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Review of studies on cross-country skiing footwear

Jurij HLADNIKa, Boris JERMANa
a
Faculty of mechanical engineering, University of Ljubljana

ABSTRACT
Scientific approach conducted with computer technology and measurements is necessary in
development of cutting edge competitive cross-country skiing footwear. The paper provides a brief
review on FE studies made on such footwear. In those studies recommendations on boot
construction changes were given in order to increase the boots stiffness-mass ratio and
consequently their energetic efficiency. In continuation of the present paper advice for further
studies on cross-country skiing footwear is given.

KEYWORDS
Flexion stiffness, torsion stiffness, cross-country ski-boot, .finite element analyses, optimization

1. INTRODUCTION
Subjective opinions and suggestions of experienced athletes and manufacturers are nowadays insufficient for
development of cutting edge cross-country skiing footwear. Scientific research approach conducted with
computer technology and measurements is therefore almost unavoidable as it is in other sport equipment
development (Shan, 2008).
Alpina Ltd. (Žiri, Slovenia) is one of the world’s leading manufacturers of cross-country skiing footwear. In
collaboration with this company laboratory LASOK (Faculty of mechanical engineering, University of
Ljubljana) conducted multiple studies on analysis of skate cross-country skiing and optimization of cross-
country ski-boots for the skating technique (Hladnik, 2017; Hladnik, Resman & Jerman, 2013, 2014; Hladnik,
Supej, Vodičar & Jerman, 2016). These studies are one of the rare accessible studies performed specifically on
cross-country ski-boots.
Cross-country skiing is a complex movement performed with skies and poles on mixed terrain (uphill, downhill
and flat sections) covered with snow (Bokal, 2011). The main two techniques used for propelling are diagonal
stride and skating. The first is mainly performed in the sagittal plane, while the second involves considerable
side-to-side motion as well as motion in the other spatial dimensions (Smith, 2002). Because of the differences in
the movement kinematics also equipment, including the ski-boots, differs for the both techniques.
The basic function of competitive cross-country skiing boots is effective transmission of the driving force from
the skier to the grounding and assurance of safety to the skier’s feet. Effective transmission of the driving force
is such that it enables shorter running times (Hladnik et al., 2014). Multiple footwear factors and their influence
on the movement efficiency have been studied in other sports (e.g. shoe mass influence in running (Frederick,
Daniels & Hayes, 1982; Nigg & Segesser, 1992), influence of elastic components integrated into shoe
construction for saving and returning energy in running (Morgan, Miller & Mitchell, 1996), shoe cushioning in
running (Frederick, Howley & Powers, 1986), etc.). Nevertheless, the most important factors of a top-class
cross-country ski-boot seem to be torsion stiffness (TS) around the anterior-posterior boot axis, flexion stiffness
(FS) at the metatarsophalangeal (MTP) joint in the plantar-dorsal direction and mass of the boot. It is known that
the TS is desired to be as high as possible (if neglecting mass influence) for better edge control of the ski
(Duvillard, Rundell & Bilodeau, 2000), while the optimal FS is not known and is supposed to depend from skier
to skier in dependence of track characteristics, snow conditions, equipment, skiing speed, etc. (Hladnik et al.,
2014), similar as it is suspected in other footwear (Roy & Stefanyshyn, 2006; Stefanyshyn & Fusco, 2004;
Stefanyshyn & Nigg, 1997, 1998, 2000; Toon, Vinet, Pain & Caine, 2011).
The aim of this paper is to briefly review the studies made on skate cross-country skiing footwear and to give
advice for further studies for their development.

2. SKI-BOOT MASS OPTIMIZATION CONSIDERING STIFFNESS

In studies performed by Hladnik et al. (2013, 2014) recommendations for increase of ratio between TS and mass
(TS/M) and ratio between FS and mass (FS/M) were given for an existing top-class cross-country ski-boot for
skating. The results were obtained upon a finite element (FE) computer model of the boot and an artificial foot
(Figure 2, a and b). In the TS study the FE model of the boot-foot assembly was fixed at the front, while torsion
deformation was applied. In the FS study the FE model was also fixed at the front and the flexion deformation

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was applied. These simulations separately simulated the measurements of boots’ TS (Figure 1, a) and FS (Figure
1, b) taken on a non-standardized Alpina’s apparatus (Nemec, 2002).
TS/M and FS/M ratios were calculated for all important components of the boot’s front (middle) foot region
(Figure 2, b), which included the MTP joint. In the study of Hladnik et al. (2013) the TS of individual boot
components were obtained from comparison of TS of multiple complete and partial FE models. The partial FE
models represented the simplified MTP region of the boot-foot assembly with a constant cross-section.
In the other study of Hladnik et al. (2014) the FS of individual boot components were obtained from
multiplication of the component’s moment of inertia (I) and elastic modulus (E) at the average MTP cross-
section. This cross-section was defined as the cross-section, which would, by its extrusion to the MTP region’s
length, offer the same FS as the boot’s MTP region.
In both studies it was found, that the soles were the least efficient, while the textile shoe-upper’s components
(shoe-upper, shoe-cap, shoe-laces and strengthening bands) were the most efficient. In order to increase TS/M
and FS/M ratios of the boot’s front region the soles were recommended to be reduced in size, while the shoe-
upper’s textiles should be increased, respectively thickened. These recommendations were given by
consideration that the geometry of the boot stays the same. Other geometry changes, as removal of the material
from the neutral bending axis by incorporation of honeycomb structures, were also discussed.

Figure 1: Measurement of cross-country ski boots’ a) torsion stiffness and b) flexion stiffness.

Figure 2: FE model of the cross-country ski-boot and artificial foot for the a) TS analysis and for the b) FS
analysis.

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According to Hladnik et al. (2014) an estimation of the boot’s mass reduction and its influence on energetics was
performed: The mass of the boot’s front region accounts up to approximately 100 g. In case of a possible 30 %
mass reduction, a gain of 30 g would be achieved. If a similar relationship between the boot mass and the skier’s
energy consumption as in casual running at speeds of 5–7 m/s is assumed (Nigg & Segesser, 1992), then this
would lead to a 0.3% lower energy consumption. Because the front regions’ components extend also through
other regions, mass reduction of these components would also cause mass reduction of other regions.
Furthermore, higher mass reductions are expected in the back boot region (Hladnik et al., 2014).

3. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

Existing studies (Hladnik et al., 2013, 2014) on skate cross-country boots gave directions for boot mass
minimization considering TS and FS based on detailed FE models of an existing cross-country ski-boot and an
artificial foot. Upon these studies it is known how to increase the TS/M and FS/M ratios of the boots, but what
the optimal TS and FS are remains unknown, especially for the FS. The fact is, that each individual has its own
optimal boot FS depending from the track, equipment and environment characteristics (Hladnik et al., 2014). It is
believed that the most influential parameters on optimal boot FS are inclination of the track, speed of skiing,
snow conditions (soft/hard, skidding/non-skidding), cross-country skiing technique, mass of the skier, his
musculoskeletal and technique characteristics. To find out the optimal boot FS for an individual or group of
skiers with similar psycho-physical characteristics additional experiments need to be performed. The main goal
of competitive ski-boots is to enable shorter skiing times, respectively higher average useful work performance.
One way of achieving this is by lower input energy consumption for the same performance. In order to find the
optimal boot FS it is suggested to perform multiple cross-skiing trials at constant skiing conditions (speed,
incline, etc.) and altering boots with different FS. Meanwhile the input and output energy needs to be measured.
Roy et al. (2006) performed a similar study, which could serve as an example. Here influence of shoe FS on
input metabolic energy was studied. The metabolic energy was measured with the flow rate of oxygen VɺO2 ,
which is in the aerobic intensity1 proportional to metabolic energy (Saunders, Pyne, Telford & Hawley, 2004).
From such experiments optimal boot FS would be achieved for skiers with certain characteristics and at certain
skiing conditions. The optimal FS for a track would depend then on the dominating track conditions. The
proposed studies present just one possibility how to find out the optimal boot FS.

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Aerobic intensity is such, where energy for locomotion is acquired from glucoses and oxygen with a side product of water
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