SOILS

Soil forming factors:

Weathering of rocks:
 Warm and wet climates cause rapid chemical weathering of rocks/ the parent material.
 This account for the great depth of latosols.
 In tropical areas, there is a high rate of weathering (high temps and plentiful rainfall)
and hence the soils are more mature. This is how the rate and degree of weathering
affects the formation of the soil.
Parent material / rock type:
 Parent material of the soil determined by the geology or rock type such as limestone,
shale or sandstone.
 Weathering of the parent results in regolith which accumulates over the bedrock.
 Influences the texture of the soil, its depth and its material composition, the structure
and the porosity of the soil.
Landform: topography: slope or physical site:
 The lay of the land.
 May be flat, rolling, steep or mountainous.
 In flat land, where run-off is slow and the underground drainage is free, weathered
materials are of a greater depth and hence the soil is more mature (deep).
 On top of slopes, soils are subjected to erosion and mass movement therefore the soil
at the top of a slope is shallow and less mature.
Climate Influences:
 Weathering of rocks greater in high temperatures rather than cooler ones.
 Climate influences soil forming processes such as leaching, percolation, etc. and
therefore affect the translocation of the minerals within the soil.
 Leaching more pronounced in areas of heavy rainfall.
 Climate also influences the type of vegetation forming and the vegetation affects the
humus amount, degree of permeability and the microorganisms in the soil.
 The nature of the soil is highly dependent on the temperature and the climate of the
region.
Biological Influences:
 Microorganisms (such as bacteria) in the soil help with the decay of organic matter.
Humus is made available by this.
 Earthworms, ants and termites bring underlying soil to the surface through their
activities. They also affect the permeability of the soil by digging it up.
Time:
 Influences the degree of maturity of the soil.
  Highly weathered soils (which take a long time to develop) are deep and more mature
as opposed to soils which are immature and not fully weathered.
Characteristics of Soil
Soil structure:
 Refers to the arrangement of the soil particles in aggregates.
 Differing in slope, size, stability and degree of adhesion.

Soil texture:
 Refers to the amount of sand, silt and clay in the soil.
 Depending on the percentage of each, the water retention capability of the soil can be
determined.
Soil profile:
 Vertical arrangement in cross section of the horizons or layers of the soil from the
surface to the bedrock.
 Soils in the tropics are arranged in three horizons:
- A Horizon:
 Upper part of the soil profile.
 Most biologically active layer.
 Zone of leaching.
 High level of humus from leaf litter and dead animals.
- B Horizon:
 Zone of enrichment or deposition.
 Nutrients from A settle here.
 Also known as the subsoil of zone of accumulation.
- C Horizon:
 The parent material comprising of fragmented bed rock,
sand and gravel.
 Unweathered rock/material.
Soil forming processes:
Leaching:
 The downward percolation of water and minerals in solution through the soil pores
from the A horizon where it is removed to the B horizon, the zone of deposition.
 Eluviation (exiting):
 The removal by leaching of materials such as organic
matter, colloids and bases in solution.
  Illuviation (into):
 The redeposition of leached materials from the A
horizon to the B horizon. These materials form a hard
pan.

Capillary Action:
 The upward movement of water in the soil via plant roots because they need the
water.
 When the rate of evapo-transpiration exceeds the rate of precipitation, capillary action
draws water up the roots for the plant to use.
Percolation:
 The ability of the soil to absorb water.
Through Flow:
 The horizontal flow of water within the soil.
 Takes place when the soil is completely saturated with water.
Benefits of Humus:
 Provides a catalyst in chemical reactions by which plants can extract nutrients from
the soil.
 Restores minerals to the soil.
 Improves the soil texture, making it more loose and crumbly.
 Enables the soil to retain water.
 Serves as a source of food for the microorganisms that live in the soil.
Soils of the equatorial regions:
Laterite soils:
 Mature zonal (influenced by climate) soils found in equatorial regions.
 Dependent on climate and vegetation rather than parent rock.
Characteristics of Laterite soils:
 Formed in hot and humid regions with average temperatures of 270C, heavy abundant
rainfall and forest vegetation.
 Thin humus/ organic layer due to high level of leaching and eluviation because of the
heavy and plentiful rainfall.
 Rapid run-off also causes a thin top layer.
 Humus constantly supplied due to the temperature and rainfall. There is a lot of leaf
litter and the microorganisms thrive in hot conditions, hence they decompose dead
matter at a faster rate, therefore more humus.
 Soil is well drained, loose and crumbly.
 The soil is not acidic.
Properties of Laterite soils:
 The soil is permeable and friable mineral particles from the A horizon such as silica
and alkalis are leached into the B horizon.
 Insoluble compounds such as iron and aluminum are not leached into the B horizon,
hence producing a reddish hue in the A horizon.
 Hard pans: the B horizon is able to retain so much water that it becomes compact or
hardened. Mineral elements such as silica and iron are cemented together to form hard
pan.
 Laterite soils are usually poor and infertile because they are leached so quickly and
constantly. Cultivation can also be difficult when the hard pan is exposed.
Soil profile of Laterite soils:
- A Horizon:
 Thick leaf litter above it.
 Depth of 0 – 10 cm.
 Thin layer of humus despite the rapid rate of decomposition.
- B Horizon:
 Depth of 15 – 180 cm.
- C Horizon:
 The parent material from which the soil develops.
Summary of the characteristics of Laterite soils:

Soil Characteristics Reason Factor

Thin layer of humus Leaching and eluviation caused by heavy and - climate
abundant rainfall cause the humus layer to bet thin. - biological
Rapid surface run-off also aids in this. /biotic
Due to the high temperatures, decomposers break
down the humus are a quick rate.

Thick leaf litter Due to the lack of growth in the forest floor, plants - climate
can’t grow there. - biological
The taller trees shed leaves and they accumulate on
the forest floor. The vegetation, of large evergreen
trees contributes to this.

Lack of distinct The soil is well drained, crumbly and loose due to - climate
horizons the leaching and eluviation caused by the rainfall.
The horizons merge into each other due to the
leaching form the A to B horizon.

Formation of hard pan Because the B horizon is able to retain a lot of - climate
water and minerals such as iron, aluminum clay and (affects
silica, the soil there becomes hard and compact leaching)
forming hard pan. This is caused due to leaching.

Deep soil Due to the degree of weathering and the parent - parent
material. The soil extends from 2-3 m as they material
consist of three horizons. - chemical
weathering
Red colour of A horizon Sesquioxides of iron and aluminum are insoluble - parent
and hence they are not leached, giving the A material (
horizon that red color. will leave
minerals in
soil)