of duplex
type, is sitting at the specimen surface M o d e l for f a t i g u e life
A model was formulated for the failure probability of
specimens containing a distribution of inclusions. In order to
pure manganese sulphides or nitrides were observed to initiate calculate the failure probability for a certain fatigue life the
failure. The sulphides (Type A in Fig. 1 and S in Fig. 2) crack growth process must be modelled. The model is based
have a low frequency of occurrence compared with other on fracture mechanics for the growth of annular cracks
inclusion types for inclusion thicknesses beyond 10 p,m, around spherical pores which are used to model inclusions.
which can explain the low presence on fracture surfaces. The A crack growth law is assumed which takes both short and
nitrides fall into category D in Fig. 1 and N in Fig. 2. Their long crack behaviour into account.
frequency is low for large inclusion sizes in Fig. 1 and the
data are very uncertain in Fig. 2 with only two observed Fatigue crack g r o w t h model
particles. The data from optical microscopy can thus explain Figure 10 illustrates the crack geometry with a spherical pore
why nitrides are not often observed on fracture surfaces. surrounded by an annular crack. We study the driving force
Other reasons than those mentioned above can explain of the crack in terms of the range of stress intensity. Only
why sulphides do not cause crack initiation. The sulphides the part of the total range corresponding to an open crack is
a r e smooth and show a small stress concentration because of considered, which is called the effective value M¢ e".

Int J Fatigue March 1993 125


Table 10. Failure causes for specimens tested at a stress amplitude of 1000 MPa

Distance from
Equivalent inclusion to Detected
Cycles to diameter specimen surface elements in
Sample failure Nf (~m) (ta,m) inclusions Comments

1 3.8 × 10 4 10 0 AI, Ca
2 4.5 × 10 4 10 0 AI
3 4.8 × 10 4 Surface defect
4 5.5 × 10 4 0 Only hole
5 6.0 x 10 4 No cause identified

6 2.0 × 10 s 7 0 AI
7 2.5 x 10 s 19 0 AI No failure
8 >1.0 × 10 6 0 No failure
9 >1.0 × 10 6 0
10 >1.0 × 10 6 0

Table 11. Failure causes of specimens tested at a stress amplitude of 1100 MPa

Distance from
Equivalent inclusion to Detected
Cycles to diameter specimen surface elements in
Sample failure Nf (p,m) (l~m) inclusions Corn ments

1 1.0 × 10 a 11 0 AI, Ca
2 1.1 × 10 a Edge deformed
3 1.2 × 10 4 5 0 AI, Ca, Mn, S
4 1.2 × 10a 0 Only hole
5 1.3 × 10 a Edge deformed
6 1.3 × 10 a 9 0 AI, Ca
7 1.4 × 10 a 5 0 Only hole
8 1.5 x 10 a Edge deformed
9 1.5 × 10a 4 0 AI, Ca, Mn, S
10 1.6 × 104 5 0 Only hole
11 1.6 × 10a 12 0 AI, Ca
12 1.8 × 10 a 0 AI Slightly below surf

13 1.9 × 10 a No cause identified

14 2.0 x 10 a Only hole


15 2.0 x 10 a 11 0 AI, Ca, Mn, S
16 2.0 x 10 a 10 0 Only hole
17 2.0 × 10 a 15 0 AI, Ca
18 2.2 x 10 4 No cause identified

For cracks not cutting the specimen surface, 6 (R+a) < q. where q is the distance between the pore centre and the
specimen surface and Acre. is the effective range of applied
AIKe" = Ao"~ff~ F(o0 (4) stress. In the model calculations it will be assumed that cracks
are open for positive stresses. The difference in driving force
and for cracks cutting the specimen surface, (R+a) > q
for a surface-cutting crack and an internal crack by a factor
~1/£elf = 1.15 AO"elf ~,F(oL) (5) of 1.15 is based on the difference between an internal penny-
shaped crack and a semicircular crack. 7 The driving force of
an annular crack around a spherical pore was taken from Ref. 7.
A crack growth law is needed to derive the life from the
above expressions. The growth will be considered from the
0.21875 (c~+1)2+2 ] very first crack of the size of one Burgers vector to final
( ~ - + 0.28125 ( c t + l ) ' + 1 (6) failure of the specimen. This means that growth equations
both for short and long cracks must be formulated. Figure

126 Int J Fatigue March 1993


In order to describe experimental failure probabilities, it
has been found necessary to use one level of short crack
growth for pores cutting the surface and a lower rate for
internal pores. The physical reason for this is not quite clear
but can be associated with the difficulty of generating and
propagating the very smallest cracks if the free surface of the
specimen is not available. The creation of the first ledge is
difficult if no free surface is available as in a situation with
an internal inclusion well attached to the steel matrix.
The crack growth equations can be written
da
-- C (~kK elf + ~clEN) m for M ( err > M¢[fhr
dn
(7)
/~¢~N is the stress intensity at closure in the three-point bend
o D 0 tests on long cracks. This entity must be added in Equation
(7) since the Paris law was defined in terms of the full range
Fig. 10 The model of an annular crack around a spherical pore of stress intensity.
used to simulate cracks around inclusions
da
- A for M ( e" ~ M ( ~ f (8)
dn
11 illustrates the selected type of growth law. We assume
that the effective value of the stress intensity range can be where A = A, for surface-cutting pores and A = Ai for
used as a measure of the driving force. The short cracks are internal pores. It is additionally specified that the growth
assumed to grow at a constant rate independent of driving rate must never be lower than A.
force. This is a crude model for the often experimentally The life of a crack at a certain pore can be written
observed behaviour l°'u with a minimum in growth rate before
the cracks start to grow at a rate corresponding to the Paris
law. We have selected to place the transition point between
constant growth rate and Paris law at the effective threshold
I dn = ~-da + Cm c ( ~ e , 1 +
da (9)

for crack growth, M('[~f. where amin corresponds to the initial crack size, ie Burgers
v e c t o r , amax is the crack size before failure, and a* corresponds
to the transition point between constant and Paris crack
growth rates. The final crack size, a . . . . was selected as one
quarter of the specimen diameter.
In order to calculate the crack growth for pores situated
on different axial positions of the fatigue specimens the
applied stress must be derived for sections at different
distances from the minimum section of the hour glass
specimens. The applied stress can be written

cr'(z) -- cr~,x ( ~ [1 - \ f l l - (;~)21 + 1} -2 (10)

where Rc is the curvature radius of the hour-glass shape and


R min is the radius of the specimen at its minimum section.
-0
~ . x is the applied stress at the minimum section of the
Paris law
specimen.
Within the present model the variation of applied stresses
across the section of the bar is neglected. This is reasonable
if the residual stresses are small compared with the applied
stresses. This is considered to be a satisfactory description of
the present case.

As f
A.
In the calculations it will be assumed that cracks at pores
are open when the applied stress is positive. This means that
the effective range of the stress is equal to the stress amplitude.
This is believed to be a reasonable approximation for hard
steels 6 although the SEN data show a certain crack closure
u AK e f f
also for positive stresses.
i/ th
Propagation rates for short cracks
AKeff The model of the previous section contains two parameters
which describe the growth of short cracks: one growth rate
Fig. 11 The crack growth curves as a function of effective
range of stress intensity. Two different crack growth rates are for cracks at pores or inclusions which cut the specimen
used for short cracks at surface-cutting inclusions and for surface, As, and one rate for internal ones, Ai.
internal inclusions Since no short crack growth data are available for the

Int J F a t i g u e M a r c h 1993 127


in the double logarithmic diagram of Fig. 13. The data
90 corresponding to the 10% failure probability almost fall on a
line. The data for the 70% probability fall below these data.
[~ 701 I }-- l The short crack propagation rate increases with stress
c 5c amplitude.
E ~o/2~~ The data of Fig. 13 were fitted to the following expression
'5 3C
o_ 2C
and the selected parameters are given in Table 13.
vl

logA = S + t log(A~/2) (11)



In the following calculations Equation (11) was used to
describe how the short crack growth rates varied with nominal
stress amplitude. This was applied to the effect of imposed
I I I
0..
103 10q 105 106 107 nominal stress amplitude on minimum section of the fatigue
specimen and the variation of stress amplitude along the
Life
length of the specimen.
Fig. 12 Weibull diagram illustrating the lives selected for fitting It can be some interest to study the crack sizes
the short crack growth rates corresponding to small (10%) and
large (70%) failure probabilities
corresponding to the transition from short crack behaviour
to Paris-type behaviour in the present model. At an applied
stress amplitude of 800 MPa the transition crack length is
present steel these two parameters must be determined with
a fitting procedure based on data from fatigue life distributions.
It was selected to fit the growth rate for short cracks at
10.6
surface-cutting inclusions to fatigue lives at 10% failure
probability. The fractography showed for all the tested stress
amplitudes that inclusions at the surface caused the failures
corresponding to this low level of failure probability. The u
10. 7 -
rings in Fig. 12 illustrate the used lives. The crack growth E
rate for surface-cutting inclusions was varied until a good fit
was obtained between the life of Equation (9) and the data 10. 8 -
of Fig. 12. In these calculations a typical pore or inclusion c

size was used based on the fractography, and other parameters ,~-
i

°/o / /
took values as indicated in and below Table 12. The fitting • i

was performed only to an accuracy of one digit in the crack ~ 10-9


growth rate. .c
The short crack growth rate for internal pores or
inclusions was fitted to fatigue lives corresponding to 70% ~ 10-I0
failure probability. Fractography showed for the stress 2~
amplitude of 800 MPa that internal inclusions caused failures
/
L
at this level of failure probability. The inclusion size and U

distance from the specimen surface were given typical values ~ 10-~
o

from fractography in the fitting calculations to obtain the u~


nternal inclusions, A i
short crack growth rates. The fitting procedure was also
carried out at the applied stress levels of 900 and 1000 MPa I I I I 1
800 900 1000 1100 1200
although fractography did not show that internal inclusions
caused failures at the failure probability of 70%. These data &o/2
are surrounded by parentheses in Table 12. Fig. 13 The fitted short crack growth rates for surface-cutting
The short crack growth rates of Table 12 are illustrated and internal inclusions

Table 12. Calculated and experimental fatigue lives

&e/2 R Q da/dn
(MPa) ( p.m ) ( p,m ) (m ) Ncalc NlO%
• "exp •NTOO/o
"exp

800 5 5 1 x 10 -lo 1.3 x 10 s 1.2 x 105


800 10 500 2 X 10 -12 4.7 X 10 6 5.7 x 10 °
900 5 5 1 x 10 -9 3.4 x 104 3.3 x 104
(900) (10) (500) (1 x 10 -1°) (8.8 x 104) (7.9 x 104)
1000 5 5 5 x 10 - l ° 3.1 x 104 3.9 x 104
(1000) (10) (500) (2 x 10 -11) (1.9 x 105) (1.4 x 105)
1100 5 5 1 x 10 -8 1.3 x 104 1.1 x 104
1200 5 5 2 x 10 -7 3.6 x 103 3.4 x 103

ao = 10-'°m, af = 1.75 x 10.3 , C = 5 x 10 -'2 , m = 3.1, ~K~'# = 4 MPa v ~ a n d K S ~ N = 2 M P a v ~

128 Int J Fatigue March 1993


Table 13. Coefficients corresponding to minimum
crack growth rates in Equation (11)for internal (i)
and surface cutting (s) inclusions. Stress amplitude 98/ Optical microscopy,
given in MPa in Equation (11) 90I- B-type
80l_Sem, duplex + nitrides
/
70[- Dissolution technique.,~ /
s~
(m cycle -1 ) ti Ss ts 6ot l oO°o
5O 0 0 0
40F
Fitted -67.24 19.1 -65.75 19.1 30 \
pa ra meters Q. 0
Experimental data
20 0

around 9 Ixm for both internal and surface-cutting pores of


the sizes indicated in Table 12. At a stress amplitude of 900
MPa that crack length is reduced to about 6 I~m and to 4 Izm
at 1000 MPa. In these cases the effective threshold for crack
a. o/
i i i i illl J#1t I t I I=11 I I I I I I III
propagation controls the transition between the short crack 104 105 106 107
growth and Paris growth. At a stress amplitude of 1100 MPa
the transition crack length is around 40 Ixm owing to the Fig. 14 Weibull diagram at stress amplitude 800 MPa illustrating
high short crack growth rates, which imply that the constant experimental points and calculated curves corresponding to
crack growth rate meets the Paris curve well above the three different methods of determination of inclusion size
effective threshold for crack propagation. In that case the distributions
effective threshold is not controlling the transition.
Probability of specimen failure
determine short crack growth rates. It is very encouraging,
The probability that a fatigue specimen has a life in a certain however, to see that the failure probabilities are on the right
range is computed by first calculating the expected number level in Fig. 14 and that the shape of the calculated curves is
a;l of inclusions with lives in that range. The corresponding similar to the experimental data since this is a direct
probability to find one or more inclusions in the specimen consequence of the model and not only an effect of fitting.
with that range of lives is, according to Poisson statistics, The two steep slopes of the calculated failure probability
P = 1 - exp(-A;~) (12) correspond to pores or inclusions sitting at the surface (short
lives) and internal inclusions (long lives). A slow variation
The expected number of inclusions is found by scanning the of the failure probability occurs between those intervals since
specimen volume and for each volume element calculating few pores generate cracks with those lives. The statistical
the life N for all inclusion sizes and types: nature of the calculated results of Fig. 14 originates from the
statistical distribution of inclusions in space and in size. In
d~t(N) d N = Edz'2'rrp'dp'gv(D) dD (13)
reality more effects cause statistical variations, such as different
where the summation is carried out over inclusion types. The inclusion types with different properties and variations in
axial (z) and radial (t9) coordinates are varied over the local stresses in the specimen. These effects will produce
specimen volume and a full range of inclusion sizes, D, are wider statistical distributions than were calculated in Fig. 14.
considered. This can to a large extent explain the slight differences in
These numbers are added together corresponding to shape between the experimental and calculated curves in Fig.
different life intervals. The failure probability of a specimen 14.
is obtained by accumulating numbers of inclusions with a life Figure 15 illustrates the failure probability for the stress
shorter than a certain value and calculating the corresponding amplitude 900 MPa. The calculated line is based on the
probability according to Equation (12). inclusion size distribution from the dissolution technique. The
At this stage it should be mentioned that special care agreement between experiments and calculation is satisfactory.
was taken to include correctly inclusions cutting the specimen A similar agreement between the predictions of the model
surface. At first the specimen interior is scanned for inclusion and experiments is obtained for the stress amplitude 1100
centres. Then a special scan is made to include inclusions MPa in Fig. 16. Both the shape and level of the curves are
which have centres outside the specimen volume but with in satisfactory agreement.
the inclusion surface cutting the specimen surface. Detailed comparison between the model and experiments
is only presented for the three stress amplitudes where the
Comparison between model and experiments most extensive test series were made. It can be concluded from
Figure 14 illustrates the probability of specimen failure for the comparison between model calculations and experimental
the specimens cycled at 800 MPa. The calculations are based failure probabilities that satisfactory agreement is obtained.
on the parameters of Tables 12 and 13. Three different
inclusion size distributions were considered based on data
from optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy and Discussion
the dissolution technique respectively. The calculated curve One weakness of the present model is the lack of a detailed
corresponding to the dissolution technique gives failure explanation of why pores or inclusions cutting the specimen
probabilities in closest agreement with experimental data. The surface give higher short crack growth rates than internal
differences between the different inclusion size distributions ones. One possible explanation has already been mentioned,
are not very dramatic, however. The range of lives in Fig. namely that crack initiation and very early growth occur
14 is to a large extent given by the fitting procedure used to more easily at a free surface than at an inclusion sitting in the

Int J Fatigue March 1993 129


life and the corresponding figure is between 50 and 80% at
98, the two higher stress amplitudes. The data at stress amplitudes
900 and 1000 MPa are of course uncertain since it is not
o 80 Dissolution t e c h n i q u e ~ observed that internal inclusions caused the failures above
m
70 the transition point in the Weibull diagrams in those cases.
60 The fitted data for the incubation period could be represented
50
E
40 r ?xperimental data by
30 l°logN~,c = Z + y ]°log(A~/2) (14)
O_
ul
20
where Z = 79.3, y = -25, and the stress amplitude is in
MPa.
I0
~3 8 The failure probabilities were calculated for the three
3o 6 stress ampllitudes 800, 900 and 1100 MPa. The result was,
Q. 4 as expected, almost identical to the corresponding calculations
o
3 in Figs 14-16 for low failure probabilities where surface-
2 i I i Iiiii l i i i i l l , I i , i i i i i cutting inclusions control the fatigue behaviour. Cracks at
10 3 l0 g 105 106 these inclusions are modelled in the same way in the two
Life model variants. Some differences can be observed, however,
for failure probabilities above some 80% where internal
Fig. 15 Weibull diagram at stress amplitude 900 MPa with inclusions become of importance. These differences are very
experimental data and calculated results based on the inclusion small for stress amplitudes 800 and 900 MPa with a sharper
size distribution from the dissolution technique
increase in failure probability for the incubation model at the
largest lives in Figs 14 and 15. A larger difference is obtained
98 between the model variants at the stress amplitude 1100 MPa
Dissolution ¢
90 technique~ I corresponding to Fig. 16 where the model with the incubation
80 period gives an almost straight line in the Weibull diagram
70 ig and the slow slope region of Fig. 16 does not appear. It can
60 go~ Experimental data be concluded that the two model variants give quite similar
50
e- 40
o
o results with some differences at large failure probabilities.
o
Finally, it should be stated that special fitting procedures
30 o

had to be applied in the present work to describe crack


Q. 20 initiation and short crack growth, owing to lack of direct
I observations of these factors. It is of course desirable in the
10 future to make direct observations in these respects. It must
8 be realized, however, that such observations for hardened
6
3 steels are associated with extreme difficulties as has been
4 experienced at this and other laboratories. This is the reason
3
why such data are not available today.
2' I I i I t l, I I i I i iiii I I ' i I l I I

lO 3 10 4 10 5 10 6

Life Conclusions
Fig. 16 Weibull diagram at stress amplitude 1100 MPa with A hardened spring steel was fatigue tested in fully reversed
experimental data and calculated results based on the inclusion load control at five different stress amplitudes between 800
size distributions from the dissolution technique
and 1200 MPa.

specimen interior. Such an effect could somewhat artificially be 1) Inclusion size distributions were determined with
described with different short crack growth rates as in the optical and scanning electron microscopy on sections
present paper. An alternative approach would be to introduce of the material and with a chemical dissolution
an incubation period for the creation of the very first crack technique on a volume of material. These distributions
which is larger for internal than for surface-cutting inclusions. were compared for large inclusion sizes by converting
We now present some results from such a model. the data from microscopy to three-dimensional distri-
It is assumed that cracks of length one Burgers vector butions. The agreement was satisfactory.
are created at the start of fatigue testing for inclusions cutting 2) The crack growth behaviour for long cracks was
the specimen surface. A finite number of cycles are needed determined with three-point bend tests. The threshold
to create a crack of the same size at internal inclusions. That stress in~nsity for crack propagation was found to be
incubation period is assumed to depend on the streess 6 MPa,~'m and the effective t~eshold corresponding
amplitude only. The crack growth law is assumed to be the to an open crack was 4 MPax/m.
same for cracks at internal and surface-cutting inclusions. 3) The fatigue tests on smooth specimens showed a dual
The minimum growth rate for the short cracks is assumed linear behaviour in Weibull diagrams for the failure
to take the previously determined value for surface-cutting probability at stress amplitudes 800, 900 and 1000
inclusions, As, (Table 13). The duration of the incubation MPa. A single straight line could describe the data for
period was fitted to experimental lives corresponding to 70% the stress amplitude 1100 MPa.
failure probability for the three lowest stress amplitudes 4) At stress amplitude 800 MPa it was found that near-
tested. At the smallest stress amplitude, 800 MPa, it was surface inclusions caused the failures for the low-life
found that the incubation period covers some 98% of the total part of the Weibull diagram. Above the transition

130 Int J Fatigue March 1993


point in the Weibull diagram inclusions situated well (Uddeholm Strip Steel), Thore Lund (Ovako Steel), Lars
inside the specimen caused the failures. At the higher Olof Nordin (ABB Stal) and Leif Westin (Kloster Speedsteel).
test stress amplitudes from 900 to 1100 MPa near-
surface inclusions were found to cause almost all the References
failures.
5) A model was formulated for the failure probability of 1. Sandstr6m, R. and Karlsson, L. 'Transfer of two-dimen-
fatigue specimens. The model describes the growth of sional inclusion size distributions to three dimensions'
in H. Nordberg and R. Sandstr~m (eds) Swedish Sym-
cracks around spherical pores which are used to model posium on Non-Metallic Inclusions in Steels (Uddeholm
inclusions. The growth process is considered from the AB, Hagfords, Sweden, 1981) pp 242-268
very first ledge to the final failure. Fracture mechanics 2. Lind, A. Ovako Steel, private communication
is used to model the growth. Short cracks were
3. Peterson, R.E. Stress Concentration Factors (John Wiley
assumed to grow at a rate which was independent of & Sons, New York, 1974)
the driving force. Long cracks grow according to Paris
4. Larsson, M., Melander, A. and Nordgren, A. 'The effect
law. Different growth rates for short cracks were used of inclusions on the fatigue behaviour of a hardened
for inclusions situated on the specimen surface and spring steel - an experimental and theoretical study'
well into the specimen respectively. The statistical Report IM-2808 (Swedish Institute for Metals Research,
nature of the model originates from the distributions 1992) to be published in Mater Sci Tech
of inclusions in size and space inside the specimen. 5. Blom, G. Statistical Estimates and Transformed [3-vari-
6) The growth rate of short cracks was found to increase ables (Almqvist and Wiksell, Stockholm, Sweden, 1958)
with applied stress amplitude. The model gave a 6. Gustavsson, A.I. and Melander, A. 'Fatigue limit model
reasonable description of the experimentally observed for hardened steels' Fatigue Fract Eng Mater Struct 15
(1992) pp 881-894
Weibull diagrams.
7. Palmberg, G. 'Some stress intensity factor equations'
FFA TN 1987-07 (The Aeronautical Institute of Sweden,
1987)
Acknowledgements 8. Brooksbank, D. and Andrews, K.W. 'Thermal expansion
The present research was financed within the General Research of some inclusion forms in steels and relation to
tessellated stresses' J Iron Steel Inst 206 (1968) pp
Programme of the Swedish Institute for Metals Research 595-599
with contributions from The Swedish Government Agency
9. Brooksbank, D. 'Thermal expansion of calcium aluminate
NUTEK and from Ovako Steel. inclusions and relation to tessellated stresses' J Iron
The authors are indebted to Anders Lind of Ovako Steel Steel Inst 208 (1970) pp 495-499
for performing the inclusion size determinations with the 10. Daeubler, M.A. and Thompson, A.W. 'Microstructural
dissolution technique, to Stig Johansson, Quantmet, for effects on short fatigue cracks in eutectoid steuls' in R.O.
determining the inclusion size distributions with optical Ritchie and J. Lankford (eds) Small Fatigue Cracks (AIME,
microscopy, and to J acek Komenda, SIMR, for determination Warrendale, PA, 1986) pp 157-164
of inclusion size distributions with scanning electron 11. Tokaji, K., Takeshi, O., Harada, Y. and Ando, Z. 'Limi-
microscopy. The crack growth experiments on SEN specimens tations of linear fracture mechanics in respect of small
fatigue cracks and microstructure' Fatigue Fract Eng
were performed by Yngve Bergengren, SIMR. The residual Mater Struct 9 (1986) pp 1-14
stress measurements were performed by Stephen Preston,
SIMR.
The following individuals formed the steering committee Authors
which is thanked for stimulating discussions; Jens Bergstr6m The authors are with the Swedish Institute for Metals
(Uddeholm Tooling), Conny Gustavsson (Uniroc), Maria Research, Drotming Kirstinas v~ig 48, S-114 28 Stockholm,
Jacobsson (Sandvik Steel), Daniel Kryzysztalowicz Sweden. Received 1 October 1992; revised 16 October 1992.

Int J Fatigue M a r c h 1993 131

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