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Curtis Richards
EE 311
Dr. Mina
December 17, 2017
XFMR: What is in the Box?
A transformer is one of the most important electromagnetic components of modern lives.
For most it is simply a “black box” that you plug into a wall outlet to charge a device. In this
paper I hope to break into this “black box” to better understand what electromagnetic concepts
are used in this tool. This paper is divided into two sections. The first covering some analysis of
an ideal transformer, and the second devoted to what makes a transformer unideal. This paper
will cover core losses, leakage flux losses, and I2*R losses.
1. Ideal Transformers
Named for its purpose, the ideal transformer changes the
ratio of voltage to current in a circuit, without gain or loss in
power. Croft defines in his book, American Electrician’s
Handbook, the different parts of this machine. Those components
are a conductor, known as the primary coil, which carries an
alternating current coming from a power supply; the secondary
coil, which is also a conductor, is acted upon by an outside magnetic
flux generating an electromotive force (E.M.F); and the core of fig. 1
magnetic material, which transmits the magnetic flux between the two
coils [1, p. 2]. In fig. 1, the arrangement of these components can be seen for the simplest of
cases. The P, S, and C represent the primary coil, secondary, and core respectively.
Fig.1 shows no moving parts, so it must be concluded that is must work entirely on
electromagnetically properties. To break down the processes happening in a transformer, the
primary coil will be examined first. The primary is supplied power in the form of voltage and
alternating current from some source. Stubbings states when a direct current is running through a
coil (of turns N) of conducting wire a magnetic field (B) is generated in a direction that follow
the right-hand rule [2]. When applying an alternating current, the magnetic field then reverses
direction at the same rate as the current. This magnetic field (B) causes a magnetic flux (Φm) to
flow through the core of magnetic material [3]. The flux produced can be found with the use of
Gausses Law.
Φ𝑚 = N ∮ 𝐵 ∙ 𝑑𝑠

Using Faraday’s law, the E.M.F. produced in the secondary coil due to the flux
transferred through the magnetic core is as follows.

𝑑Φ𝑚
𝐸. 𝑀. 𝐹. = −(𝑁)
𝑑𝑡
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The negative in the above equation is due to Lenz’s law, which states that the current flow in an
induced electromotive force must create a magnetic field equal and opposite of the inducing
magnetic field [4, p. 409].
As stated earlier the ideal transformer has no gain or loss of energy. By using the concept
of the conservation of energy the ratio of the input and output voltages and currents can be
found. Inductance (L) is the storage of magnetic energy and defined in Elements of
Electromagnetics as the total flux divided by current in the wire (I) [4, p.369].

𝑁(Φ𝑚 )
𝐿=
𝐼

Because of the shared magnetic core there is a mutual-inductance (M) between the coils and a
self-inductance for both the primary (1) and secondary (2) coils. In the case of an ideal
transformer all the flux from the self-inductance of a coil is transferred through to the opposite
coil.
Φ𝑚1 = Φ𝑚12 Φ𝑚2 = Φ𝑚21

The mutual induction is the ratio of the total flux of the primary coil divided by the current in the
secondary coil and vice versa as defined in Elements of Electromagnetics [4, p. 370].

𝑁1 (Φ𝑚1 ) 𝑁2 (Φ𝑚2 )
𝑀12 = 𝑀21 =
𝐼2 𝐼1

Since the mutual inductances and magnetic fluxes are equal we can find a ratio of currents in the
primary and secondary coils.
𝐼1 𝑁2
=
𝐼2 𝑁1

The ratio of voltages can be found in a similar manner by manipulating the electromotive force
equations of each coil since the flux of the two coils are equal.

𝑑Φ𝑚1 𝑑Φ𝑚2
𝐸. 𝑀. 𝐹.1 = −(𝑁1 ) 𝐸. 𝑀. 𝐹.2 = −(𝑁2 )
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝐸. 𝑀. 𝐹1 𝑁1
=
𝐸. 𝑀. 𝐹2 𝑁2

1. Non-Ideal Transformers.
The world is not perfect; therefore, some of the assumptions in part 1 cannot be assumed to
warrant the most accurate transformer design. In this section some of the larger transformer
losses are evaluated. Those being losses due to the magnetic core (i), leakage flux (ii), and I2*R
(iii).
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i. Magnetic Core Losses


There are two reasons for magnetic energy to be loss in the core, those being hysteresis and
eddy currents [5]. Usually the magnetic core of a transformer is
made up of a type of iron because of its high magnetic
permeability (µ), however because of this property it is also
susceptible to being magnetized. The magnetization of a material is
hardly ever linear. This means that the magnetizing force (H) to
saturate a material is not as large as the force needed to
demagnetize the material. A typical hysteresis chart can be seen in
fig. 2.

As the flux in the core changes direction due to the change in


fig. 2
current, the magnetization of the core also changes. The energy (W)
lost due to hysteresis is the enclosed area of the hysteresis loop
multiplied by the volume of the core, and the frequency of the changes (f). [6].

𝑊 = (𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒)(𝑓)(∫ 𝐵 ∙ 𝑑𝐵)

The second reasons for losses in the core are eddy currents. As a magnetic field is established
in the core, a resulting current can also be found due to Lenz’s law. This energy is eventually lost
as heat. Csanyi writes that these eddy current losses can be negated by using thin laminated strips
of material for the core [7]. This is proved to be correct by manipulation of Faraday’s and
Gauss’s Laws.
𝑑Φ𝑚
𝐸. 𝑀. 𝐹. = −(𝑁)
𝑑𝑡
Φ𝑚 = N ∮ 𝐵 ∙ 𝑑𝑠
When substituting the flux, one can see that by reducing the area that the magnetic flux is going
through, then the subsequent E.M.F. will also be decreased.
𝑑(∫ 𝐵 ∙ 𝑑𝑠)
𝐸. 𝑀. 𝐹. = −(𝑁)
𝑑𝑡
ii. Leakage Flux Loss
In section 1 the entire flux created by the primary coil is assumed
to be transferred to the secondary coil, but this is not the case. Only the
magnetic field that crosses through the area of the core is transferred [3].
This can be noted in fig.3. The flux outside of the core is weak due to the
low magnetic permeability of the outside material. The magnetic field
(H) and flux are related by permeability.
fig. 3
Φ𝑚 = µ𝐻
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It can be shown then that a material with higher permeability will have a larger net flux flowing
through it.
Φ𝑚 = N ∮ µ𝐻 ∙ 𝑑𝑠

iii. I2*R Loss


The I2*R losses are electrical energy being transformed into heat. The greatest section of
2
I *R losses is do to the resistance of the conducting wire in the coils. In the real world, the
resistance can change on an account of several reasons. Those being the resistance and size of
the conductor being used for the coils and the temperature of the transformer [6]. The resistivity
of a copper wire due to temperature is the following.

𝑇𝐿 − 235
𝑅𝑡 = 𝑅0 ( )
𝑇0 − 235

2. Conclusion
The transformer has become a little less mysterious thanks to the use of electromagnetic
properties. Learning the structures and concepts behind an electrical component makes it easier
to apply it in all aspects of electrical engineering. The drawbacks of this type of component are
equally important to learn. For example, if the transformer was installed incorrectly and the
output was not what is expected, a person would need to know where to begin trouble shooting
inside of the “black box.”
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Bibliography

[1] Croft “Division 5 TRANSFORMERS” in American Electricians’ Handbook; A


Reference Book for Practical Electrical Workers, 8th ed., vol. 1. C. C. Carr and T. Croft,
Eds. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1964, pp. 1-88.

[2] G.W. Stubbings. Transformers. Edinburgh: Riverside, 1941, pp.

[3] E.E. Wild. Transformers. London: Blackie, 1940, pp.

[4] M. N. O. Sadiku. Elements of Electromagnetics. 6th ed. New York: Oxford, 2015, pp.

[5] “Hysteresis Eddy Current Iron or Core Losses and Copper Loss in Transformer.”
Internet: https://www.electrical4u.com/hysteresis-eddy-current-iron-or-core-losses-and-
copper-loss-in-transformer/, [Dec. 10, 2017].

[6] “Best Practice Manual; Transformers,” Deki Energy Consultancy Pvt. Ltd.: Vadodara,
India, 2006.

[7] E. Csanyi. “How to Reduce Transformer Losses at Design Stage.” Internet:


http://electrical-engineering-portal.com/reduce-transformer-losses-design-stage, April 29,
2016 [Nov. 25, 2017].

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