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Thesis: The Soviet invasion along with the United States’ utilization of Pakistan to
dissolve communist efforts in Afghanistan resulted in significant political, social, and
economical consequences in Pakistan.
1
With the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 came a worldwide concern
entering South Asia. The Soviet expansion made Pakistan emerge as a frontline country
in the deterrence of the communist power, however various facets of Pakistan’s national
structure and security were compromised when the invasion occurred. Pakistan facilitated
the training of Afghan Mujahedeen soldiers who in turn rebelled against Soviet soldiers
with aid from the United States. An influx of a great number of refugees poured in from
Afghanistan to Pakistan causing a major upheaval for the social and economic structure
of the country. Violence increased and contraband flooded over borders along with
narcotics, weapons, and prostitution. Financial aid, mainly from the US, allowed Pakistan
to form capable defenses in resisting the Soviet armies, as well as make some economic
developments. Although the invasion occurred within Afghani borders there were several
consequences that detrimentally affected Pakistan and through this paper the aspects of
those consequences will be brought to light. The Soviet invasion along with the United
The US and Pakistan had a shared but different motivation for improving
Pakistani economic and defensive positions: the U.S. being motivated to resist Soviet
communism while Pakistan was primarily seeking international recognition and stronger
defenses against India. This formed mutual interests that facilitated an important political
agreement between these two nations. With the invasion of the Soviets into Afghanistan
Pakistan developed political legitimacy and became an important nation utilized by the
2
US in the attempt to combat Soviet forces. The war in Afghanistan gave rise to General
Zia Ul-Haq, who endorsed the proliferation and efforts of the Mujahedeen, an insurgent
group that fought against soviet the Soviet military establishment. General Zia was a key
role in mediating American support in the dissolution of Soviet forces and “during the
Afghan war, Zia allowed the CIA to funnel growing amounts of para-military support to
the Afghanistan rebels through Pakistan.”1 Zia stressed the importance of repressing the
Soviet movement through Afghanistan into Pakistan and was receptive to US influence in
the matter. The training of the Afghan Mujahedeen was implemented by the Pakistani ISI
Mujahedeen would be solely carried out by ISI in camps along the Afghan frontiers. No
CIA officers would train Afghans directly.”2 United States interests also relied on the ISI
to distribute weapons, money and training to the Afghan rebels and from 1983 to 1997
“the ISI trained about 83,000 Afghan Mujahedeen… and dispatched them to
Afghanistan.”3 The aid that the US provided General Zia and the Pakistani military
during the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan provided the nation with capable means of
deterring the conquests of Soviet forces, which was in the political interest of both the US
and Pakistan.
“Pakistani defense planners realized its military and economic weakness and sought
1
A. Z. Hilali, US-Pakistan Relationship: Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan (Burlington, VT: Ashgate
Publishing Co., 2005), 119.
2
Steve Coll, Ghost wars: the secret history of the CIA, Afghanistan, and
Bin Laden, from the Soviet invasion to September 10, 2001 (New York: Penguin Press, 2004), 64.
3
IBP USA, USA International Business Publications: Pakistan Intelligence, Security Activities &
Operations Handbook (Washington DC: Int'l Business Publications, 2002), 44.
3
external support in order to strengthen its bargaining position vis-à-vis India.”4 Initially
the Carter Administration offered General Zia a $400 million assistance agreement but it
was not accepted because it fell far short of the financial support and resources that
Pakistan would need to fight off Soviet troops. However a secondary agreement later
offered by the Reagan administration was accepted. “The Reagan Administration's offer
of a 6-year, $3.2 billion package of support, divided evenly between economic and
military aid.”5 This assistance package was in a large part designed to meet the needs of
Pakistani air defense upgrades and a large portion of the package went to the procuration
of F-16 fighter jets. The Pakistani ground military was also to be improved by updating
tanks, anti-aircraft missiles, artillery, and attack helicopters. From a Pakistani point of
view there was great benefit in forming an alliance with a superpower that was willing to
provide a means of defense that the Pakistani government could still autonomously
control. The assistance that Pakistan received also helped legitimize Zia Ul-Haq’s
The United States, as a great power with global responsibilities and commitments,
took advantage of Pakistan’s desperate need for military and economic
assistance… in order to have access to Pakistani bases and other vital facilities so
as to expand the scope of it’s policy to contain Soviet expansionism.6
5 Francis Fukuyama, Pakistan since the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan (Carlisle Barracks, PA:
Strategic Studies Institute, U.S. Army War College, 1982), 6.
6 A. Z. Hilali, The costs and benefits of the Afghan war for Pakistan, Contemporary
South Asia 11 (winter 2002), 3.
4
Regarding the controversy surrounding this area in South Asia it is imperative to
recognize the geopolitical qualities that the region holds. It lies between the energy-rich
Persian Gulf and the Asia Pacific, at the convergance of many significant shipping lanes.
South Asia also forms a connection between Europe and Africa to the Far East. “South
Asia has been recognized as a geographical area of major strategic significance through
which pass the routes connecting Europe, Africa and Asia.”7 The United States described
Pakistan as a ‘front-line’ state against the Soviet threat and recognized the importance of
deterring Soviet control in the area. The geopolitical importance that Pakistan held was
one of the primary reasons the US got involved in South Asia, for they needed to retain
The social structure of Pakistan was detrimentally affected by the Soviet invasion
these major outcomes from the Soviet war was the great influx of refugees that Pakistan
received from Afghanistan from the beginning of the invasion in 1979. “Over the next ten
years, as anti-Soviet Mujahadeen fought with Soviet forces, about 3.9 million Afghan
refugees settled in Pakistan, putting pressure on its meager resources.”8 They settled in
386 camps along the Northern borders of Pakistan, brining with them livestock, vehicles,
weapons, drugs, and many other things that caused a disturbance in the social structure of
Pakistan.
7
A. Z. Hilali, US-Pakistan Relationship: Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan.14.
8
Yasmeen N. Mohiuddin, Pakistan: a global studies handbook (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO,
2007), 28.
5
A significant cause of increased violence in the social structure of Pakistan, due to
the Soviet war to the north, was the distribution of Mujahideen weapons, provided by the
US, into Pakistani society. Through US weaponry aid, the Mujahideen warriors received
a great sum of AK-47 assault rifles intended for use in combating the Soviet forces.
These rifles and other weapons were smuggled into Pakistan by the Mujahideen and sold
for nominal prices to Pakistani civilians. “Undoubtly, ethnic and sectarian clashes and
organized crimes are the direct result of weaponization of Pakistani society which
resulted in the gradual militarization of the society over the past two decades.”9 Due to
the great influx of weaponry used in the Soviet war in Afghanistan, a great amount of
violence broke out throughout Pakistan, which has since resulted in the gradual
militarization of the nation’s society. This violence in the social structure of Pakistan can
United States.
Environmentally, the area that the refugees settled also suffered because of an
increased number of livestock feeding on inadequate and fragile pastureland. “The United
Nations High Commissioner for Refugees estimates that Afghans brought with them
45,000 camels and 25,000 donkeys for commercial purposes.”10 This great influx of
livestock not only caused major damage to the ecology of green areas but also caused
resentment among the locals, who saw the incoming refugees as invasive. In addition to
damaging grazing pastureland, Afghan refugees also had a hand in deforestation and
erosion. Refugees caused a great change in the landscape by cutting down trees for
9
Abdul Nasir Dotani, The Impact of Afghan crisis on Pakistani Society since 1979 till date
(Kyoto, Japan: Graduate School of Global Studies, Doshisha University, September 18-19, 2011), 4.
10
A. Z. Hilali, The costs and benefits of the Afghan war for Pakistan. 8.
6
firewood for cooking and heating, causing erosion that lead to serious landslides, which
Pakistan. Locals who realized these environmental repercussions from the northern
exodus showed indignation toward the Afghan refugees, creating much social division.
Another socially destructive element of the Afghan war that affected Pakistan was
throughout Pakistani society. “In order to generate revenue for sustenance of war against
USSR, the Afghan warring factions resorted to poppy cultivation and drug trafficking.”11
The narcotic sales created a drug mafia in the bordering areas of Pakistan, making heroin
gradually accessible throughout the whole country. “By 1987-88 the drug trade was
earning at least $4 billion a year- more foreign exchange than all Pakistan legal exports
Pakistan to spike, being higher than ever before as narcotics became gradually available
across all of Pakistan. The introduction of drugs and a drug culture in Pakistan due to the
means of generating financial support to resist the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan had
adverse effects on Pakistan’s social structure, adding to the negative consequences that
by General Zia and encouraged by the US, was promoted as a religious weapon against
the Soviet Union. Zia effectively promoted the Islamisation of Pakistan by directing
resources toward their sect, in hopes that the opposing ideologies of Islam and the Soviet
11
Abdul Nasir Dotani, The Impact of Afghan crisis on Pakistani Society since 1979 till date. 4.
12
A. Z. Hilali, The costs and benefits of the Afghan war for Pakistan. 13.
7
Union would act as a resistance. “Pakistan-based Deobandi Sunni organisations and
madrassas began to receive weapons and funding from Saudi Arabia and the U.S. in order
to provide support and training for Sunni Afghan fighters in the context of the anti-Soviet
jihad in Afghanistan.”13 The conflict between Sunni and Shia communities in Pakistan
has since claimed thousands of lives, adding to the many destructive effects of the war so
far. Even after the withdrawal of Soviet forces in Afghanistan Sunni-Shia clashes
traditional religious institutions and Zia’s Islamisation of Pakistani society injected the
insidious poisons of religious sectarianism, fanaticism and bigotry into the country,
pitting sect against sect and region against region.”14 The sectarian clashes invoked by
fanaticism, created a destructive social culture throughout Pakistan, adding to the many
consider the security of its nations borders and sought economic assistance to ensure its
fluctuations, as the country received foreign financial aid. Throughout the Soviet invasion
overall motivation to encourage the nation to resist communist influence in the area. The
Zia regime attracted a large amount of assistance and “by 1985 Pakistan had become the
fourth largest recipient of US bilateral military assistance… with the approval of the $7.4
13
Raza Rumi, The Rise of Violent Sectarianism, Extremism Watch: Mapping Conflict Trends in
Pakistan (Islamabad: Jinnah Institute, 2011), 3.
14
A. Z. Hilali, The costs and benefits of the Afghan war for Pakistan. 15.
8
billion military and economic aid package.”15 The assistance led to some significant
progressions in economic development, but most of all provided the country with a
Although Pakistan had received the assistance packages primarily to increase its
defense capabilities, the aid also allowed the country to develop economically. Among
some of the domestic improvements that were contributed to, irrigation and farm water
supply improved the agriculture industry in Pakistan. “USAID provided $954.2 million in
development aid to Pakistan and $205 million for the development of energy and
management projects.” 16 The United States also played a role in promoting needed
credits from the International Monetary Fund and securing loans for Pakistan from the
World Bank. From an economic perspective the Soviet conflict brought a much-needed
The Soviet military invasion proved to be a ‘good war’ and seemed a welcome
relief to Pakistan because it brought the West promptly to Pakistan’s rescue, with
promises of renewed economic and military assistance and a boost to the
country’s declining prestige.17
The foreign aid that Pakistan received helped spur economic growth and domestic
developments. Pakistan was able to make some socio-economic progress through foreign
aid, but benefitted far more in areas of national defense than anything else.
Although there was some economic progress that resulted in foreign aid to
Pakistan the majority of the funds it received was put towards “imports of consumer
15
Arshad Zaman, Economic relations between Pakistan and United States: aid, trade and North-
South issues (Berkely, California: Universtiy of California), 1988. 2.
16
Dilara Chowdhury, "Major Powers Involvement in South Asia," BIISS Journal 7 (1986): 329.
17
A. Z. Hilali, The costs and benefits of the Afghan war for Pakistan. 3.
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goods rather than education, health and rural development.”18 During the Zia regime the
defense, while other economic components suffered a loss of support. For instance
“between 1982-88 the share of expenditure on education and health fell from 2.1% of the
gross national product to 1.5%.”19 Development continued to suffer as more money was
allocated to the Defense program. The opportunity for Pakistan progress in economic
development soon passed as the majority of its foreign assistance from the US was
withdrawn, as the Soviet force left South Asia. With the withdraw of Soviet troops from
Afghanistan, Pakistan was no longer seen as an important state in the superpower battle
deterrence of communist influence in South Asia. After bringing to light the many
consequences Pakistan faced from the invasion, it can be determined how the nation was
affected during this event. Politically, Pakistan’s interests aligned with those of the
This collaboration, however, drew Pakistan into a great involvement with the war,
refugees fled to Pakistan, bringing with them the adverse properties of war, that included
weapons, drugs, sectarianism, and a great deal of violence. These factors brought
beneficial foreign aid packages that helped it gain legitimate defense capabilities and
18
A. Z. Hilali, The costs and benefits of the Afghan war for Pakistan. 17.
19
Omar Norman, Political Economy of Pakistan (London, England: Oxford University Press,
1994), 35.
10
absolve some foreign debt. Despite some of these economic benefits the majority of
consequences that ensued the Soviet conflict in Afghanistan caused a great deal of
11
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Chowdhury, Dilara. "Major Powers Involvement in South Asia" BIISS Journal 7 (1986):
327-31.
Coll, Steve. Ghost wars: the secret history of the CIA, Afghanistan, and
Bin Laden, from the Soviet invasion to September 10, 2001. New York:
Penguin Press, 2004.
Dotani, Abdul Nasir. The Impact of Afghan crisis on Pakistani Society since 1979 till
date. Kyoto, Japan: Graduate School of Global Studies, Doshisha University,
September 18-19, 2011
Hilali, A. Z. “The costs and benefits of the Afghan war for Pakistan,” Contemporary
South Asia 11 (winter 2002): 3.
Malik, Hafeez. Soviet-American relations with Pakistan, Iran, and Afghanistan. New
York: St. Martin's Press, 1987.
Mohiuddin, Yasmeen Niaz. Pakistan: a global studies handbook. Santa Barbara, CA:
ABC-CLIO, 2007.
Rumi, Raza. The rise of violent sectarianism, Extremism Watch: Mapping Conflict
Trends in Pakistan. Islamabad, Pakistan: Jinnah Institute, 2011.
Zaman, Arshad. Economic relations between Pakistan and United States: aid, trade and
North-South issues. Berkely, California: Universtiy of California, 1988.
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