1.

Describe the main regions of the vertebrate brain

The vertebrate brain has three main regions. These are called the rhombencephalon (hindbrain),
the mesencephalon (midbrain), and the prosencephalon (forebrain).
The hindbrain controls reflex responses and regulates involuntary behaviors (i.e., breathing and
maintenance of body position). The midbrain is mainly involved in coordinating visual, auditory,
and sensory information from touch and pressure receptors (although in mammals it acts largely
as a routing center than an integrating center). The forebrain is involved in processing olfactory
information, integrating it with other sensory information, and regulating functions such as body
temperature, reproduction, eating, sleeping, and emotion. The forebrain is also involved in
learning and memory, and performs other complex processing tasks.

2. Compare and contrast the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems

Both the sympathetic and the parasympathetic nervous systems are branches of the autonomic
nervous system. The sympathetic nervous system is most active during periods of stress or
physical activity, whereas the parasympathetic nervous system is most active during periods of
rest. They act together to maintain homeostasis. However, their anatomies differ. First, most
sympathetic pathways originate in the thoracic and lumbar regions of the spinal cord, while most
of the parasympathetic pathways originate either in the hindbrain or in the sacral region of the
spinal cord. Second, sympathetic ganglia are found in a chain that runs close to the spinal cord,
while parasympathetic ganglia are located close to the effector organ. Lastly, In the sympathetic
nervous system, on average, a preganglionic sympathetic neuron forms synapses with 10 or more
postganglionic neurons. In contrast, in the parasympathetic system, an average preganglionic
neuron forms synapses with three or fewer postganglionic neurons.

3. Differentiate monosynaptic reflex arc from a polysynaptic reflex arc

a monosynaptic reflex arc contains only a single neuron-to-neuron synapse in the chain from
sensory neuron to effector neuron. A monosynaptic reflex arc may contain more than two
neurons, as long as there is only one neuron-to-neuron synapse along any path from the stimulus
to the response. polysynaptic reflex arcs, because they contain synapses between more than two
types of neurons. A simple polysynaptic reflex arc includes a sensory cell, an afferent sensory
neuron, an interneuron, an efferent neuron, and an effector cell.

4. Compare and contrast grey matter and white matter

White matter is made up of bundles of axons and their associated myelin sheaths, while gray
matter is composed of neuronal cell bodies and dendrites. In the spinal cords of vertebrates, the
white matter is located at the surface, and the gray matter is located inside.

5. Differentiate the nervous systems of cnidarians from other animals

Cnidarians have a nerve net, unlike the other animals. The neurons of the nerve net can act as
sensory neurons, interneurons, or efferent neurons, and can communicate synaptically at several
points along their length.

6. Give evidence that long-term potentiation is involved in learning and memory in mammals
 Various studies in mammals have been conducted to prove that long-term potentiation is involved
in learning and memory formation. Scientists have trained rats and mice to locate a hidden
platform in the murky water by repetitively making it find the hidden platform. At first, the rats
randomly swam until they reach the platform and stay there. Upon repetition, the rats have
learned to find the platform quickly by remembering its location. A rat with a damaged
hippocampus (where long-term potentiation is easiest to demonstrate) cannot learn to
remember where the platform is.

7. What is the importance of the phenomenon of basal tone in the autonomic nervous system?

Basaltonic activity is important in maintaining homeostasis, because it makes the sympathetic and
parasympathetic neurons able to produce action potentials even under resting conditions. The
increase and decrease in the action potential frequency can alter the response of the target organ.

8. Describe how hypothalamus regulates sleep-wake cycles

In mammals, the balance between the activities of arousal and sleep centers determines the state
of wakefulness. The arousal centers are found in regions in the brainstem and the hypothalamus.
It sends signals to the cortex to stimulate alertness. On the other hand, sleep centers are
specifically located in the region of the hypothalamus called the ventrolateral preoptic nucleus
(VLPO). VLPO uses the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA to decrease the activity in the regions of
hypothalamus and cortex, which makes us feel sleepy. The arousal and the sleep center exhibit
mutual inhibition. When the sleep center is active, it inhibits the activity of the arousal center,
and when the arousal center is active, it inhibits VLPO. This allows us to transition from waking
and sleeping with intermediate states.

9. What is the significance of the topographic organization of the cortex?

The first principle is that topographic maps represent their relevant sensory or motor dimensions
continuously and completely. The second principle is that topographic and anatomical boundaries
align with one another.

This arrangement echoes the concept of labeled lines, where different nerves using the same
physiological principles in transmitting impulses along their axons can generate different
sensations, and applies to the visual cortex, the auditory cortex, the somatosensory cortex, and
the motor cortex. Topographic maps represent their relevant sensory or motor dimensions
continuously and completely.
10. How does a neural circuit form a pattern generator?

The brainstem sends a signal to the spinal cord central pattern generator. The central pattern
generator then sends a rhythmic motor output signal to skeletal muscles. Sensory feedback from
proprioceptors and vision travels to the pattern generator, the cerebellum, and the cerebral
cortex (via the thalamus), modifying the output of the central pattern generator.

11. How are the delicate tissues of the brain and spinal cord protected in vertebrates?

Several protective layers of connective tissue called the meninges surround the brain and spinal
cord. Within the meninges, the brain and spinal cord float in a plasma-like fluid called
cerebrospinal fluid, which acts as a shock absorber and cushions the delicate tissues of the central
nervous system. The vertebrate CNS is also physiologically separated from the rest of the body.
The blood-brain barrier, which is formed by tight junctions between the endothelial cells lining
the brain capillaries, prevents materials from leaking out of the bloodstream and into the central
nervous system via paracellular pathways.

12. Compare and contrast the somatic and autonomic nervous systems

Somatic nervous system is responsible for the voluntary control of the body movements. It
controls the skeletal muscles. Autonomic nervous system acts as the involuntary control system.

somatic and autonomic nervous system are the two major components of PNS, which have the
capability to control the movements of the muscles voluntarily. There are several differences
between the two. First, somatic nervous system can control the voluntary movements, whereas
the autonomic nervous system is involuntary. Compared to the somatic nervous system, the
function of the autonomic nervous system is more complex, because the somatic nervous system
only has a monosynaptic reflex arc. In addition, in vertebrates, somatic nervous system involves
excitatory neurotransmitters, while autonomic nervous system has both excitatory and inhibitory
neurotransmitters. In terms of effectors, autonomic nervous system acts on smooth muscles,
cardiac muscles, and glands whereas somatic nervous system acts always on skeletal muscles.
Lastly, somatic nervous system needs only one efferent neuron while Autonomic nervous system
should have two efferent neurons and ganglia to transmit a signal.

13. Give the significance of the limbic system

The limbic system, which governs emotions, also has a profound effect on the activity of the
autonomic nervous system. Blushing, fainting at the sight of blood, and “butterflies” in the
 stomach are all examples of the response of the autonomic nervous system to emotions. It is
responsible for controlling emotions like anger and fear, regulating eating, hunger and thirst,
responding to pain and pleasure, controlling functioning of the autonomic nervous system,
including things like pulse, blood pressure, breathing and arousal, sensing sexual satisfaction,
controlling aggressive or violent behavior, responding to sensory information, especially sense of
smell.

14. Describe how hypothalamus is able to directly sense the osmolarity of the blood

The hypothalamus is responsible for sensing the external conditions. This region of the brain has
an incomplete blood-brain barrier, allowing hypothalamic neurons to detect plasma conditions,
including circulating hormones. The osmotic condition is detected by a combination of
osmoreceptors and hormone receptors. The osmoreceptors in circumventricular organs monitor
the osmolarity of the cerebrospinal fluid that bathes the hypothalamus.

15. Differentiate habituation and sensitization include the mechanisms

Habituation is a decline in the tendency to respond to a stimulus due to repeated exposure. This
occurs because of functional changes at the synapse between the sensory neuron and the motor
neuron. In short-term habituation, a Ca2+ channel in the membrane of the presynaptic axon
terminal of the sensory neuron is inactivated. Touching the siphon of Aplysia still generates an
action potential in the sensory neuron, but when the action potential reaches the axon terminal,
less Ca2+ flows into the axon terminal, because of the partial inactivation of the voltage-gated Ca2+
channels. Neurotransmitter release depends on the influx of Ca2+ into the axon terminals, and
therefore habituated animals release less neurotransmitter. Long-term habituation results in
similar changes in the presynaptic axon terminal, but to a greater degree.
Sensitization is an increase in the response to a gentle stimulus after exposure to a strong stimulus.
During sensitization, physiological changes occur in the presynaptic axon terminal of the sensory
neuron from the siphon. However, in the case of sensitization there is an increase in Ca2+ entry,
and increased neurotransmitter release, rather than a reduction. The mechanism underlying this
increase in neurotransmitter release involves a second neural circuit: a sensory neuron from the
tail that makes a synaptic connection with several interneurons. In turn, these interneurons make
synaptic connections on the axon terminal of the sensory neuron involved in the gill-withdrawal
response. Serotonin binds to a G-protein-coupled receptor that activates adenylate cyclase, which
catalyzes the formation of the second messenger cAMP. The increase in cAMP activates protein
kinase A (PKA), which phosphorylates voltage-gated K+ channels in the membrane
of the axon terminal, inactivating them.