Egyptian Journal of Petroleum xxx (2017) xxx–xxx

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Egyptian Journal of Petroleum

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Study on the characteristics of palm oil–biodiesel–diesel fuel blend q

R. El-Araby a, Ashraf Amin a, A.K. El Morsi b,⇑, N.N. El-Ibiari a, G.I. El-Diwani a
a
Chemical Engineering & Pilot Plant Department, National Research Centre, El Buhouth St., Dokki, Egypt
b
Egyptian Petroleum Research Institute, EPRI, Cairo, Egypt

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Palm oil/palm oil methyl esters are blends with diesel fuel, the blends were characterized as an alterna-
Received 26 January 2017 tive fuels for diesel engines. Density, kinematic viscosity, and flash point were estimated according to
Revised 5 March 2017 ASTM as key fuel properties. Palm oil and palm oil biodiesel were blended with diesel. The properties
Accepted 12 March 2017
of both blends were estimated. The results showed that the fuel properties of the blends were very close
Available online xxxx
to that of diesel till 30% unless other characteristics are within the limits. The experimental data were
correlated as a function of the volume fraction of oil/biodiesel in the blend. Different correlations were
Keywords:
developed to predict the properties of the oil/bio-oil-diesel blends based on our experimental results.
Palm
Diesel
The developed correlations were validated by comparing the correlation prediction with experimental
Bio-oil data in literature. A good agreement was found between modeled equations prediction and experimental
Mixed oil data in literature. The developed equations can be used as a guide for determining the best blending mix-
Viscosity ture to be used for diesel engines.
Density Ó 2017 Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of Egyptian Petroleum Research Institute. This is
Flash point an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

1. Introduction deposits observed with diesel/vegetable oil mixture on combustion

It is important to find an alternative fuels to replace fossil fuels
based on renewable and natural sources like vegetable oil and fats
[1]. Oil and fats are composed of 80–90% triglycerides with small
portion of mono and di-glycerides, which contain oxygen in their
structure. Diesel fuels from petroleum sources have chemical
structure different from chemical structure of vegetable oils. A
Diesel fuel has no oxygen compound, it contains carbon and hydro-
gen arranged in straight and/or branched chain structures. Further
research is desired before substituting diesel fuels with vegetable
oils [2,3]. Researchers recognized different complications related
to the use of oil in diesel engine, due to their high viscosity and
low volatility so they form deposits in the fuel injector of the
engine [4–8]. These problems can be solved by dilution, micro
emulsion, pyrolysis, and transesterification [9]. Transesterification
is the reaction of oil with an alcohol in presence of catalyst to form
ester and glycerol. The methyl esters produced by transesterifica-
tion are called biodiesel, which has a low viscosity and high cetane
number [10,11].
Dilution of diesel with vegetable oil is conducted by mixing and
stirring. No negative effect has been observed because of short-
term engine tests using diesel and biodiesel blends. The carbon
Peer review under responsibility of Egyptian Petroleum Research Institute.
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: drakilakamel158@yahoo.co.uk (A.K. El Morsi).
chamber parts are similar to that observed when operating with
100% diesel fuel [11–16].
Clark et al. [17]reported that rapeseed methyl esters of soy-
bean and other seed oils showed a similar performance to diesel
fuel in diesel engines. Peterson et al. [18] used rapeseed ethyl
esters in truck’s operation and reported that no difficulties or
unusual behavior was observed. Peterson et al. [19] mentioned
that the biodiesel can be used in a blend with diesel fuel in a die-
sel engines.
However, the properties of oil/biodiesel–diesel blends fuels are
changing as a function of volume fraction of oil/biodieselin mix-
ture. There are several key properties, which need to be character-
ized before using oil/biodiesel–diesel fuel blends in a diesel engine.
These properties are kinematic viscosity, density, and flash point of
the blend [2]. It is important to figure out if the properties of the
blended fuel meet the standard properties of diesel fuel require-
ments. To better predict fuel properties, mixing rules are devel-
oped as a function of oil/biodiesel volume fraction in the blend
[20].
This paper provides an experimental determination of den-
sity, viscosity and flash point for palm oil, palm oil biodiesel
and their blends with diesel fuel. The aim of this work is to
develop mixing rules to calculate the essential properties of
palm oil, palm oil biodiesel and their blends with diesel fuel
as a function of diesel content based on experimental values of
blended fuel properties.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpe.2017.03.002
1110-0621/Ó 2017 Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of Egyptian Petroleum Research Institute.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

Please cite this article in press as: R. El-Araby et al., Study on the characteristics of palm oil–biodiesel–diesel fuel blend, Egypt. J. Petrol. (2017), http://dx.
doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpe.2017.03.002
2 R. El-Araby et al. / Egyptian Journal of Petroleum xxx (2017) xxx–xxx

2. Materials and methods 2.3. Analysis

2.1. Materials Palm oil/palm oil methyl ester blends with diesel fuel were ana-
lyzed using gas chromatograph/mass spectroscopy with flame ion-
Palm oil and diesel were obtained from local market. All chem- ization detector. The chromatographic analysis was made using
icals (methanol, potassium hydroxide and acetic acid) used in this Hewlett Packard Model 6890 Chromatograph. Detector tempera-
study are analytical grade. ture was 280 °C, injection temperature was 300 °C and the column
temperature was increased from 100 to 240 °C using a ramp rate of
2.2. Biodiesel production 15 °C/min.

Experiments were done in a laboratory scale apparatus. Trans- 2.4. Blend preparation
esterification was carried out in 2000 ml flask equipped with reflux
condenser, thermometer and magnetic stirrer. 1000 ml of oil was Palm oil/palm oil methyl ester was added to diesel at low stir-
heated in the flask to 65 °C. Potassium hydroxide (12.75 gm) was ring rate. The mixture was stirred for 20 min and left to reach equi-
dissolved in (255 ml) of methanol and was added to the heated librium before analysis. Palm oil/palm oil methyl ester was added
oil. After 2 h, the mixture was transferred into separating funnel in volume percentages of 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, and 30%. In order to
to separate the glycerol layer. Esters were washed twice using measure the properties of the oil diesel fuels, the test methods
warm water with 5%acetic acid then with water and left to sepa- were used as follows; Density (ASTM D941), Viscosity (ASTM
rate methyl esters. Then ester was dried at 100 °C to remove excess D445) and Flash point (ASTM D93).
alcohol and water.
3. Results and discussion
Table 1
Chemical composition of palm oil and palm oil methyl ester using GC-MS. Fatty acid profileof palm oil biodiesel islisted in Table 1.
Chemical composition of diesel is shown in Fig. 1.
Palm oil methyl ester [21] Palm oil Fatty acid
Properties of palm oil, palm oil biodiesel and diesel fuel as mea-
0.64 0.190 Lauric (12:0) sured experimentally are presented in Table 3. Properties of palm
1.02 1.01 Myristic (14:0)
oil and palm oil biodiesel are not close to diesel fuel properties,
40.2 38.88 Palmitic (16:0)
42.4 55.86 Oleic (18:1) so mixing is the only way to use palm oil or palm oil biodiesel.
0.08 – Arachidic (20:0) As shown in Table 4, blends properties up to 30% volume fraction
0.36 – Palmitoleic (16:1) of palm oil meet the requirement for diesel fuel.
9.9 – Linoleic (18:2)
In case of transesterification to convert palm oil to palm oil
0.47 – Linolenic (18:3)
4.6 4.07 Stearic (18:0)
methyl ester, it was found that the properties of the palm methyl
0.33 – Gadolic (20:1) ester satisfy the ASTM standards for biodiesel as shown in
Tables 2 and 3. Table 5 showed the properties of palm oil biodiesel.

Fig. 1. Chemical composition of diesel.

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 R. El-Araby et al. / Egyptian Journal of Petroleum xxx (2017) xxx–xxx 3

Table 2 The density, kinematic viscosity, and biodieselflash pointare higher

Comparison of fuel properties according to ASTM [22]. than that of diesel fuel, so mixing is still the key point to utilize
Fuel Property Diesel Biodiesel such biodiesel in diesel engines. Properties of biodiesel with diesel
Fuel composition C10-C21 HC C12-C22 FAME blends up to 30% volume fraction of biodiesel meet the require-
Density @15 °C, g/ml 0.848 0.978 ments of diesel engine fuel.
kin viscosity @40 °C, mm2/s 1.3–4.1 1.9–6
Flash point, °C 60–80 100–170
3.1. Fuel density

Table 3 Experimental results of the density for palm oil, palm oil biodie-
Properties of diesel fuel, palm oil and palm oil biodiesel. sel and their blends with diesel are shown in Figs. 2 and 3. It was
found that as the percentage of blend increases the density
Property Palm oil Palm oil Methyl ester Diesel
increases. The experimental results are correlated as a function of
Density @15 °C, g/ml 0.925 0.877 0.827
oil/biodiesel fraction by using two empirical equations (Kay’s mix-
Kin. Viscosity @40 °C, mm2/s 41 4.56 2.28
Flash point, °C 260 196 64 ing rule Eq. (1) and empirical Eq. (2).

X
k
qblend ¼ yt qt ð1Þ
Table 4 t¼1
Properties of oil with different blends and diesel.

Fuel Density @15 °C g/ Kinematic viscosity @40 °C Flash point, qblend ¼ Ayt þ B ð2Þ
ml mm2/s °C
Where:y is the oil/biodiesel fraction,
Diesel 0.827 2.28 64
A, B are coefficients and q is the density.
B5 0.827 2.48 66
B10 0.835 2.73 69 Using least square method, A and B were calculated for both
B15 0.84 3.06 70 diesel/oil blend and diesel/biodiesel blend as presented in Eqs.
B20 0.845 3.33 72 (3) and (4) respectively. These Equations, developed based on
B30 0.8553 3.4 74 regression analysis using the experimental results, were used to
B100 0.925 41 260
estimate the density. As shown from Figs. 2 and 3, and regression
coefficient R2; for Eq. (1) (0.995, 0.996) and (0.998, 0.996) for Eq.
Table 5
(2) for oil/biodiesel blends respectively, Eqs. (3) and (4) predictions
Properties of methyl esters (Biodiesel) with different blends and diesel. agree well with the experimental data.
Fuel Density @15 °C g/ Kinematic viscosity @40 °C, Flash point, qblend ¼ 0:1yt þ 0:825 ð3Þ
ml mm2/s °C
Diesel 0.827 2.28 64 qblend ¼ 0:05yt þ 0:826 ð4Þ
B5 0.83 2.34 66
B10 0.833 2.49 69
B15 0.834 2.67 70.5 3.2. Fuel kinematic viscosity
B20 0.835 2.82 71.5
B30 0.841 2.85 82.0
B100 0.877 4.56 196 The effect of palm oil/biodiesel content on the kinematic viscos-
ity of the blend is shown in Figs. 4 and 5. It was found that oil/bio-

0.86

0.855

0.85

0.845
Density, g/ml

0.84

0.835

0.83
Experimental

0.825 Model Eq. 1

Model Eq. 3

0.82
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
% Blend
Fig. 2. Variation of blend density of palm oil with diesel fuel.

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4 R. El-Araby et al. / Egyptian Journal of Petroleum xxx (2017) xxx–xxx

0.85

0.845

Density, g/ml 0.84

0.835

0.83 Experimental
Model Eq. 1
Model Eq. 4
0.825
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
% Blend
Fig. 3. Variation of blend density of palm oil biodiesel with diesel fuel.

7
Kinematic Viscosity, mm2/s

2
Experimental
1 5Model Eq
7Model Eq
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
% Blend
Fig. 4. Variation of blend kinematic viscosity of palm oil with diesel fuel.

diesel has a high viscosity and pure diesel has the lowest viscosity. respectively (Eqs. (7) and (8)). The agreement between the mea-
In case of oil blends, the range of viscosity is wider than that of bio- sured values and the calculated values is good as shown in Figs. 4
diesel blending. The experimental data were correlated as func- and 5.
tions of oil/biodiesel fraction by Kay’s mixing rule (Eq. (5)) and
ln lblend ¼ 44:65y2i  3:71yi þ 2:28 ð7Þ
empirical second-degree polynomial (Eq. (6)).

X
k ln lblend ¼ 0:101y2i þ 4:455yi þ 2:28 ð8Þ
ln lblend ¼ yt lnlt ð5Þ
t¼1
3.3. Fuel flash point
ln ublend ¼ Ay2i þ Byi þ C ð6Þ
The flash points of oil and methyl ester are much higher than
2
For Kay’s mixing rule, R equals 0.995 and 0.983 for oil blend diesel fuel as shown in Figs. 6 and 7, it does not change mostly
and biodiesel blend respectively. While for second-degree polyno- up to 30% in case of oil and 20% in case of biodiesel. The experimen-
mial, R2 equals 0.998 and 0.993 for oil blend and biodiesel blend tal data were correlated as a function of oil/biodiesel fraction by

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2.9

2.8

Kinemac Viscosity, mm2/s

2.7

2.6

2.5

2.4

2.3

2.2 Experimental
Model Eq 5
2.1
Model Eq 8
2
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
% Blend

Fig. 5. Variation of blend kinematic viscosity of palm methyl ester with diesel fuel.

150

140
Experimental
130 Model Eq. 9
Model Eq. 11
120
Flash point, ˚C

110

100

90

80

70

60

50
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
% Blend

Fig. 6. Variation of blend flash point of palm oil with diesel fuel.

Kay’s mixing rule (Eq. (9)) and empirical second degree polynomial For mixing rule (Eq. (9)), R2 equals 0.85 and 0.91 for oil blend
(Eq. (10)). and biodiesel blend respectively. While for second-degree polyno-
mial (Eq. (10)), R2 equals 0.998 and 0.999 for oil blend and biodie-
X
k
F blend ¼ yt F t ð9Þ sel blend respectively (corresponding to Eqs. (11) and (12)). The
t¼1 agreement between the measured values and the calculated values
is better in case of second-degree polynomial (Eqs. (11) and (12)).
F blend ¼ Ay2i þ Byi þ C ð10Þ
3.4. Comparison with literature data (Model verification)
By using least square method, the parameters in Eq. (10) were
fitted for diesel/oil blends and for diesel/biodiesel blends as pre-
The developed Eqs. (112) were used to predict the experimental
sented in Eqs. (11) and (12) respectively.
data from literature, by comparing the equations predictions with
published articles discussing mixing of palm bio-oil and diesel. The
F blend ¼ 206:31y2i þ 53:39yi þ 64 ð11Þ
kinematic viscosity changes as a result of mixing palm bio-oil with
diesel are found in Ajiwe et al. [1]. The data is shown below in
F blend ¼ 106:03y2i þ 89:96yi þ 64 ð12Þ Table 6.

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130

Experimental
120
Model Eq. 9
Model Eq. 12
110

Flash point, ˚C 100

90

80

70

60

50
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
% Blend

Fig. 7. Variation of blend flash point of palm methyl ester with diesel fuel.

Table 6 A clear discrepancy is observed in Fig. 8, which is attributed to

Kinematic viscosity in mm2/s as reported in Ajiwe et al. [1] compared to Eqs. (5) and two reasons: the difference between the measured values for die-
(8).
sel and bio-diesel in the cited article and in our experimental data
Bio-oil % in blend Experimental Eq. (5) Eq. (8) as a result of variation in composition depending on the origin of
0 2 2 2.28 palm oil. In addition, a drop in kinematic viscosity is observed with
10 1.4 2.17 2.50 low bio-oil concentration compared to un-blended diesel, which is
20 1.96 2.36 2.72 not the case in our experimental data and in literature [23].
30 2.45 2.56 2.94 Density and flash point values of palm bio-oil and diesel blends
40 3.2 2.79 3.16
50 3.5 3.03 3.39
are found in [23] are shown in Tables 7 and 8 respectively. Eq. (1)
60 3.65 3.29 3.62 shows a better agreement with the experimental data from [23]
70 3.85 3.58 3.85 compared to Eq. (4) as shown in Fig. 9. Since Eq. (4) is developed
80 4.2 3.89 4.08 based on our experimental data, the density of unblended palm
90 4.53 4.23 4.32
bio-oil and diesel reported in our work are quite different from that
100 4.6 4.6 4.55
found in [23].

4.5

4
Kinemac Viscosity, mm2/s

3.5

2.5

1.5
Experimental
1
Model Eq 5
0.5
Model Eq 8
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
% Blend

Fig. 8. Comparison between kinematic viscosity from literature (1) and prediction of Eqs. (5) and (8).

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Table 7 Fig. 10 shows the comparison between experimental data from

Density in g/ml as reported in (23) compared to Eqs. (1) and (4). [23] and Eqs (9) and (12) predictions. A clear discrepancy is
Bio-oil % in blend Experimental Eq. (1) Eq. (4) observed which is attributed to the slight variation in flashpoint
0 0.85 0.85 0.826 values reported in [23].
20 0.862 0.86 0.836
40 0.873 0.87 0.846
60 0.881 0.878 0.856 4. Conclusion
80 0.89 0.888 0.866
100 0.897 0.897 0.876 The objective of this study is to investigate the key properties
(density, kinematic viscosity and flash point) of palm oil, palm oil
Table 8 methyl ester in a blend with diesel fuel. The properties of palm oil/-
Flash point in °C as reported in (23) compared to Eqs. (9) and (12). palm oil biodiesel blends showed that there is no significant differ-
Bio-oil % in blend Experimental Eq. (9) Eq. (12) ence in fuel properties of the blends up to 30% volume of oil/
0 56 56 64 biodiesel of palm oil. The experimental data were correlated as a
20 68 77.6 73.43 function of volume fraction of oil/biodiesel in the blend. Different
40 74 99.2 91.35 correlations were developed to predict the properties of the oil/
60 106 120.8 117.75 bio-oil-diesel blends based on experimental results. The developed
80 132 142.4 152.63
correlations were validated by comparing the correlation predic-
100 164 164 196.00
tion with experimental data in literature. A good agreement was

0.91

0.9

0.89

0.88
Density, g/ml

0.87

0.86

0.85

0.84
Experimental

0.83 Model Eq. 1

Model Eq. 4
0.82
0 20 40 60 80 100
% Blend
Fig. 9. Comparison between density from literature (23) and prediction of Eqs. (1) and (4).

250

200
Flash point, ˚C

150

100

50
Experimental
Model Eq. 9
Model Eq. 12
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
% Blend
Fig. 10. Comparison between flash point from literature (23) and Eqs. (10) and (11).

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8 R. El-Araby et al. / Egyptian Journal of Petroleum xxx (2017) xxx–xxx
found between modeled equations prediction and experimental
data in literature. The developed equations can be used as a guide
for determining the best blending mixture to be used for diesel
engines.
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