THERMAL ENGINEERING

TERMS USED:
Bore: Inside diameter of the cylinder

Stroke: The linear distance, measured parallel to the axis of the cylinder between upper and
lower positions of piston (where direction of motion of piston is reversed) is termed as stroke.

Top Dead Centre(TDC): The position of the piston when, during its linear travel is closest
to top of cylinder

Bottom Dead Centre(BDC): The position of piston when during its linear travel is farthest
from top of cylinder

Clearance volume: The volume contained in the cylinder above the top of piston when
piston is at TDC

Piston displacement: The volume swept through by piston in moving between TDC and
BDC

Compression ratio: The ratio of volume when piston is at BDC to volume when the piston
is at TDC is called compression ratio

Air fuel ratio: Weight of air used for a period 't'

Weight of fuel consumed by engine for same time
Lower limit: 7:1 to 10:1, Average operating: 15:1, Upper limit: 20:1

Indicated power: Power is defined as the rate of doing work. The net work obtained from
the PV diagram is the net work produced in the cylinder as measured by an indicator diagram.
This power is termed as indicated power.

Brake power: The power available at the delivery point of the engine crankshaft (termed the
drive shaft) is called brake power, also called shaft power. It is about 15 to 30 % less than
indicated power.
PB = PI - PF

Frictional power: The power absorbed by the engine is referred to as frictional power or
mechanical losses. The mechanical losses may be grouped under
a) friction between cylinder surface and piston rings in bearings, gears valve
mechanisms
b) work of charging absorbed during the exhaust and suction stroke
c) resistance of air to flywheel rotation
d) power required to drive auxiliaries: fuel pumps, governor, lubricating oil, water
circulating pump etc.,

Brake Mean Effective Pressure: It gives the indication of load on the engine
Engine efficiency:
Mechanical efficiency: It is the ratio of brake power to indicated power It depends on
design of engine, on piston and rotary speeds on cooling conditions on method of quality and
quantity of lubrication.

Thermal efficiency: It is the ration of PB or PI to the heat energy of fuel supplied during the
same interval of time.

Volumetric efficiency(4 stroke): The ratio of the volume Va of air admitted or air and petrol
vapour mixture admitted to the engine cylinder during suction stroke referred to normal
pressure and temperature to the suction volume of piston that is equal to piston displacement
Vp.

Scavenge efficiency(2 stroke): For 2 stroke engines, volumetric efficiency does not apply.
Only scavenge efficiency is employed. It is a measure of extent to which burnt gases are
removed from the cylinder and the cylinder is filled with fresh air or charge.

Relative efficiency: It is the ratio of the indicated thermal efficiency to the corresponding
ideal air standard efficiency.

Brake specific fuel consumption (Kg/KW.hr): It is the ratio of fuel used in Kg/hr to
the brake power.

Heat balance:
1. Heating value of fuel supplied per unit time is considered as 100 % energy supply.
2. Heat converted to brake power for same interval of time expressed as a percentage of fuel
power.
3. Heat carried by jacket cooling water
4. Heat carried away by exhaust gases
5. Unaccounted loss = FP - ( BP + Heat carried by water + exhaust gases)
Brake power < 30%, Cooling water < 30%, Exhaust gases < 35%,
Remaining - unaccounted loss

CLASSIFICATION OF IC ENGINES
Working Cycle:Four Stroke Engine

Stroke Inlet valve Exhaust Petrol Diesel

valve
1 Suction (TDC to BDC) open closed Fuel & air Air drawn in
drawn
2 Compression (BDC to closed Closed Fuel & air Air
TDC) compressed compressed
Work is done on gas
3 Power (TDC to BDC) closed Closed Spark plug Self ignition
ignition of fuel
Work is done by gas
4 Exhaust (BDC to TDC) closed open Exhaust gas pushed out
COMPARISIONS:
2 Stroke Cycle Engine 4 Stroke Cycle Engine
1 Power obtained in every 2 strokes of Power obtained in every 4 strokes of
piston or 1 revolution of crank shaft piston or 2 revolutions of crank shaft
2 For the same speed and size 2s engine develops more power, more uniform moment
diagram and smaller flywheel
3 The 2 stroke engine can be run in any direction
4 The products of combustion remains more Positive scavenging, so more thermal
time, dilute the charge and develop less efficiency
mean effective pressure

TWO-STROKE CYCLE ENGINE:

Instead of valves, ports are used
There are four operations
1. air or air-fuel induction
2. compression and fuel injection or spark just before end of compression
3. expansion
4. release of exhaust
These operations are completed in 2 strokes(one revolution of crankshaft)

Parameter Petrol Or Spark Ignition Diesel Or Compression Ignition

Engine
1 cycle Otto
2 Introduction of Air and fuel mixed; so
fuel carburetor is necessary and
throttle controls the quantity
of mixture introduced
3 ignition Requires an ignition system;
spark plug to initiate
combustion
4 Compression ratio 5 to 10.5; upper limit is set by
the anti-detonant quality of
fuels
5 weight Lighter
Engine
Diesel
Fuel is introduced directly into
combustion chamber through a
fuel injection nozzle and air is
inducted through air manifold.
Mixing takes place in
combustion chamber
Utilizes conditions of high
temperature and pressure
produced by compression of air
12 to 20; upper limit is set by
the rapidly increasing weight of
engine structure as compression
ratio is further increased
Heavier as it operates at higher
pressures

VALVE TIMING DIAGRAM:

Inlet valve:
Inlet valve opens slightly before TDC because
 Valve is made to open and close very slowly for providing quiet operations
 Timing of opening of inlet valve is necessary to permit this valve to be open sufficiently
during suction stroke
Closing of inlet valve is delayed because
 At high speed, piston will reach end of stroke before complete charge has time to enter
through a small inlet valve opening. Hence less charge is present.
 Moreover, pressure in combustion space is below atmospheric
To avoid it closing is delayed to allow more charge.
Exhaust valve:
Opened before BDC
 Reduces the amount of work done by the piston to remove the gases, but work done by
the gases is reduced. However, an overall gain in output is there because of advancing of
the opening of the exhaust valve

Closing of exhaust valve is delayed beyond TDC

 Increases volumetric efficiency
 Inertia of exhaust gases tends to scavenge the cylinder by carrying out a greater mass of
gas left in the clearance volume.

Timing of valves is also influenced by mechanical problem

 Valve cannot be lifted instantaneously to a desired height, due to acceleration problems
 If opened instantaneously, chance of cam follower losing contact with cam

Compressor
Volumetric efficiency  v = Va/ Vs = Actual volume / Stroke Volume = (V1 - V4)/(V1- V3)
Isothermal efficiency = Ratio of isothermal work to actual work
i = wi / wa.

Methods to improve efficiency

It can be done by reducing the final temperature T2 during compression so that the actual
work approaches more closely to that of isothermal compression.
Spray injection, Water jacketing, Intercooling (multistage), External Fins

Multistage
To minimise the shaft work, the pressure ratio is equal at each stage.
P2/P1 = P3/P2, P2 =  (P3 x P1, )
Intercooler -to reduce the compressor work
Aftercooler-It is used to cool the air before passing to the receiver. This is used to reduce the
size of the receiver and not work done.

Advantageous of multistage :
The workdone per kilogram is decreased by introducing intercooler, Better mechanical
balance , Loss of air due to leakage is less,v is high as Pressure ratio is small , effective
lubrication (low temperature range)