3.

1 INTRODUCTION
Welding is a process for joining two similar or dissimilar metals by fusion. It joins different metals/alloys,
with or without the application of pressure and with or without the use of filler metal. The fusion of
metal takes place by means of heat. The heat may be generated either from combustion of gases,
electric arc, electric resistance or by chemical reaction. During some type of welding processes, pressure
may also be employed, but this is not an essential requirement for all welding processes. Welding
provides a permanent joint but it normally affects the metallurgy of the components.
3.2 BASIC CONCEPT OF WELDING
Welding is a process of joining two similar or dissimilar metals with the help of heat or pressure or by
some other means. The cost of welding is very less as compared to other processes and forms a strong
joint.
For this reason it is largely used in the following fields of engineering:
1. Manufacturing of machine tools, auto parts, cycle parts, etc.
2. Fabrication of farm machinery & equipment.
3. Fabrication of buildings, bridges & ships.
4. Construction of boilers, furnaces, railways, cars, aeroplanes, rockets and missiles.
5. Manufacturing of television sets, refrigerators, kitchen cabinets, etc.
A weld will inherit the common drawback of brittleness, which is a disadvantage. The
emphasis in welding technique should, therefore, be preventing this brittleness to the maximum
possible extent.
3.2 . Advantages & Disadvantages:
7.3 CLASSIFICATION OF WELDING PROCESSES
Many types of welding processes have been developed depending upon the field of their applications
(Table 7.1). But the welding is broadly divided into following two groups.
1. Forge or Pressure Welding (Under pressure without additional filler metal)
(a) Friction welding
(b) Electric resistance welding
(c) Blacksmiths forge welding
(d) Cold pressure welding
2. Fusion or non-pressure welding (With additional filler material)
(a) Gas welding (Heat created by Gas)
(b) Electric arc welding (Heat created by electrically)
(c) Thermite welding (Heat created by chemical Reaction)

17.5 GAS WELDING PROCESSES

A fusion welding process which joins metals, using the heat of combustion of an oxygen /air and fuel gas
(i.e. acetylene, hydrogen propane or butane) mixture is usually referred as ‘gas welding’. The intense
heat (flame) thus produced melts and fuses together the edges of the parts to be welded, generally with
the addition of a filler metal. Operation of gas welding is shown in Fig. . The fuel gas generally employed
is acetylene; however gases other than acetylene can also be used though with lower flame
temperature. Oxy-acetylene flame is the most versatile and hottest of all the flames produced by the
combination of oxygen and other fuel gases.
 Fig. Gas welding operation

3.5.1 Oxy-Acetylene Welding

Oxy-fuel welding, commonly referred to as oxy welding or gas welding is a process of joining metals by
application of heat created by gas flame. The fuel gas commonly acetylene, when mixed with proper
proportion of oxygen in a mixing chamber of welding torch, produces a very hot flame of about 5700-
5800°F. With this flame it is possible to bring any of the so-called commercial metals, namely: cast iron,
steel, copper, and aluminum, to a molten state and cause a fusion of two pieces of like metals in such a
manner that the point of fusion will very closely approach the strength of the metal fused. If more metal
of like nature is added, the union is made even stronger than the original. This method is called oxy-
acetylene welding.
3.5.1.2 Gas Welding Equipments
An arrangement of oxy acetylene welding set up is shown in Fig. . The basic tools and
equipments used for oxy-acetylene welding are following:
Oxy-fuel apparatus consists of two cylinders (one oxygen and one acetylene) equipped with two
regulators, pressure gauges, two lengths of hose, and a blow torch. The regulators are attached to
cylinders and are used to reduce and maintain a uniform pressure of gases at the torch. The gases at
reduced pressure are conveyed to the torch by the hoses. The regulators include high pressure and low
pressure gauges to indicate the contents of the cylinder and the working-pressure on each hose. When
the gases reach the torch they are there mixed and combustion takes place at the welding tip fitted to
the torch.

The basic equipments used to carry out gas welding are:

1. Oxygen gas cylinder (green)
2. Acetylene gas cylinder (maroon/red)
3. Oxygen pressure regulator
4. Acetylene pressure regulator
5. Oxygen gas hose(Blue)
6. Acetylene gas hose(Red)
7. Welding torch or blow pipe with a set of nozzles and gas lighter
8. Trolleys for the transportation of oxygen and acetylene cylinders
9. Set of keys and spanners
10. Filler rods and fluxes
11. Protective clothing for the welder (e.g., asbestos apron, gloves, goggles, etc.
Acetylene and oxygen gas is stored in compressed gas cylinders. These gas cylinders differ widely in
capacity, design and colour code. However, in most of the countries, the standard size of these cylinders
is 6 to 7 m3 and is painted black for oxygen and maroon for acetylene. An acetylene cylinder is filled with
some absorptive material, which is saturated with a chemical solvent acetone. Acetone has the ability to
absorb a large volume of acetylene and release it as the pressure falls. If large quantities of acetylene gas
are being consumed, it is much cheaper to generate the gas at the place of use with the help of
acetylene gas generators. Acetylene gas is generated by carbide-to-water method.
Oxygen gas cylinders are usually equipped with about 40 litres of oxygen at a pressure of about 154
Kgf/cm2 at 21°C. To provide against dangerously excessive pressure, such as could occur if the cylinders
were exposed to fire, every valve has a safety device to release the oxygen before there is any danger of
rupturing the cylinders. Fragile discs and fusible plugs are usually provided in the cylinders valves in case
it is subjected to danger.
Chemistry of Oxy Acetylene Process
The most common fuel used in welding is acetylene. It has a two stage reaction; the first stage primary
reaction involves the acetylene disassociating in the presence of oxygen to produce heat, carbon
monoxide, and hydrogen gas.
2C2H2 + 2O2 = 4CO + 2H2 + Heat ---------- (1)
A secondary reaction follows where the carbon monoxide and hydrogen combine with more oxygen to
produce carbon dioxide and water vapor.
4CO + 2H2 + 3O2 = 4CO2 + 2H2O + Heat--------- (2)
When you combine equations (1) and (2) you will notice that about 5 parts of oxygen is necessary to
consume 2 parts of acetylene
2C2H2 + 5O2 = 4CO2 + 2H2O + Heat ----------- (3)

Gas pressure regulators

Gas pressure regulators are employed for regulating the supply of acetylene and oxygen gas from
cylinders. A pressure regulator is connected between the cylinder and hose leading to welding torch. The
cylinder and hose connections have left-handed threads on the acetylene regulator while these are right
handed on the oxygen regulator. A pressure regulator is fitted with two pressure gauges, one for
indication of the gas pressure in the cylinder and the other for indication of the reduced pressure at
which the gas is going out
WELDING TORCH & BLOW PIPE
A welding torch mixes oxygen and acetylene in the desired proportions, burns the mixture at the end of
the tip, and provides a means for moving and directing the flame.
There are two types of welding torches, namely:
a) High pressure (or equal pressure) type
b) Low pressure (or injector) type
The high pressure torch also called the equal pressure torch is most commonly used because:
a) It is lighter and simpler;
b) It does not need an injector;
c) In operation, it is less troublesome since it does not suffer from backfires to the same extent.
Torch tips
It is the portion of the welding apparatus through which the gases pass just prior to their ignition and
burning. A great variety of interchangeable welding tips differing in size, shape and construction are
available commercially. The tip sizes are identified by the diameter of the opening. The diameter of the
tip opening used for welding depends upon the type of metal to be welded.
Hose pipes
The hose pipes are used for the supply of gases from the pressure regulators. The most common method
of hose pipe fitting both oxygen and acetylene gas is the reinforced rubber hose pipe. Green is the
standard color for oxygen hose, red for acetylene, and black hose for other industrially available welding
gases.
Filler Metals:
Filler metals are used to supply additional material to the pool to assist in filling the gap (or groove) and it
forms an integral part of the weld. Filler rods have the same or nearly the same chemical composition as
the base metal and are available in a variety of compositions (for welding different materials) and sizes.
These consumable filler rods may be bare, or they may be coated with flux. The purpose of the flux
a. Is to retard oxidation of the surfaces of the parts being welded, by generating gaseous shield
around the weld zone.
b. The flux also helps to dissolve and remove oxides and other substances from the work piece and
so contributes to the formation of a stronger joint.
Characteristics of good flux
a. The melting point of a flux must be lower than that of either the metal or the oxides formed, so that it
will be liquid.
b. The ideal flux has exactly the right fluidity when the welding temperature has been reached.
c. The flux will protect the molten metal from atmospheric oxidation.
d. Fflux will remain close to the weld area instead of flowing all over the base metal for some distance
from the weld.
Composition of Fluxes
Fluxes differ in their composition according to the metals with which they are to be used. In cast iron welding, a
slag forms on the surface of the puddle. The flux serves to break this up. Equal parts of a carbonate of soda and
bicarbonate of soda make a good compound for this purpose. Nonferrous metals usually require a flux. Copper
also requires a filler rod containing enough phosphorous to produce a metal free from oxides. Borax which has
been melted and powdered is often used as a flux with copper alloys. A good flux is required with aluminum,
because there is a tendency for the heavy slag formed to mix with the melted aluminum and weaken the weld. For
sheet aluminum welding, it is customary to dissolve the flux in water and apply it to the rod. After welding
aluminum, all traces of the flux should be removed.
Characteristics of the oxy-acetylene welding process include:
 The use dual oxygen and acetylene gases stored under pressure in steel cylinders;
 Its ability to switch quickly to a cutting process, by changing the welding tip to a cutting
tip;
 The high temperature the gas mixture attains (~5800°F);
 The use of regulators to control gas flow and reduce pressure on both the oxygen and
acetylene tanks;
 The use of double line rubber hoses to conduct the gas from the tanks to the torch;
 Melting the materials to be welded together;
 The ability to regulate temperature by adjusting gas flow
17.5.1.1 Types of Welding Flames
In oxy-acetylene welding, flame is the most important means to control the welding joint and the
welding process. The correct type of flame is essential for the production of satisfactory welds. The
flame must be of the proper size, shape and condition in order to operate with maximum efficiency.
There are three basic types of oxy-acetylene flames.
1. Neutral welding flame (Acetylene and oxygen in equal proportions).
2. Carburizing welding flame or reducing (excess of acetylene).
3. Oxidizing welding flame (excess of oxygen).
The gas welding flames are shown in Fig
Neutral Flame - A neutral flame is produced when approximately equal volumes of oxygen and
acetylene are mixed in the welding torch and burnt at the torch tip. (More accurately the oxygen-to-
acetylene ratio is 1.1 to 1). The temperature of the neutral flame is of the order of about 3260ºC. The
flame has a nicely defined inner cone which is light blue in colour. It is surrounded by an outer flame
envelope, produced by the combination of oxygen in the air and superheated carbon monoxide and
hydrogen gases from the inner cone. This envelope is usually a much darker blue than the inner cone.
A neutral flame is named so because it effects no chemical change in the molten metal and therefore will
not oxidize or carburize the metal. The neutral flame is commonly used for the welding of: (i) Mild steel
(ii) Stainless steel (iii) Cast Iron (iv) Copper (v) Aluminium

Reducing Flame - If the volume of oxygen supplied to the neutral flame is reduced, the resulting flame
will be a carburising or reducing flame, i.e. rich in acetylene. A reducing flame can be recognized by
acetylene feather which exists between the inner cone and the outer envelope. The outer flame
envelope is longer than that of the neutral flame and is usually much brighter in colour. A reducing flame
does not completely, consume the available carbon; therefore, its burning temperature is lower and the
left over carbon is forced into the molten metal.
With iron and steel it produces very hard, brittle substance known as iron carbide. This chemical change
makes the metal unfit for many applications in which the weld may need to be bent or stretched. Metals
that tend to absorb carbon should not be welded with reducing flame. A reducing flame has an
approximate temperature of 3038°C. A reducing flame may be distinguished from a carburizing flame by
the fact that a carburizing flame contains more acetylene than a reducing flame. A carburizing flame is
used in the welding of lead and for carburizing (surface hardening) purposes.
A reducing flame, on the other hand, does not carburize the metal, rather it ensures the absence of the
oxidizing condition. It is used for welding with low alloy steel rods and for welding those metals, (e.g.
non ferrous) that do not tend to absorb carbon. This flame is very well used for welding high carbon steel
Oxidising Flame - If, after the neutral flame has been established, the supply of oxygen is further
increased, the result will be an oxidising flame. An oxidising flame can be recognized by the small white
cone which is shorter, much bluer in colour and more pointed than that of the neutral flame. The outer
flame envelope is much shorter and tends to fan out at the end on the other hand the neutral and
carburizing envelopes tend to come to a sharp point. An oxidising flame burns with a decided loud roar.
An oxidising flame tends to be hotter than the neutral flame. This is because of excess oxygen and which
causes the temperature to rise as high as 3500°C. The high temperature of an oxidizing
flame (O2: C2H2 = 1.5: 1) would be an advantage if it were not for the fact that the excess oxygen,
especially at high temperatures, tends to combine with many metals to form hard, brittle, low strength
oxides. Moreover, an excess of oxygen causes the weld bead and the surrounding area to have a scummy
or dirty appearance. For these reasons, an oxidising flame is of limited use in welding. It is not used in
the welding of steel. A slightly oxidising flame is helpful when welding most (i) Copper base metals (ii)
Zinc base metals, and (iii) A few types of ferrous metals, such as manganese steel and cast iron The
oxidizing atmosphere, in these cases, creates a base metal oxide that protects the base
metal. For example, in welding brass, the zinc has a tendency to separate and fume away.

Use of flux:
Flux is employed in the welding of such metal as cast iron. Some alloy steel and non-ferrous metals to
dissolve such as:
1. Remove impurities.
2. Control surface tension.
3. Give protection from atmosphere.

It is usually in the format paste in which the rod is dipped.

Method of welding using oxy-acetylene welding process.
1. Back hand welding: In this method, the torch precedes the welding rod, as shown bellow.

Back hand welding

 2. Forehand welding: In this method, the welding rod precedes the torch. The torch is held at
approximately a 45 degree angle from the vertical in the direction of welding, as shown bellow.

Forehand welding

3. Fillet welding: The fillet weld is the most popular of all types of welds because there is normally no
preparation required.

4. Horizontal position welding: In horizontal welding, the weld axis is approximately horizontal, but the
weld type dictates the complete definition. For a fillet weld, welding is performed on the upper side of an
approximately horizontal surface and against an approximately vertical surface. For a groove weld, the face of
the weld lies in an approximately vertical plane

5. Flat position welding: This type of welding is performed from the upper side of the joint. The face of the
weld is approximately horizontal.
6. Vertical position welding: In vertical position, the plane of the workpiece is vertical and the weld is
deposited upon a vertical surface. It is difficult to produce satisfactory welds in this position due to the
effect of the force of gravity on the molten metal. The welder must constantly control the metal so that
it does not run or drop from the weld. Vertical welding may be of two types viz., vertical-up and vertical-
down. Vertical-up welding is preferred when strength is the major consideration. The vertical-down
welding is used for a sealing operation and for welding sheet metal.
7. Over head position welding: The overhead position is probably even more difficult to weld than the
vertical position. Here the pull of gravity against the molten metal is much greater. The force of the flame
against the weld serves to counteract the pull of gravity. In overhead position, the plane of the
workpiece is horizontal. But the welding is carried out from the underside. The electrode is held with its
welding end upward. It is a good practice to use very short arc and basic coated electrodes for overhead
welding.

Advantages of Oxyacetylene Process

1) Does not require electricity;
2) The equipment is portable, easy to transport;
3) Welder has considerable control over the rate of heat input, the temperature of the weld zone, and
the oxidizing or reducing potential of the welding atmosphere;
4) Oxyacetylene process is ideally suited to the welding of thin sheet, tubes, and small diameter pipe.
It is also used for repair work, maintenance and in body shops;
5) Dissimilar metals can easily be joined;
6) Can also be used for preheating, cutting metal, case hardening, soldering and annealing.

Limitations
1. Acetylene becomes extremely dangerous if used above 15 pounds pressure. Pure acetylene is self-
explosive if stored in the free state under a pressure of 29.4 pounds per square inch (psi);
2. The process is typically slower than the electrical arc-welding processes;
3. Heavy sections cannot be joined efficiently.
4. For heavy sections proper penetration may not be achieved.
5. Slower speed of welding compared electric arc welding.
6. Flux used in the filler metal provides fumes which are irritating to the eyes, nose, throat and lungs.
7. More safety is recommended in gas welding.
8. Acetylene and oxygen are expensive gases.
9. Prolonged heating of the joint may results in large HAZ.
Applications of Gas Welding -
1. For joining thin materials.
2. For joining materials in whose case excessively high temperatures or rapid heating and cooling of the
job would produce unwanted or harmful changes in the metal.
3. For joining materials in whose case extremely high temperatures would cause certain elements in the
metal to escape into the atmosphere.
4. For joining most ferrous and nonferrous metals, e.g., carbon steels, alloy steels, cast iron, aluminium,
copper, nickel, magnesium and its alloys, etc.
5. In automotive and aircraft industries. In sheet metal fabricating plants,etc.
Gas Cutting: It is possible to rapidly oxidise (burn) iron and steel when it is heated to a temperature
between 800 to 1000 0C. When a high pressure oxygen jet with a pressure of the order of 300 KPa is
directed against a heated steel plate, the oxygen jet burns the metal and blows it away causing the cut.
This process is used for cutting steel plates of various thicknesses (can go up to 2 m) mainly because the
equipment required is simple and can be carried anywhere without handling the heavy steel plates. Oxy-
acetylene gas cutting outfit is similar to that of the oxy-acetylene welding except for the torch tip. Here
the torch tip has a provision for preheating the plate as well as providing the oxygen jet. Thus the tip has
a central hole for oxygen jet with surrounding holes for preheating flames. The cutting tip should be
chosen for the intended application. The size is normally dependent on the thickness of the plate which
determines the amount of preheating as well as the oxygen jet flow required for cutting. After the steel
is heated to the kindling temperature which is about 870 0C, it gets readily combined with oxygen
giving iron oxide with the following reactions:
3 Fe + 2 O2 -- Fe3O4 + 6.67 MJ/Kg of iron
2Fe + O2 -- 2FeO + 3.18 MJ/Kg of iron
4 Fe + 3 O2 -- 2Fe2O3 + 4.90 MJ/Kg of iron
All the above reactions are exothermic in nature and as such would provide a good amount of heat to
preheat the steel. But this energy may not be sufficient to bring the steel to its kindling temperature, and
hence preheating flames may have to be continued as somewhat lower rate. The heat generated causes
the metal to melt and get blown away by the oxygen pressure. About 30 to 40 % of metal is simply blown
away, while the rest is oxidised.
The cutting can start at the edge or in the middle of the plate. After the plate has reached the kindling
temperature, the operator should release the oxygen jet to start the cutting, moving the torch in the
forehand direction to achieve the desired cut. Drag is the amount by which the lower edge of the drag
line trails from the top edge.

A good cut is characterised by very small or negligible drag. When the torch is moved too rapidly, the
metal at the bottom does not get sufficient heat to get oxidized and cut and hence there is a large drag.
When the torch is moved slowly, all the preheated metal is burnt away by the oxygen jet and a large
amount of slag is generated.
Though the gas cutting is more useful with thick plates, thin sheets (less than 3 mm) can also be cut by
this process taking special precautions. Tip size chosen should be as small as possible. If small tips are
not available, then the tip is inclined at an angle of 15 to 20 degrees. Gas cutting can be done manually
or by a machine. The manual cutting is used for general purpose work and for straight line cutting. In
machine cutting the torch is mounted on a rail and both rail and the torch can move simultaneously
along the two mutually perpendicular axes in the horizontal plane with the help of servo motors. There
is provision in the machine to hold more than one torch so that large number of identical pieces can be
cut at the same time.

Arc-Welding
Introduction
Arc welding is the fusion of two pieces of metal by an electric arc between the pieces being joined – the
work pieces – and an electrode that is guided along the joint between the pieces. The electrode is either
a rod that simply carries current between the tip and the work, or a rod or wire that melts and supplies
filler metal to the joint.
Principle of Arc
The basic arc welding circuit is an alternating current (AC) or direct current (DC) power source connected
by a “work” cable to the work piece and by a “hot” cable to an electrode. When the electrode is
positioned close to the work piece, an arc is created across the gap between the metal and the hot cable
electrode. An ionized column of gas develops to complete the circuit.

Figure Arc welding setup

The arc produces a temperature of about 6000°C to 7000°C at the tip and melts part of the metal being
welded and part of the electrode. This produces a pool of molten metal that cools and solidifies behind
the electrode as it is moved along the joint.
There are two types of electrodes. Consumable electrode tips melt, and molten metal droplets detach
and mix into the weld pool. Non-consumable electrodes do not melt. Instead, filler metal is melted into
the joint from a separate rod or wire.
The strength of the weld is reduced when metals at high temperatures react with oxygen and nitrogen in
the air to form oxides and nitrides. Most arc welding processes minimize contact between the molten
metal and the air with a shield of gas, vapour or slag. Granular flux, for example, adds deoxidizers that
create a shield to protect the molten pool, thus improving the weld.

Arc Welding Equipment

The main requirement in an arc welding setup is the source of electric power. They are essentially
of two types:
a) Alternating Current Machines
1. Transformer
2. Motor or engine driven alternator
b) Direct Current Machines
1. Transformer with DC rectifier
2. Motor or engine driven generator
In AC welding normally transformer is used. It has following operational characteristics.
1. No moving parts and less noise;
2. Less maintenance;
3. Higher efficiency;
4. Cheaper power source.
In DC arc welding a rectifier or a generator can be used to supply the required DC power. At first input
voltage is stepped down to required voltage and then through silicon controlled rectifier (SCR) is
converted from AC to DC. Its characteristics are
1. Compact setup
2. Highly reliable and efficient
3. Less noise
4. Costly setup
The welding machine can be of two types.
1. Constant current welding machines or droopers
2. Constant voltage welding machines
In constant current welding machine the change in arc current magnitude due to change in voltage
across the electrodes is very small. This machine is very essential for manual arc welding processes since
the maintenance of constant arc is nearly impossible by a human welder. With the variation of electrode
distance from the base plate in manual arc welding the voltage across the arc gap changes continuously
but the magnitude of current remains almost constant due to which good quality of weld can be made.
In constant voltage welding machines small change in voltage makes for an extremely large change in the
output currents. Theses machines are generally preferred in the automatic machines since they become
self corrective. When the electrode comes a bit closer to the work, the arc voltage drops raising the
output current to very high value. This current instantly melts the electrode and thus maintains the arc
gap.

Figure : Constant current characteristics

Figure : Constant voltage characteristics

Though DC arc welding is more expensive than AC welding, it is generally preferred because of the
control of the heat input offered by it. If more heat is required at the workpiece side, such as for thicker
sheets or for the work materials which have higher thermal conductivity such as aluminium and copper,
the workpiece can be made as anode, liberating large heat near it. This is termed as straight polarity or
direct current electrode negative (DCEN). This gives rise to higher penetration of weld metal. For thinner
materials where less heat input is required in the weld zone, the polarity could be reversed by making
the workpiece as negative. This is termed as reversed polarity or direct current electrode positive
(DCEP).In this case weld metal penetration is small. In case of AC welding the bead obtained is
somewhere in between the above two types. DC arc welding is preferred for difficult tasks such as
overhead welding, since it can maintain a stable arc.

Figure : Weld penetration

A voltage of the order of 40 to 50 V should be enough for starting an arc, whereas for continuous
welding 20 to 30 V is sufficient. The minimum voltage Vm can be calculated as
Vm = 20 + 0.04 I ,
where I is the load current in amperes.
The rated current specifies the maximum current in amperes that a welding machine is capable of
supplying at a given voltage. The preferred current ratings as per Indian standard are 150, 200, 300, 400,
500, 600 and 900 A.
Duty Cycle:
Duty cycle is the ratio of arcing time to the weld cycle time multiplied by 100. Welding cycle time is
either 5 minutes as per European standards or 10 minutes as per American standard and accordingly
power sources are designed. It arcing time is continuously 5 minutes then as per European standard it is
100% duty cycle and 50% as per American standard. At 100% duty cycle minimum current is to be drawn
i.e. with the reduction of duty cycle current drawn can be of higher level. The welding current which can
be drawn at a duty cycle can be evaluated from the following equation;

Duty cycle and associated currents are important as it ensures that power source remains
safe and its windings are not getting damaged due to increase in temperature beyond
specified limit. The maximum current which can be drawn from a power source depends
upon its size of winding wire, type of insulation and cooling system of the power source.

Power sources produce DC with the electrode either positive or negative, or AC. The choice of current
and polarity depends on the process, the type of electrode, the arc atmosphere and the metal being
welded.

Some Important Definitions

Arc-on time: When the welder holds an arc between the electrode and the work piece
Idling time: When welding equipment is ready for use but is not generating an arc
Operating factor: The ratio of arc-on time to the total time worked, often expressed as a percentage:

Work time: Convention is to assume total annual work time of 4000 hours (two shifts).
Electrode Efficiency
The efficiency of an electrode is the mass of metal actually deposited compared with the mass of that
portion of the electrode consumed. It can be expressed as:
efficiency % =mass of metal deposited/mass of metal of the electrode consumedx 100
With ordinary electrodes the efficiency varies from 75 to 95 % but with electrodes containing metallic
components in the covering the efficiency can approach 200 %(e.g. electrodes containing iron
powder).The electrodes are marked with a 6 digit numeral associated by a prefix and a suffix. The
meaning of these and the various values are shown in figure .

Fig. Example of electrode designation according to ISO-2560

Figure Designation of manual metal arc welding electrode for mild steel
Arc Blow
When current flows through a conductor, it produces a magnetic flux that circles around the conductor
in perpendicular planes. The centres of the flux circles are located at the centre of the conductor. The
magnetic flux is produced in the steel and across the arc gap. The arc column is mainly influenced by the
lines of forces crossing the arc gap. As the weld joins the pieces together, there is less and less chance
that the magnetic field will concentrate in the arc gap. As the weld is filling the gap of the joint, it pushes
the magnetic flux ahead of the arc. As long as the flux can travel, no serious arc blow will interrupt the
weld. When flux ceases to move, it piles up and a magnetic field of considerable strength develops. The
buildup of the flux causes a deflection of arc column as it pills away from this heavy concentration of
magnetic forces. Ionized gases that carry the arc from the end of electrode to the workpiece are acting
as flexible conductors. This concentration of flux that pulls the arc from its intended path is called Arc
Blow.

Spatter
At the conclusion of a weld small particles or globules of metal may sometimes be observed
scattered around the vicinity of the weld along its length. This is known as spatter and may occur
through:
1. Arc blow making the arc uncontrollable.
2. The use of too long an arc or too high an arc voltage.
3. The use of excessive current.

Figure : Spatter
Duty cycle=

Power Efficiency
Welding power sources draw power when idling. Efficiency is greater when idling is reduced and the
operating factor is close to 100 percent. The higher the operating factor, the more efficient the process.
The following are ways to improve efficiency:
• Use the most efficient welding process. Use gas metal arc welding (GMAW) instead of shielded metal
arc welding (SMAW). Typically, operating factors for SMAW fall between 10 to 30 percent; operating
factors for GMAW fall between 30 to 50 percent.
• Use multi-process inverter power sources. Modern inverter power sources can be used for several
welding processes and save time and effort when switching processes. For example, the Miller XTM 304
can be used for GMAW, FCAW, SMAW and GTAW.
• Automate when possible. Manage repetitive operations by applying advances in automation and
computer programming.
• Reduce idling time. Cut the time spent on pre-welding tasks such as assembly, positioning, tacking and
cleaning, and on follow-up operations, such as slag removal and defect repair.
Power Source Performance
Certain characteristics determine the energy efficiency of power sources:
• Power factor: Power factor is the ratio of “real” electrical power made available by the welding power
source for producing a welding arc (the power you can use) to the "apparent" electrical power supplied
by the utility (the power you pay for). The older technology of transformer-rectifier power sources can
have power factors in the order of 75 percent; modern inverter power sources have power factors close
to 100 percent.
• Arc-on power and idling power: Transformer-rectifier power sources use more power in arc-on and
idling modes than modern inverter power sources do with the same output.
To compare the performance of power sources use the following formula:

COMMON ELECTRIC ARC WELDING PROCESSES

Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)
SMAW is a manual arc welding process in which the heat for welding is generated by an electric arc
between a flux-covered consumable electrode and the work. Figure shows a typical welding circuit for
SMAW. The electrode tip, arc, molten weld metal and the adjacent areas of the work are protected from
atmospheric contamination by the gaseous shield produced by the combustion and decomposition of
the electrode covering. Additional shielding is provided for the molten weld metal by the molten flux (or
slag) that forms. Filler metal is supplied by the core wire of the consumable electrode, or for certain
electrode types, from metal powder mixed with the electrode covering. Figure shows the operating
principles for the SMAW process.
Advantages
1. SMAW is the simplest and most versatile of the arc welding processes.
2. Thesimplicity and portability of SMAW equipment allow use of this process in a wide variety of
applications from refinery piping to cross country pipelines, and even underwater to repair
offshore structures.
3. SMAW can be used in any position or location that can be reached with an electrode. Joints in
blind areas can be welded, including the back sides of pipes in restricted areas that are
inaccessible for most other welding processes, by using bent electrodes.
4. SMAW is used to join a wide variety of ferrous and nonferrous materials including carbon and low
alloy steels, stainless steels, nickel based alloys, cast iron, and some copper alloys
5. SMAW is used to join a wide variety of ferrous and nonferrous materials including carbon and low
alloy steels, stainless steels, nickel based alloys, cast iron, and some copper alloys.

Disadvantages
1. Even though SMAW is a highly versatile process, it has several characteristics that make the
deposition rate lower than with semi-automatic or automatic processes
2. Electrodes are of fixed length and welding must be stopped after each electrode has
been consumed.
3. The stub of the electrode is lost, and time is lost for changing electrodes.
4. The slag must be removed from the weld after each pass before subsequent passes can be
deposited. These steps lower welding efficiency by about 50%.
5. Smoke and fumes present a problem with SMAW, and ventilation is required in confined spaces.
6. The view of the weld puddle is somewhat obscured by the protective slag that covers the freezing
weld metal and by the smoke.
7. Extra welder skill is needed to make radiograph-quality welds in pipe or plate when welded from
one side.
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)
In gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW), heat is generated by creating an arc, in an inert shielding gas,
between a nonconsumable tungsten electrode and the work. GTAW melts the area of the work under
the arc without melting the tungsten electrode. Figure shows the equipment for GTAW. The GTAW
process can be used either manually or automatically. Filler metal can be added to the weld by
introducing a bare rod into the zone of the arc. Welding techniques are similar to those for oxyfuel gas
welding, but the arc and molten puddle are shielded from the atmosphere by a blanket of inert gas,
usually argon, helium, or mixtures of these. Inert gas is fed through the torch and around the tungsten.
Welds produced with the GTAW process have a smooth surface that is free of slag and low in hydrogen
content. One variation of the GTAW process (pulsed GTAW) uses a power source that pulses the welding
current. This permits a higher average current for better penetration and weld puddle control,
particularly on root passes. Pulsed GTAW is especially useful for out-of-position pipe welding on stainless
steel and nonferrous materials such as nickel based alloys.

GTAW has been adapted to automatic welding. Automation of the process requires a programmed
power source and controls, a wire feeder, and machine guided travel. It has been used to make high
quality tube-to-tubesheet seal welds and heat exchanger tube butt welds. Butt welding of large diameter
thick walled pipe at utility power plants is another successful application of automatic GTAW. When
GTAW uses automatic wire feed it is also referred to as cold wire TIG. Another automatic version of
GTAW welding is called hot wire TIG, which has been developed to compete with other, higher
deposition rate, welding processes. With hot wire TIG, the wire is resistance heated with low voltage AC
current to increase the deposition rate.
Advantages
1. The GTAW process produces high quality welds without slag in a variety of ferrous and
nonferrous materials.
2. With proper welding technique, all atmospheric contaminants are excluded.
 3. A major advantage of the process is that it can be used to make high quality root passes from one
side on a wide range of materials.
4. Consequently, GTAW is used extensively for pipe welding.
5. Welding current can be controlled over a wide range, from about 5 to 300 amps, providing
greater ability to compensate for changing joint conditions such as root gap. For example, on thin
walled (below 0.20-inch) pipe and sheet metal, the current can be adjusted low enough to
control penetration and prevent burn-through more easily than can be done with processes that
use coated electrodes. The lower speed of travel as compared to SMAW provides better visibility
and makes it easier to control the weld metal during deposition and fusion.
Disadvantages
1. The main disadvantage of GTAW is its lower deposition rate compared with other processes such
as SMAW.
2. In addition, GTAW requires closer control of joint fit-up to produce high quality welds from one
side. GTAW also needs better joint cleaning to remove oil, grease, rust, and other contaminants in
order to avoid porosity and other weld defects.
3. GTAW must be carefully shielded from air movements above about 5 mph in order
to maintain the inert gas shield over the molten puddle.

Applications
1. GTAW is excellent for thin wall pipe and small diameter tubing of stainless steel, nickel alloys,
copper alloys, and aluminum.
2. On heavier wall piping, it is frequently used for the root pass on welds requiring high quality, such
as for high pressure, high temperature hydrogen piping and return bends in furnace coils. It is
also used for root passes where a smooth inside diameter surface is required, such as on
piping in acid service. Because of the inert gas protection of the weld and excellent process control,
GTAW is frequently used on reactive metals such as titanium and magnesium.
GAS METAL ARC WELDING

MIG(GMAW)

Gas Metal Arc Welding is an arc welding process that uses the heat of an electric arc established between a
consumable metal electrode and the work to be welded. The electrode is a bare metal wire that is transferred across
the arc and into the molten weld puddle. The wire, the weld puddle, and the area in the arc zone are protected from
the atmosphere by a gaseous shield. Inert gases, reactive gases, and gas mixtures are used for shielding. The metal
transfer mode is dependent on shielding gas choice and welding current level. Figure 9 is a sketch of the process
showing the basic features

 Gas metal arc welding is a versatile process that may be used to weld a wide variety of metals including carbon
steels, low alloy steels, stainless steels, aluminum alloys, magnesium, copper and copper alloys, and nickel alloys.
It can be used to weld sheet metal or relatively heavy sections. Welds may be made in all positions, and the
process may be used for semiautomatic welding or automatic welding. In semiautomatic welding, the wire feed
speed, voltage, amperage, and gas flow are all preset on the control equipment. The operator needs merely to
guide the welding gun along the joint at a uniform speed and hold a relatively constant arc length. In automatic
welding, the gun is mounted on a travel carriage that moves along the joint, or the gun may be stationary with
the work moving or revolving beneath it.

 Practically all GMAW is done using DCEP (Electrode positive). This polarity provides deep penetration, a stable
arc and low spatter levels. A small amount of GMAW welding is done with DCEN and although the melting rate
of the electrode is high, the arc is erratic. Alternating current is not used for gas metal arc welding.
 Current Density - To understand why gas metal arc welding can deposit weld metal at a rapid rate, it is necessary
that the term "current density" be understood. Figure shows a 1/4" coated electrode and a 1/16" solid wire
drawn to scale. Both are capable of carrying 400 amperes. Notice that the area of the 1/16" wire is only 1/16 that
of the core wire of the coated electrode. We can say that the current density of the 1/16" wire is 16 times.

 EQUIPMENT AND OPERATION - The equipment used for gas metal arc welding is more complicated than that
required for shielded metal arc welding. Initial cost is relatively high, but the cost is rapidly amortized due to the
savings in labor and overhead achieved by the rapid weld metal deposition.

 The equipment necessary for gas metal arc welding is listed below:

1) Power source

2) Wire feeder

3) Welding gun

4) Shielding gas supply

5) Solid electrode wire

6) Protective equipment

 The basic equipment necessary for semiautomatic gas metal arc welding is shown in Figure .
  SHIELDING GASES - In gas metal arc welding, there are a variety of shielding gases that can be used, either
alone or in combinations of varying degrees. The choice is dependent on the type of metal transfer
employed, the type and thickness of metal.
 carbon dioxide (CO2) is often used for short circuiting arc welding because of its low cost.
 Mixing argon in proportions of 50-75% with carbon dioxide will produce a smoother arc and reduce
spatter levels
 The 75% Argon/25 CO2 mixture is often chosen for short circuit welding of thin sections, whereas the 50-
50 combination works well on thicker section
Electrodes - The solid electrodes used in GMAW are of high purity when they come from the mill. Their
chemistry must be closely controlled and some types purposely contain high levels of deoxidizers for use with
CO2 shielding.
 The electrode manufacturer draws down the electrode to a finished diameter that, with GMAW, is
usually quite small. Diameters from .030" thru 1/16" are common.
 Most steel GMAW electrodes are copper plated as a means of protecting the surface. The copper
inhibits rusting, provides smooth feeding, and helps electrical conductivity.
Advantages
o Faster than TIG
o Deeper penetration
o Both thick & thin jobs possible
o Easy to mechanize
o No flux
Disadvantages
o Complex
o Air drafts may disrupt the gas shielding
o Higher base metal cooling rates
o Not for outdoors
 Applications
o Welding tool steels & dies
o Manufacturing refrigerator parts
o Aircraft, civil, automotive industry
o Non ferrous metals & their alloys

RESISTANCE WELDING
In resistance welding the metal parts to be joined are heated by their resistance to the flow of an
electrical current. Usually this is the only source of heat, but a few of the welding operations combine
resistance heating with arc heating, and possibly with combustion of metal in the arc. The process
applies to practically all metals and most combinations of pure metals and those alloys, which have only
a limited plastic range, are welded by heating the parts to fusion (melting). Some alloys, however, may
welded without fusion; instead, the parts are heated to a plastic state at which the applied pressure
causes their crystalline structures to grow together. The welding of dissimilar metals may be
accomplished by melting both metals frequently only the metal with the lower melting point is melted,
and an alloy bond is formed at the surface of the un melted metal. In resistance welding processes no
fluxes are employed, the filler metal is rarely used and the joints are usually of the lap type. The amount
of heat generated in the workpiece depend on the following factors:
(1) Magnitude of the current,
(2) Resistance of the current conducting path, and
Mathematically, H = IVt
= I(IR)t
= I2Rt

Where H = heat generated in joules

I = current in Amp.
R = resistance in ohms
t = time of current flow in seconds.
17.7.1 Types of Resistance welding
The major types of resistance welding are given as under:
(1) Spot Welding
(2) Seam Welding
(3) Projection Welding
(4) Resistance Butt Welding
(5) Flash Butt Welding
(6) Percussion Welding
(7) High Frequency Resistance Welding
(8) High Frequency Induction Welding
Some of the above important welding processes are discussed as under,

17.7.1.1 Spot Welding

In this process overlapping sheets are joined by local fusion at one or more spots, by the concentration
of current flowing between two electrodes. This is the most widely used resistance welding process. A
typical resistance spot welding machine is shown in Fig. 17.23. It essentially consists of two electrodes,
out of which one is fixed. The other electrode is fixed to a rocker arm (to provide mechanical advantage)
for transmitting the mechanical force from a pneumatic cylinder. This is the simplest type of
arrangement. The other possibility is that of a pneumatic or hydraulic cylinder being directly connected
to the electrode without any rocker arm. For welding large assemblies such as car bodies, portable spot
welding machines are used. Here the electrode holders and the pneumatic pressurizing system are
present in the form of a portable assembly which is taken to the place, where the spot is to be made.
The electric current, compressed air and the cooling water needed for the electrodes is supplied through
cables and hoses from the main welding machine to the portable unit. In spot welding, a satisfactory
weld is obtained when a proper current density is maintained. The current
density depends on the contact area between the electrode and the work-piece. With the continuous
use, if the tip becomes upset and- the contact area increases, the current density will be lowered and
consequently the weld is obtained over a large area. This would not be able to melt the metal and hence
there would be no proper fusion. A resistance welding schedule is the sequence of events that normally
take place in each of the welds. The events are:
1. The squeeze time is the time required for the electrodes to align and clamp the two
work-pieces together under them and provide the necessary electrical contact.
2. The weld time is the time of the current flow through the work-pieces till they are
heated to the melting temperature.
3. The hold time is the time when the pressure is to be maintained on the molten
metal without the electric current. During this time, the pieces are expected to be
forged welded.

4. The off time is time during which, the pressure on the electrode is taken off so that
the plates can be positioned for the next spot.
Spot welding electrodes
Spot welding electrodes are made of materials which have
(1) Higher electrical and thermal resistivities, and
(2) Sufficient strength to withstand high pressure at elevated temperatures.
Copper base alloys such as copper beryllium and copper tungsten are commonly used
materials for spot welding electrodes. For achieving the desired current density, It is important
to have proper electrode shape for which three main types of spot welding electrodes are used
which are pointed, domed and flat electrodes.
Applications of Spot Welding
(i) It has applications in automobile and aircraft industries
(ii) The attachment of braces, brackets, pads or clips to formed sheet-metal parts such
as cases, covers or trays is another application of spot welding.
(iii) Spot welding of two 12.5 mm thick steel plates has been done satisfactorily as a
replacement for riveting.
(iv) Many assemblies of two or more sheet metal stampings that do not require gas tight
or liquid tight joints can be more economically joined by spot welding than by
mechanical methods.
(v) Containers and boxes frequently are spot welded.

17.7.1.2 Resistance Seam Welding

It is a continuous type of spot welding wherein spot welds overlap each other to the desired
extent. In this process coalescence at the faying surfaces is produced by the heat obtained from
the resistance to electric current (flow) through the work pieces held together under pressure
by circular electrodes. The resulting weld is a series of overlapping resistance-spots welds made
progressively along a joint by rotating the circular electrodes. The principle of seam welding is
shown in Fig. 17.24(a) and resistance seam welding process set up is shown in Fig. . The
seam welding is similar to spot welding, except that circular rolling electrodes are used to
produce a continuous air-tight seam of overlapping welds. Overlapping continuous spot welds
seams are produced by the rotating electrodes and a regularly interrupted current.

Applications
1. It is used for making leak proof joints in fuel tanks of automobiles.
2. Except for copper and high copper alloys, most other metals can be seam welded.
3. It is also used for making flange welds for use in watertight tanks.
17.7.1.3 Resistance Projection Welding

Fig. shows the projection welding. This process is a resistance welding process in which two or more
than two spot welds are made simultaneously by making raised portions or projections on
predetermined locations on one of the workpiece. These projections act to localize the heat of the
welding circuit. The pieces to be welded are held in position under pressure being maintained by
electrodes. The projected contact spot for welding should be approximately equal to the weld metal
thickness. The welding of a nut on the automotive chasis is an example of projection welding.
Advantages and disadvantages of resistance welding
– Advantages
• Simple, low power requirements
• High speed & low cost
• Not hazardous, no extra material cost
– Disadvantages
• Only butt joint is possible
• Molten metal expulsion i.e. flash needs to be removed
• Very rigid machine is required
– Applications
• Combinations of metals can be welded
• Production of shafts, gears & valves
• Production of cutting tools & their bodies
• Welding together the small forgings

17.8.2 Friction Welding

In this process, the heat for welding is obtained from mechanically induced sliding motion between
rubbing surfaces of work-pieces as shown in Fig. 17.27. In friction welding, one part is firmly held while
the other (usually cylindrical) is rotated under simultaneous application of axial pressure. As these parts
are brought to rub against each other under pressure, they get heated due to friction. When the desired
forging temperature is attained, the rotation is stopped and the axial pressure is increased to obtain
forging action and hence welded joint. Most of the metals and their dissimilar combinations such as
aluminium and titanium, copper and steel, aluminium and steel etc. can be welded using friction
welding.

Friction welding process

– Advantages
• Simple, low power requirements
• High speed & low cost
• Not hazardous, no extra material cost
– Disadvantages
• Only butt joint is possible
• Molten metal expulsion i.e. flash needs to be removed
 • Very rigid machine is required
– Applications
• Combinations of metals can be welded
• Production of shafts, gears & valves
• Production of cutting tools & their bodies
• Welding together the small forgings

Thermite Welding
Thermite welding (TW) (sometimes called thermit welding) is a process which joins metals by heating
them with super heated liquid metal from a chemical reaction between a metal oxide and aluminum or
other reducing agent, with or without the application of pressure. Filler metal is obtained from the liquid
metal. The heat for welding is obtained from an exothermic reaction or chemical change between iron
oxide and aluminum. This reaction is shown by the following formula:
8A1 + 3fe304 = 9Fe + 4A1203 + Heat
The temperature resulting from this reaction is approximately 2482°C. The super heated steel is
contained in a crucible located immediately above the weld joint. The exothermic reaction is relatively
slow and requires 20 to 30 seconds, regardless of the amount of chemicals involved. The parts to be
welded are aligned with a gap between them. The super heated steel runs into a mold which is built
around the parts to be welded. Since it is almost twice as hot as the melting temperature of the base
metal, melting occurs at the edges of the joint and alloys with the molten steel from the crucible.Normal
heat losses cause the mass of molten metal to solidify, coalescence occurs, and the weld is completed. If
the parts to be welded are large, preheating within the mold cavity may be necessary to bring the pats
to welding temperature and to dry out the mold. If the parts are small, preheating is often eliminated.
The thermit welding process is applied only in the automatic mode. Once the reaction is started, it
continues until completion.
Themite welding utilizes gravity, which causes the molten metal to fill the cavity between the parts being
welded. It is very similar to the foundry practice of pouring a casting. The difference is the extremely
high temperature of the molten metal. The making of a thermit weld is shown in figure . When the filler
metal has cooled, all unwanted excess metal may be removed by oxygen cutting, machining, or grinding.
The surface of the completed weld is usually sufficiently smooth and contoured so that it does not
require additional metal finishing.

Thermite Welding Equipment (Tw)

Thermite material is a mechanical mixture of metallic aluminum and processed iron oxide. Molten steel
is produced by the thermite reaction in a magnesite-lined crucible. At the bottom of the crucible, a
magnesite stone is burned, into which a magnesite stone thimble is fitted. This thimble provides a
passage through which the molten steel is discharged into the mold. The hole through the thimble is
plugged with a tapping pin, which is covered with a fire-resistant washer and refractory sand. The
crucible is charged by placing the correct quantity of thoroughly mixed thermit material in it. In
preparing the joint for thermite welding, the parts to be welded must be cleaned, alined, and held
firmly in place. If necessary, metal is removed from the joint to permit a free flow of the thermite metal
into the joint. A wax pattern is then made around the joint in the size and shape of the intended weld. A
mold made of refractory sand is built around the wax pattern and joint to hold the molten metal after it
is poured. The sand mold is then heated to melt out the wax and dry the mold. The mold should be
properly vented to permit the escape of gases and to allow the proper distribution of the thermite metal
at the joint. A thermite welding crucible and mold is shown in figure.

– Advantages
• No costly power supply, on site repairs/welding is possible
– Disadvantages
• Economical for heavier sections & that too for ferrous metals only.
– Applications
• Rail-road repairs
• Repairing or welding of large crankshafts, machine frames
• Welding for cast pieces together
• For replacing broken teeth on large gears