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R I C H A R D T. E A R N H A R T
Chapter I
Plane Figures
Point, line, and plane are undefined terms in geometry. Using these undefined
terms, other geometric figures are defined. Plane geometry is the study of
geometric figures that can be drawn on a two-dimensional surface called
plane. Figures that lie on a plane are called two-dimensional figures or simply
plane figures. This chapter deals with different plane figures, and their
properties, relations, and measurement. The most common plane figures are
the polygons.
Example 1
A 54-sided polygon is called a pentacontakaitetragon.
50 and 4
pentaconta kai tetragon
Example 2
A 532-sided polygon is called a pentahectatriacontakaidigon.
500 30 and 2
pentahecta triaconta kai digon
The ratio of two quantities is the quotient of one quantity divided by another quantity.
Note, however, that the two quantities must be of the same kind. For example, the ratio
of the measure of a side and an interior angle is meaningless because they are not
quantities of the same kind. A proportion is an expression of equality between two
ratios. That is, if two ratios a:b and c:d are equal, then the equation a/b=c/d is a
proportion. Thus, you can say that a and b are proportional to c and d.
Two polygons are similar if their corresponding interior angles are congruent and their
corresponding sides are proportional. Similar polygons have the same shape but differ in
size.
The following relations between the two polygons are obtained using the
concept of ratio and proportion:
1. The ratio of any two corresponding sides of similar polygons are equal.
x1 y1
x2 y 2
3. The ratio of the perimeters of similar polygons is equal to the ratio of any of
any two corresponding sides.
P1 x1
P2 x2
θ/2
Perimeter
To find a perimeter of a polygon, add the lengths of the sides of the polygon.
Since regular polygons are equilateral, the formula in finding the perimiter
of a regular polygon is
P = ns,
In each isosceles triangle, the measure of the base angles can be denoted by Φ, and
each interior angle of the regular polygon by 2Φ. Thus, the measure of each interior angle
is solved as follows:
2 180
360 Φ Φ Φ Φ
180
n θ
180 n 2
n
Thus,
180 n 2
I . A.
n
Since the number of sides equals the number of interior angles, then the sum of
interior angles is n times the measure of the interior angle. Hence,
S .I . A 180 n 2
Diagonal
From any given vertex of a regular polygon, a diagonal is drawn from the
vertex to a non-adjacent vertex. This means that you can construct a diagonal
from each vertex of a polygon with n sides in n – 3 ways. Since there are n
𝑛
vertices and each diagonal has two end points, you can do this in only 2 ways.
Thus, the total number of distinct diagonals of a regular polygon is
𝑛
𝐷= (𝑛 − 3)
2
Area is the amount of two dimensional space that a plane figure occupies. To
get the area of a regular polygon, multiply the area of the isosceles triangle by
𝑠
the number of triangles formed, or 𝐴 = 2 (𝑎)(𝑛).
Note that this is the same as one half of the product of its perimeter and its
apothem. In general, the formula of a regular polygon is given by
1
𝐴= Pa
2
The formula for area of a regular polygon can be expressed in terms of its
number of sides and the measure of one side as follows:
1
𝐴 = 𝑃𝑎
2
1 𝑠
= 2 𝑛𝑠 180°
2𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑛
𝑛𝑠 2
𝐴=
180°
4𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑛
The most fundamental subset of polygons is the set of triangles. Although triangles
are polygons with the least number of sides, these polygons are widely used in the
field of mathematics and engineering. In this section, some important formulas
which are used extensively in solving geometric problems will be introduced.
60°
60° 60° θ θ
Congruent Triangles
The word congruent is derived from the Latin word congruere which means
agree. Two triangles are congruent when they have the same shape and size.
Congruent triangles can be made to coincide part by part. Corresponding parts of
congruent triangles are congruent. The symbol for congruence is ≅
Two triangles are similar if their corresponding sides are proportional. Similar
triangles have the same shape but differ in size. Look at the similar triangles
below.
a1 a2 c2
c1
b2
b1
Since the two triangles are similar, then the relations that exist between two
similar polygons also hold. Thus, it follows that:
𝑎1 𝑏 𝑐
a) = 1= 1
𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐1
𝐴1 𝑎1 2 𝑏1 2 𝑐1 2
b) 𝐴2
= 𝑎 = 𝑏 = 𝑐2
2 2
𝑃1 𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1
c) 𝑃2
= = =
𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐1
A triangle has three possible bases and three possible vertices. Any of the three
sides of a triangle may be considered as the base of the triangle. The angle
opposite the base is called vertex angle. The two angles adjacent to the base are
called base angles.
A line segment drawn from a vertex perpendicular to the opposite side is called
altitude. The point of intersection of the altitudes of a triangle is called
orthocenter. A median of a triangle is the line segment connecting the
midpoint of a side and the opposite vertex. The centroid is the point of
intersection of the medians of a triangle. An angle bisector divides an angle of
the triangle into two congruent angles and has endpoints on a vertex and the
opposite side. The point of intersection of the angle bisectors of a triangle is
called incenter. A
A/2 A/2
Incenter
Orthocenter Centroid
B/2 C/2
C/2
B B/2 C
Altitudes Angle Bisectors
Medians
Solid Mensuration: Understanding the 3D Space Richard T. Eanhart
A perpendicular bisector of a side of a triangle divides the side into two
congruent segments and is perpendicular to the side. The circumcenter is the
point of intersection of the perpendicular bisectors of the sides of a triangle. The
Euler line is the line which contains the orthocenter, centroid, and circumcenter of a
triangle. The centroid is located between the orthocenter and the circumcenter.
However, in an equilateral triangle, the centroid, circumcenter, incircle, and
orthocenter are coincident.
Orthocenter
Circumcenter Centroid
Circumcenter
Euler Line
Perpendicular Bisectors
Consider an arbitrary triangle with sides a, b, and c, and angles A, B, and C/ Let hc,
mc and Ic be the lengths of the altitude, median, and angle bisector from vertex C,
respectively. Then, C
b a
2
𝑠(𝑠;𝑎)(𝑠;𝑏)(𝑠;𝑐) hc
Altitude: 𝑐 = ,
𝑐
A B
c
C
𝑎:𝑏:𝑐
Where s is the semi-perimeter of the triangle and 𝑠 = ,
2
Median: 1 b a
𝑚𝑐 = 2𝑎2 + 2𝑏2 − 𝑐 2 mc
2
A
c B
C
𝑎𝑏 𝑎 + 𝑏 2 − 𝑐 2 b a
Angle Bisector: 𝐼𝑐 = mc
𝑎+𝑏
A
c B
Solid Mensuration: Understanding the 3D Space Richard T. Eanhart
Facts About Triangles
1. The sum of the lengths of any two sides of a triangle is always greater than the
third side. The difference between the lengths of any two sides is always less the
third side of a triangle.
2. The sum of the measures of the interior angles of a triangle is 180˚.
3. Two equiangular triangles are similar.
4. Two triangles are similar if their corresponding sides are parallel. Two triangles
are similar if their corresponding sides are perpendicular.
5. In any right triangle, the longest side opposite the right angle is called
hypotenuse.
6. If any two sides of a right triangle are given, the third side can be obtained by the
Pythagorean Theorem c2=a2+b2.
7. Two triangles are equal if the measures of the two sides and the included angle
of one triangle are equal to the measures of the two sides and the included angle
of the other triangle.
8. The line segment which joins the midpoints of two sides of a triangle is parallel
to the third side and equal to one-half the length of the third side.
9. In any triangle, the longest side is opposite the largest angle, and the shortest
side is opposite the smallest angle.
p
c
𝑎 = 𝑐𝑝
In general, the area of any triangle is one-half the product of its base and
its altitude.
1
𝐴 = 𝑏
2
To solve for the area of a triangle given the measures of two sides and an
included angle, use the SAS formula.
SAS (Side-Angle-Side) Formula
a
1
𝐴 = 𝑎𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜃
2 b
The area of a triangle is one-half the product of any two sides and
the sine of their included angle.
A C
b
𝑎:𝑏:𝑐
Where 𝑠 = is called the semi-perimeter.
2
The measures of the three sides of a triangle are AB = 30 in., AC = 50 in., and BC =
60in.. From a point D on side AB, a line DE is drawn through a point E on side AC
such that angle AED is equal to angle ABC. If the perimeter of the triangle ADE is
equal to 56 in., find the sum of the lengths of line segments BD and CE.
Solution:
Draw the figure and label the parts with the given measures.
D 60
30
𝜃
A E C
50
56 𝐴𝐷
= → 𝐴𝐷 = 20
140 50
56 𝐴𝐸
= → 𝐴𝐸 = 12
140 30
𝐵𝐷 = 30 − 𝐴𝐷 𝐸𝐶 = 50 − 𝐴𝐸
= 30 − 20 = 50 − 12
= 10 = 38
Hence, BD + EC = 10 + 38 = 48 in.
𝑠 2
= 𝑠2 −
2 s
h
3 60˚
= 𝑠 𝑠
2
2
Since each interior angle measures 60°, use the SAS formula to find the
area of the triangle.
1 2
𝐴 = 𝑠 sin 60°
2
1 3
= 𝑠2
2 2
3 2
= 𝑠
4
Solution:
Imagine the side of the length 20 units as the base of the triangle. Thus,
the sum of the lengths of the other two sides is P – 20 = 52 units. Since the area of
the triangle is maximum when the height is also maximum, the triangle is isosceles
and the two sides measure 26 units each. By Pythagorean Theorem,
= 262 − 102 = 24
1 26
h
26
𝐴 = 𝑏
2
1
= 2 20 24
10 10
= 240 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
𝑎2 = 𝑏2 + 𝑐 2 − 2𝑏𝑐 cos 𝐴 A
𝑐 𝑐 B
𝑏2 = 𝑎 2 + 𝑐 2 − 2𝑎𝑐 cos 𝐵 2 2
𝑐2 𝑐2
𝑎2 : ;𝑚2 𝑏2 : ;𝑚2
4 4
𝑐=𝑎 +𝑏
𝑎𝑐 𝑏𝑐
1
𝑚 = 2 2𝑎2 + 2𝑏2 − 𝑐 2
A B
F
19. In triangle ABC, E is the midpoint of AC and D is the midpoint of CB. If DF is
parallel to BE, find the length of side AB.
F
4 3
C 5 D B
21. The two sides of a triangle are 17 cm and 28 cm long, and the length of the
median drawn to the third side is equal to 19.5 cm. Find the distance from an
endpoint of this median to the longest side.
Quadrilateral
A B
h (height)
D C
b (base)
𝑑 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 − 2𝑎𝑏 cos 𝜃
A B
a d
h a
h
𝜃 𝜃
D b C
If any two parts of the parallelogram are given, the relationship among a, h, and
𝜃 may be obtained from the right triangle. Using the other angle 180° − 𝜃, the
second diagonal may be obtained by the same formula.
𝑃 = 2𝑎 + 2𝑏
Area of a Parallelogram
The area of a parallelogram can be obtained by any of the following
formulas:
Formula 1: 𝐴 = 𝑏,
where b is the length of the base, and h is the height.
Formula 2: 𝐴 = 𝑎𝑏 sin 𝜃
where a and b are the lengths of the sides of the parallelogram and θ is any interior
angle.
RECTANGLE
A rectangle is essentially a parallelogram in which the interior angles are
all right angles. Since a rectangle is a parallelogram, all of the properties of a
parallelogram also hold for a rectangle. In addition to these properties, the
diagonals of a rectangle are equal. However, the sides are not necessarily all equal.
A B
D b C
Perimeter of a Rectangle
The perimeter is the sum of the four sides. Thus,
𝑃 = 2𝑏 + 2.
Area of a Rectangle
If b is the length of the base and h is the height, then the formula for the
area of a rectangle is
A=bh
a d
a
Diagonal of a Square
The steps in finding the diagonal of a square is similar to the steps used in
a rectangle. Thus, 𝑑 = 𝑎2 + 𝑎2 = 𝑎 2, where a is the length of one side of the
square.
𝑑=𝑎 2
Note that, if the length of the diagonal is given, one can always compute for the
length of the sides of the square using the same formula.
Since all the sides of a square are equal, it is also possible to provide a
simple formula for the perimeter of the square. Thus, the simplified form of the
perimeter is
𝑃 = 4𝑎
Area of a square
𝐴 = 𝑎2.
where d2 is the longer diagonal and θ is the angle opposite the shorter diagonal.
𝜃 𝜃
𝒃−𝒂
𝟐
b
In the trapezoid shown above, the parallel sides a and b are called bases and h is the
height or the perpendicular distance between the two bases. If the non-parallel sides
are congruent, the trapezoid is called an isosceles trapezoid. The base angles of
an isosceles trapezoid are also congruent. One can observe that the relationship
among the sides, height, and base angles of an isosceles trapezoid may be obtained
from the right triangle formed by constructing a line from one vertex perpendicular
to the opposite side (lower base).
b-a
b
Area of a Trapezoid
The area of a trapezoid is equal to the product of the mean of the bases
and the height. In symbols, the area is given by the formula
1
𝐴 = 2 𝑎 + 𝑏 h.
The median of a trapezoid is the line segment parallel to and midway between the
𝑎:𝑏
bases of the trapezoid. Thus, 𝑚 = 2 and A=mh.
Example 8
Find the area and perimeter of a square whose diagonal is 15 units long.
a
First find the length of a side of the square
15 using the formula 𝑑 = 𝑎 2. Thus, the
a
measure of the side of the square is
15 2
𝑎= units.
2
Therefore, the area is A=112.5 square units and the perimeter is 𝑃 = 30 2, or 42.43
units.
The difference between the areas of the two squares is the area calculated as follows:
Required Area = 32 – 16 = 16 𝑚2
You can actually compute for the area by symmetry on the two figures
knowing that the area of the bigger square is twice the area of the smaller one which
is 2(16)= 32. The difference of their areas would still be 16𝑚2 .
EG = 3m (height of rectangle)
Hence, the diagonal of the rectangle is
DG= 62 + 32 = 6.71m
60°
11
Solution:
To find the area, draw the height of the trapezoid such that a right triangle
is formed as shown in the figure below. The length of the base and the height of this
triangle are 3 and h, respectively, where:
h = 3 tan 60° = 5.2 units
3
and z = cos 60° = 6 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 8
Solution: 8
12
Referring to the figure to the right,
𝜃 :𝜃 230° 𝜃2
compute: 1 2 2 = 2 = 115° 𝜃1
The semi-perimeter is 18
𝑎:𝑏:𝑐:𝑑 8:12:18:20 20
𝑠= = = 29.
2 2
𝜃1 :𝜃2
𝐴= 𝑠 − 𝑎 𝑠 − 𝑏 𝑠 − 𝑐 𝑠 − 𝑑 − 𝑎𝑑𝑐𝑏𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ( )
2
= 29 − 8 29 − 12 29 − 18 29 − 20 − 8(12)(18)(20)𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 [115°]
= 170.8𝑚2
Solution:
Referring to the previous example, obtain the following results:
𝑑1 = 𝐵𝐷 = 4 7
𝑑2 = 𝐴𝐶 = 82 + 122 − 2 8 12 𝑐𝑜𝑠120° = 4 19
By Cosine Law,
4 7 2 4 19 2 4 7 4 19
82 = ( ) +( ) −2 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅
2 2 2 2
∅ = 64.31°
where 𝑑1 and 𝑑2 are the two diagonals, and the acute angle ∅ is the included angle between these two
diagonals.
Formula 1: The area of the parallelogram is
1 1
𝐴 = 𝑑1 𝑑2 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅ = 4 7 4 19 𝑠𝑖𝑛64.31°
2 2
2
= 83.14𝑚
Formula 2: With a=c=12 and b=d=8, then
1
𝐴 = 𝑎2 + 𝑐 2 − 𝑏 2 − 𝑑 2 |𝑡𝑎𝑛∅|
4
1
= 122 + 122 − 82 − 82 |tan64.31°|
4
= 83.14𝑚2
Formula 3: With semi-perimeter s=20, obtain:
1
𝐴= (20 − 8)2 (20 − 12)2 − (82 )(122 )𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 [ 60° + 60° ]
2
= 83.14𝑚2
Solution:
The area of the trapezoid is: c c
1 h=4
144 = 2 𝑎 + 𝑏 4 (E1)
𝑎 4 R
The sides ratio is: 𝑏 = 5
x S
5
𝑏= 𝑎(E2)
4
Solution:
In the figure shown, you can compute for the length of the shorter diagonal based on
the area of the rhombus. Thus, solve as follows: 𝜃
1 x 𝑑1
𝐴 = 𝑑1 𝑑2 𝑑2
2
1
143 = 𝑑1 26
2
𝑑1 = 11𝑚 x
Since the diagonal of a rhombus are perpendicular bisectors, the four triangles formed
by these diagonals are congruent right triangles.
Thus, in one of these triangles, you can get the length of side x and the interior angle 𝜃
as show below.
𝜃 𝑑
tan = 1
2 𝑑2
𝑑1
𝜃 = 2𝑡𝑎𝑛;1
𝑑2
= 45.86°
The length of side x may be computed using the Pythagorean Theorem.
𝑑 𝑑 11 26
𝑥= ( 1 )2 + ( 2 )2 = ( )2 + ( )2 = 14.12 m
2 2 2 2
I. Completion of Statements
1. If three sides of one triangle are equal respectively to three sides of another,
the triangles are said to be _________.
2. Corresponding parts of congruent triangles are ________.
3. If the median of a triangle is also the altitude, the triangle is _______.
4. In a right triangle, the side opposite the right angle is called _______.
5. The _______ of a triangle is the line connecting a vertex and the midpoint
of the opposite side of the triangle.
6. The sum of the three angles in any triangle is _______.
7. A triangle is _______ if it has two congruent altitudes.
8. A regular polygon of three sides is called a/an _______.
9. A regular polygon of four sides is called a/an _______.
10. The sum of the measures of the angles in a quadrilateral in _______.
11. A trapezoid is said to be a/an _______. If two of its angles measure 90°.
12. The intersection of the angle bisectors of a triangle is called _______.
13. In an isosceles triangle, the _______ is located one-third of its altitude
from the base.
14. In naming of polygons, the word “kai” means _______.
15. A quadrilateral with no parallel sides is called _______.