EE-231 Electronics I: Engr. Dr. Hadeed Ahmed Sher

EE-231 Electronics I
Engr. Dr. Hadeed Ahmed Sher
Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute of Engineering Sciences and Technology, TOPI 23460
hadeed@giki.edu.pk
March 7, 2018
Engr. Dr. Hadeed Ahmed Sher (FEE, GIKI) Week 6 Resources March 7, 2018 1 / 27
Overview
1 Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

BJT Operation
Common base configuration
Alpha (α)
Biasing
Common emitter configuration
Beta (β)
Relation between Alpha (α) and Beta (β)
Common collector configuration
Limits of operation
2 BJT datasheet
Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

Invented in 1947 in bell laboratories.
Two configurations are available. One is made with p type material
sandwiched within n type and the other one is made with n type material
sandwiched within a p type material.
Former is called NPN and the latter is called PNP.
Both types have three terminals, three layers and two so called junctions.
Three terminals are named as emiiter (E), collector (C) and base (B).
Emitter is heavily doped and collector and base lightly doped.
Base has the least doping usually 1:10 or less compared to the outer layers.
The base is made very thin usually at a ratio of 150:1 with respect to the
total width.
BJT is called bipolar because both the holes and electrons participate in
the injection process.
Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) BJT Operation
BJT operation
Same is for NPN transistor except that electrons flow and biasing supplied
are reversed.
Similar to a forward biased diode. Similar to reverse biased diode.

Depletion layer will reduce and heavy Depletion layer will expand. Only
flow of majority carriers from P to N. minority carriers flow as shown.
BJT operation
The cumulative effect of the forward biased and reverse biased junctions is
shown below.
The majority carriers from emitter(P- holes) flow to base(N- electrons)

where they appear to be minority carriers.
The sandwiched layer is N type which is intentionally made thin offers very
low resistance.
Therefore, majority of the injected carriers inside base pass on to the
collector (P) as minority carriers. Hence, base current is very less.
BJT operation
From the KVL we know that emitter current consist of collector and base
current and therefore, the largest current in the device.
IE = IC + IB (1)
Collector current however consist of two parts,
IC = IC (inj) + ICBO (2)
Where, IC (inj) is the collector current due to carriers injected into the base
and ICBO is the current that flows due to thermally generated carriers.
The term ICBO refers to current from collector to base while the emitter is
disconnected. Note that this is temperature dependent.
Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) Common base configuration
Common base configuration
Base is common to the input and

output. Usually at ground potential.
The biasing voltages are applied such
that the emitter base junction is
forward biased and collector base
junction is reverse biased.
Note that the direction of arrow
defines the direction of conventional
current flow.
Two understand this circuit the input
and output parameters are
important.
Common base configuration — Input parameters
Input for a common base

configuration implies that the input
current is IE and the input voltage is
VEB . The input characteristics are
plotted between these two inputs at
two different values of VCB .
The effect of VCB is very small and
for almost all the circuits the value of
VEB is considered approximately
equal to 0.7V.
Common base configuration — Output parameters
Output for a common base

configuration implies that the
output current is IC and the
output voltage is VCB . The
output characteristics are
plotted between these two
parameters at two different
values of IE .
Active region is used for
amplification.
In linear electronics cutoff
and saturation regions are
avoided.
In active region one condition must always be true.

Active region
Emitter base junction forward biased and collector base junction reverse
biased.
In the lower region when IE =0 the output current IC is simply ICBO .
In practical datasheet ICBO is termed as ICO . For most of the low and mid
power ranged transistors this is negligible.
Note that the magnitude of IC is approximately equal to IE . Also the VCB
has negligible effect on IC in linear region.
Active region
IE ≈ IC
Looking on the output characteristics the cutoff mode is the one in which
IC =0.
Cutoff region
Emitter base and collectorbase junctions, both are reverse-biased.
Saturation region is the one where the collector current grows

exponentially.
Saturation region
Emitter base and collectorbase junctions, both are forward-biased.
Alpha (α)
It is the ratio of collector current to emitter current.
Alpha in DC mode
IC
αdc = (3)
IE
For DC mode this is fixed and usually its value varies between 0.9-0.998.
For AC mode it is written as
Alpha in AC mode
∆IC
αac = (4)
∆IE
In AC mode this is called as short circuit amplification factor.

Using the expression for alpha (2) can be rewritten as
IC = αIE + ICBO (5)

Biasing
If the base current IB is assumed to be zero then the biasing condition can
be demonstrated as shown below.
For NPN transistor the current direction is opposite as well as the biasing
voltages are reversed.
Note that the arrow in a BJT defines the direction of conventional current
flow. Biasing voltage should not exceed the breakdown voltage as shown
in Fig.10
Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) Common emitter configuration
Common emitter configuration
This is the most common configuration of a BJT. Emitter is common to

the base and collector.
Input voltage is VEB and input current is IB . The output voltage is VEC
and the output current is IC .
Note that even in this configuration IE =IC +IB and IC =αIE .
Common emitter configuration — Input parameters
Input characteristics are

drawn for the input
parameters against different
values of VCE .
Common emitter configuration — Output parameters
Output characteristics are

drawn for the output
parameters against different
values of IB .
Common emitter configuration — Output parameters
Note that when IB =0 , IC is not equal to zero.

Using (1) and (5),
αIB ICBO
IC = + (6)
1−α 1−α
Considering the case when IB =0A and substituting the typical value of
α=0.996, (6) can be expressed as
α(0A) ICBO
IC = + = 250ICBO (7)
1 − 0.996 1 − 0.996
If ICBO =1µA then IC =0.25mA as shown in output characteristics.In
general for IB =0
ICBO
ICEO = (8)
1−α
Beta (β)
It is the ratio of collector current to base current.

Beta in DC mode
IC
βdc = (9)
IB
For DC mode its value varies between 50-400. For AC mode it is written as
Alpha in AC mode
∆IC
βac = (10)
∆IB
In AC mode this is called as forward current amplification factor.

In datasheet it is expressed as hFE .
We know that
β = αβ + α = (β + 1)α (14)
IE = IC + IB (11)
Converting all terms into IC

Beta to alpha
IC IC β
= IC + (12) α= (15)
α β 1+β
Dividing both sides by IC
Alpha to beta
1 1 α
=1+ (13) β= (16)
α β 1−α
In addition recall that

ICBO
ICEO = (17)
1−α ICEO ≈ (β + 1)ICBO (20)
This can also be proved that Also note that
1 IE = IC + IB = βIB + IB (21)
=β+1 (18)
1−α
IE = (β + 1)IB (22)
Therefore, (17) can be expressed as
ICEO = (β + 1)ICBO (19)
Breakdown region
At high levels of IB the

current climb vertically.
Increase in current results
in decrease in voltage
drop and hence it is called
negative resistance.
The maximum value for a
transistor under normal
operating conditions is
labeled BVCEO .
Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) Common collector configuration
Common collector configuration
This is the mostly used for impedance

matching because it has a high input
impedance and low output impedance.
Collector is common to the base and emitter
terminals.
Input voltage is VEC and input current is IE .
The output voltage is VBC and the output
current is IB .
Note that even in this configuration
IE =IC +IB and IC =αIE .
Practically the output characteristics are
same as for common emitter configuration.
Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) Limits of operation
Limits of operation
Maximum rating of the device given
in datasheet should not be violated.
It is governed by
PCmax = VCE IC (23)
Using various values of IC PCmax , the

curve is plotted as shown.
If the curve is not provided then stick
to these conditions.
ICEO ≤ IC ≤ ICmax (24)

VCEsat ≤ VCE ≤ VCEmax (25)
VCE IC ≤ PCmax (26)
BJT datasheet
BJT datasheet
BJT datasheet
BJT datasheet
BJT datasheet
BJT datasheet

EE-231 Electronics I: Engr. Dr. Hadeed Ahmed Sher

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EE-231 Electronics I

Engr. Dr. Hadeed Ahmed Sher

1 Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

Similar to a forward biased diode. Similar to reverse biased diode.

The majority carriers from emitter(P- holes) flow to base(N- electrons)

IC = IC (inj) + ICBO (2)

Common base configuration

Base is common to the input and

Common base configuration — Input parameters

Input for a common base

Common base configuration — Output parameters

Output for a common base

Common base configuration — Output parameters

In active region one condition must always be true.

Common base configuration — Output parameters

Saturation region is the one where the collector current grows

In AC mode this is called as short circuit amplification factor.

IC = αIE + ICBO (5)

Common emitter configuration

This is the most common configuration of a BJT. Emitter is common to

Common emitter configuration — Input parameters

Input characteristics are

Common emitter configuration — Output parameters

Output characteristics are

Common emitter configuration — Output parameters

Note that when IB =0 , IC is not equal to zero.

It is the ratio of collector current to base current.

In AC mode this is called as forward current amplification factor.

Relation between Alpha (α) and Beta (β)

Converting all terms into IC

Relation between Alpha (α) and Beta (β)

In addition recall that

ICEO = (β + 1)ICBO (19)

At high levels of IB the

Common collector configuration

This is the mostly used for impedance

PCmax = VCE IC (23)

Using various values of IC PCmax , the

ICEO ≤ IC ≤ ICmax (24)

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