Thesis

Thermochronology, geochronology and geochemistry of the Western

and Central cordilleras and Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, Colombia:
the tectonic evolution of NW South America

VILLAGOMEZ DIAZ, Diego

Abstract

Ce projet de thèse présente des données géochronologiques (U-Pb de zircon),

thermochronologiques (40Ar/39Ar, traces de fission et (U-Th)/He dans des apatites et des
zircons) et géochimiques de différents types de roches se situant dans les cordillères
occidentale, centrale, et dans la vallée de Cauca-Patía de la Colombie, de la frontière
équatorienne méridionale à la prolongation septentrionale des cordillères, ainsi que des
données thermochronologiques de basse température de roches provenant de la Sierra
Nevada de Santa Marta (nord de la Colombie). On essaye de caractériser le cadre tectonique
dans lequel les principales unités géologiques ont été formées et d'interpréter l'histoire de
refroidissement dans les cordillères centrale et occidentale colombienne, qui sont en lien avec
les événements tectoniques du Crétacé inférieur au Miocène tardif. Les évidences présentées
nous permettent d'identifier l'origine des événements de refroidissement et contraint les forces
qui ont modelé les Andes colombiennes.

Reference
VILLAGOMEZ DIAZ, Diego. Thermochronology, geochronology and geochemistry of the
Western and Central cordilleras and Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, Colombia: the
tectonic evolution of NW South America. Thèse de doctorat : Univ. Genève, 2010, no. Sc.
4277

Available at:
http://archive-ouverte.unige.ch/unige:14270

Disclaimer: layout of this document may differ from the published version.

[ Downloaded 26/12/2015 at 17:28:01 ]

UNIVERSITÉ DE GENÈVE FACULTÉ DES SCIENCES
Département de Minéralogie Prof. Urs Schaltegger
Dr. Richard Spikings

Thermochronology, geochronology and geochemistry of the

Western and Central cordilleras and Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta,
Colombia: The tectonic evolution of NW South America.

THÈSE

présentée à la Faculté des sciences de l’Université de Genève

pour obtenir le grade de Docteur ès sciences, mention sciences de la Terre

par

Diego VILLAGÓMEZ DÍAZ

de
Quito (Équateur)

Thèse N° 4277

GENÈVE

2010
Contents
Acknowledgments vii
Thesis Abstract xi
Résume étendu xv

Chapter 1 1
Introduction 1
References 3

Chapter 2 5
Geochronology, geochemistry and tectonic evolution of the Western and Central cordilleras of Colombia
5
Abstract 5
1 Introduction 6
2 Geological Framework 8
2.1 Continental Crust of the Central Cordillera: Autochthonous terranes. 8
2.2 Terranes within the Romeral Fault System: The Quebradagrande and Arquía Complexes 9
2.3 Exotic terranes in the Cauca-Patía Valley 9
2.4 Exotic terranes in the Western Cordillera and the coastal ranges 10
3 Sampling and methods 12
3.1 Zircon U–Pb geochronology 12
3.2 40
Ar/ Ar geochronology
39
12
3.3 Whole rock geochemistry 12
4 Results U–Pb LA-ICP-MS 13
4.1 Autochthonous units 13
4.1.1 Pre-Jurassic metamorphic and igneous rocks of the Tahami Terrane 13
4.1.2 Jurassic–Cretaceous Intrusive rocks of the Tahami terrane 13
4.2 Late Cretaceous allochthonous rocks exposed in the Cauca-Patía Valley and the Western Cor-
dillera 18
5 Results: Ar/ Ar
40 39
18
5.1 Autochthonous rocks of the Tahami Terrane 18
5.2 Allochthonous rocks of the Western Cordillera and the Cauca-Patía Valley 19
6 Results: Whole rock geochemistry 21
6.1 Jurassic to Cretaceous magmatism within the Tahami Terrane 21
6.2 Para-autochthonous rocks entrained within the Romeral Fault Zone 21
6.2.1 Igneous rocks of the Quebradagrande Complex 21
6.2.2 Arquía Complex 28
6.3 Allochthonous rocks of the Caribbean–Colombian Oceanic Province exposed in the Western Cor-
dillera (Volcanic Fm.) and the Cauca-Patía Valley (Amaime Fm.) 29
6.4 Arc-related rocks within the oceanic plateau rocks 30
7 Interpretations and discussion 30
7.1 Pre-Early Cretaceous paleo-continental margin 30
7.2 Early Cretaceous para-autochthonous terranes 31
7.3 Late Cretaceous allochthonous oceanic terranes 34
7.4 Tertiary arc rocks in the Western Cordillera 35
8 Conclusions 35
References 38
Appendix 1. Field observations 43
Appendix 2. Description of samples used for U-Pb and Ar/ Ar datation and whole rock geochemistry
40 39

44

Appendix 3. Analytical techniques 46

iii
U–Pb zircon dating 46
40
Ar/39Ar 47
Appendix 4. LA-ICP-MS U-Pb zircon data 48
Appendix 5. 40Ar/39Ar incremental step-heating results 53

Chapter 3 57
Thermal and tectonic history of the Central and Western cordilleras of Colombia, a thermochronological
study 57
Abstract 57
1 Introduction 58
2 Geological Framework 58
3 Previous work 61
3.1 Analytical techniques and the recovery of thermal histories 62
3.1.1 40Ar/39Ar analysis 62
3.1.2 Fission track (FT) analysis 62
3.1.3 (U-Th)/He analysis 62
3.1.4 Recovery of thermal histories 63
550-200°C 63
200-40°C 63
4 Results: Ar/ Ar
40 39
65
Consideration of the feldspar Ar/ Ar age spectra
40 39
65
4.1 40
Ar/39Ar data from the Central Cordillera (Tahami Terrane and Arquía Complex) 67
4.1.1 Northern Colombia: 7°N-5°N 67
4.1.2 Central Colombia: 4°55’N–3°15’N 67
Eastern flank of the Central Cordillera, north of the Ibagué Fault 67
Eastern flank of the Central Cordillera, south of the Ibagué Fault 67
Western flank of the Central Cordillera 72
4.2 40
Ar/39Ar data from Late Cretaceous accreted mafic rocks of the Western Cordillera and the
Cauca-Patía Valley (Calima Terrane) 73
4.2.1 Central Colombia (4°55’N–3°15’N) 73
5 Results: Fission track (FT) data 73
5.1 Fission track data from the Central Cordillera (Tahami Terrane and Quebradagrande Complex)
74
5.1.1 Northern Colombia: 7°N -5°N 74
Western flank of the Central Cordillera, Manizales–Medellín traverse 74
Central altiplano, Yarumal–Sonsón traverse 74
Eastern flank of the Central Cordillera, San Luis–Fresno traverse 75
5.1.2 Central Colombia: 4°45’N–3°30’N 75
Eastern flank of the Central Cordillera, La Línea-Ibagué-Venadillo region 75
Western Flank of the Central Cordillera, Armenia–Pijao region 79
5.1.3 Southern Colombia: 1°30’N-1°00’N 79
Traverse across the Central Cordillera between the towns of Pasto and Mocoa 79
5.2 Fission track data from Late Cretaceous and younger accreted mafic rocks of the Western Cordill-
era and the Cauca–Patía Valley (Calima and Chocó–Panamá terranes) 79
5.2.1 Northern Colombia: 7°N-5°N 79
Eastern flank of the Western Cordillera, Ciudad Bolívar region 79
5.2.2 Central Colombia: 4°45’N–3°30’N 79
Eastern flank of the Western Cordillera, Cali–Roldanillo region 79
Cauca-Patía Valley 79
5.2.3 Southern Colombia: 1°N-0° 79
Eastern flank of the Western Cordillera, Ricaurte region 79

iv
6 Results: (U-Th)/He 80
6.1 Northern Colombia: 7°N–5°N 80
6.1.1 Central Cordillera 80
Western Flank 80
Altiplano Antioqueño 80
Eastern Flank 80
6.1.2 Western Cordillera 80
6.2 Central Colombia: 4°45’N–3°30’N 80
6.2.1 Central Cordillera 80
6.3 Southern Colombia: 1°30’N–1°00’N 80
6.3.1 Central Cordillera 80
6.3.2 Western Cordillera 83
7 Thermal histories of rocks of the Colombian Andes 83
7.1 Central Cordillera between 7°N and 5°N 83
7.1.1 Antioquia Batholith and the Cajamarca Complex. 83
7.1.2 The Sonsón Batholith 84
7.2 Central Cordillera between 4°45’N and 3°30’N 86
7.2.1 South of the Ibagué Fault 86
7.2.2 North of the Ibagué Fault 86
7.3 Central Cordillera between 1°30’N and 1°00’N 86
7.4 Western Cordillera 86
8 Interpretation: Crustal Exhumation and tectonic evolution 88
8.1 Early Cretaceous 89
8.1.1 145–130 Ma: Berriasian–Hauterivian (Figure 9b) 89
8.1.2 130–100 Ma: Barremian–Albian (Figures 9c and 9d) 90
8.2 Late Cretaceous 90
8.2.1 100–75 Ma: late Albian to middle Campanian 90
8.2.2 Campanian–Maastrichtian 92
8.3 Paleocene–middle Eocene 92
8.4 Middle Eocene–late Oligocene 93
8.5 Oligocene–Pliocene 93
8.6 Significance of the Ibagué Fault 94
Conclusions 95
References 96
Appendix 1. Description of samples used for 40Ar/39Ar, fission track and (U-Th)/He dating 103
Appendix 2. 105
40
Ar/39Ar 105
Appendix 3. 40Ar/39Ar incremental step-heating results 106

Chapter 4 113
Vertical tectonics at a continental crust-oceanic plateau, plate boundary zone: Low temperature
thermochronology of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, Colombia 113
Abstract 113
1. Introduction 114
2. Geological Framework 114
3. Methodology and Previous Work 116
3.1 Previous thermochronological studies of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta 116
3.2 Low-temperature thermochronology 116
4. Results 117
4.1 South of the Sevilla Lineament (Sierra Nevada Province) 117
4.1.1 Rocks from southern and eastern regions of the Sierra Nevada Province 117
4.1.2 Rocks located within the deformation zone associated with the Santa Marta - Bucaramanga Fault

v
 118
4.2 North of the Sevilla Lineament: Santa Marta and Sevilla Provinces 118
4.3 Santander Massif 120
5. Periods of Cooling 120
5.1 South of the Sevilla Lineament (Sierra Nevada Province) 122
5.1.1 Rocks located in southern and eastern regions of the Sierra Nevada Province 122
5.1.2 Rocks located within the deformation zone associated with the Santa Marta - Bucaramanga fault
122
5.2 North of the Sevilla Lineament 122
5.3 Santander Massif 125
6. Exhumation of rocks within the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta 125
6.1 The Sierra Nevada Province 125
6.2 The Santa Marta and Sevilla Provinces 126
6.3 Trends in exhumation across the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta 126
7.0 Regional Correlations and Discussion 127
7.1 65-50 Ma 127
7.2 50-40 Ma 129
7.3 40-30 Ma 129
7.4 30 – 16 Ma 130
8. Why is the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta currently at 5775m? 131
9. Conclusions 131
References 133
Appendix 1 137
Appendix 2 138

Chapter 5 141
Conclusions 141

vi
Acknowledgments
The biggest thanks go to Richard Spikings for hundreds of reasons, among them for having given
me the opportunity to do this PhD, accompanying me to most of the places in Colombia (and Ecuador),
for getting funds for extra analyses that were not contemplated in the original proposal, for providing
technical support during analyses, for always posing critical questions, giving constructive reviews to this
manuscript and for improving the written English of this text. This work would have not been possible
without the permanent help of Urs Schaltegger, who managed to get extra funding and stimulated
interesting discussions and exchange of ideas at the group meetings. Big thanks to both of them.
James Pindell is thanked for several valuable discussions last year during and after the excellent congress
in Cardiff, which stimulated me to have a more regional perspective. I am especially grateful to Dave Chew
for his help during the first years of my life as PhD student. Both James and Dave, along with Francois
Bussy, are extremely appreciated for having accepted to be members of the jury and for their input.
This work would not have been the same without the help of Tomas Magna (formerly UNIL, currently
University of Münster) and for his commitment to this project. I am very grateful to Massimo Chiarada for
his help during analyses and for always being ready to discuss data. It is impossible to forget the help from
several researchers from the University of Geneva: Maria Ovtcharova, Blair Schoene, Kalin Kouzmanov,
Georges Gorin. Mike Dungan is thanked for his help during all these years and for his fantastic work as
President of the EDSM.
Philip Schütte should be an anonymous co-author of this thesis with hundreds of good discussions where
ideas flowed. He permanently posed critical questions and he helped me to test each of my hypotheses.
Aleksandar Miskovic is thanked for his example on how a thesis must be done and for his friendship. Aldo
Bendezú is extremely acknowledged for helping with all sorts of problems. Special thanks go to Roelant
Van der Lelij for the last years when we shared similar tasks (attending congresses and field trips, installing
and maintaining labs, etc.) and to Ryan Cochrane for his positive input to this project. Big-time thanks to
Julie Bourquin for her friendship and for spending a lot of time translating the abstract of this thesis into
French. Jacqueline Berthoud is gladly remembered and acknowledged for her help during the first and
most difficult moments of my career.
Fieldwork was always challenging and it would not have been successful without the support of Andreas
Kammer (UNAL, Bogotá) and Wilfried Winkler (ETH, Zürich). Alejandro Beltrán is gratefully acknowledged
for his support as a field assistant and for countless adventures in the “real Colombia”. Andrés Mora
(Ecopetrol), Luis Quiroz and Agustín Cardona (Smithsonian Institute), César Vinasco (UNAL, Medellín)
and Mauricio Parra (University of Texas) for both their support in the field and for valuable discussions.
My knowledge of the Caribbean and Colombia improved significantly after conversations with Agustín
Cardona, Andrew Kerr and Jim Wright. I was extremely honoured to have been in touch during the last
years with Jorge Julián Restrepo, who is one of the fathers of Colombian geology. Thanks all of them for
their contribution to the success of this project.
My first knowledge as fission tracker was graciously provided by Diane Seward. She and Terry
Seward are thanked for having me as their guest for several weeks in the most beautiful place in Zürich.
Analytical support provided by Alex Ulianov (UNIL) is also acknowledged. Concerning data acquisition and
interpretation, I deeply thank Ray Donelick, who supported lots of questions that I bombarded him with
and which he was always keen to answer and explain. Richard Ketcham is acknowledged for providing us
with such a fantastic tool as HeFTy® and for providing invaluable guidance in several congresses and short
courses. A lot of help came from staff members of the Department, a million thanks to Fabio Capponi,
Frédéric Arlaud, Jean-Marie Boccard. Sofía Saldaña and Ursula Eigenmann.
It is impossible to forget all the help and guidance that I received from former PhD students during my
first years in Geneva, big thanks go to: Daniel, Carolina, Regina, István, Antoine and Ronner. Thanks to all
my colleagues and friends in Geneva – you helped me and I shared fantastic moments with you during
the last years, especially to Mariel, Honza, Miguel, Andrea, Sophia, José, Licia, Flora, Mathieu, Alexandra,
Johannes, Marie Caroline, Jörn, Cyril, Sébastien, Caroline, Afifé.

vii
 Countless people whose support and generosity was key to the development of this project: Georgina
Guzmán (Invemar), Germán Ojeda (Ecopetrol), Elizabeth Cortés (Ingeominas). Alberto Núñez Tello and
Jorge Gómez Tapias (Ingeominas) are highly appreciated for helping with sample shipment, as well as for
providing maps and other valuable information. Funding was generously provided by the Swiss National
Science Foundation (project number: 200021-107596), École Doctoral en Sciences des Minéraux (EDSM)
and Schmidheiny Foundation. Support from various institutions and universities for attending conferences
(e.g. Cardiff University; Tectonic Analysis Ltd.; Union College, New York; IRD, France; ETH Zürich) are highly
thanked, as well as the Bourse de la Confédération for supporting an initial project from 2004-2005.
Thanks to Fabián, Gabriela, Alejandro, Bernardo and all my friends from the Hungarian community
living in Geneva (including their non-Hungarian partners) for several unforgettable moments. I remember
with gratitude all the people from the HUG, special thanks to Drs Tribolet, Michel, Piccard, Kappina and
Landis and hundreds of people that I met during this period.
Deepest thanks to my family (in Ecuador, USA and Hungary) for their support during all these years.
Last but not least thanks to the main reason and motivation for this accomplishment, my wife Zsuzsi for
all her support and love.

viii
 For Zsuzsi

«In the Andes, we human beings have the condor’s vocations: rise upward, climb the stairways of air, fly
above the clouds, scan the earth below, far below ...

... Still today there is something indomitable and uncontrollable in these mountains that from time to time
unleashes its fury in the form of earthquakes and avalanches, those huaycos that bury whole towns and
sow terror and death in their passing ...

... That is why a landscape as idyllic and rich as this one, this myriad of lights of haughty -but seductive and
overwhelming- Quito, twinkling in the night, cannot be trusted. Because there in the background, massive
and untouchable, stand those mountains of eternal snow, implacable and belligerent»

Mario Vargas Llosa (Peru), Nobel laureate in Literature 2010

Taken from “Andes / Man, the city, and condors” (2001)

ix
x
Thesis Abstract
This thesis presents geochronological, thermochronological and geochemical data from rocks exposed
in the Western and Central cordilleras and the Cauca-Patía Valley of Colombia, extending from the southern
border with Ecuador to the north where basement rocks are buried beneath the southern Caribbean
plains. Low temperature thermochronological methods have also been applied to the Sierra Nevada de
Santa Marta (northern Colombian coast). This abstract provides a summary of the project aims, results,
interpretations and general conclusions.

The Northern Andean Segment (north of 5°S; including Ecuador and Colombia) is unique within the
Andean orogenic chain because it was built by numerous terrane collision and accretion events since
the Early Cretaceous. The accreting terranes retain an oceanic geochemical and lithological character,
and are juxtaposed against the paleo-continental margin across the diffuse, Romeral Fault System, which
entrains anastomosed blocks of allochthonous and para-autochthonous rocks. The temporal framework
for the evolution of the Colombian Andes has been constrained by scarce U-Pb zircon [e.g. Cardona et
al., 2006; Vinasco et al., 2006; Ordoñez-Carmona and Pimentel, 2006], K/Ar, Rb/Sr [see compilation in
Aspden et al., 1987; Restrepo et al., 2009] and apatite (U-Th)/He data [Restrepo-Moreno et al., 2009],
which were interpreted to determine the timing of metamorphism and intrusive magmatism within the
Central Cordillera. This thesis presents new isotopic data including 16 zircon U-Pb ages, 35 multiphase
40
Ar/39Ar ages, apatite and zircon fission track data from 76 rocks and 21 apatite and zircon (U-Th)/He ages.
In addition, 43 whole-rock geochemical analyses have been performed to characterize the tectonic origin
of significant geological units.

Chapter 1 gives an introduction on the theoretical background and the aims of this thesis.

Chapter 2 focuses on the tectonic origin of major igneous and metamorphic units. The Central
Cordillera of Colombia is built from autochthonous rocks that define the pre-Cretaceous continental margin
(the Tahami Terrane), juxtaposed against a series of para-autochthonous and allochthonous terranes that
accreted during the Cretaceous and which are exposed in the Western Cordillera and the Cauca-Patía
Valley, along the regional-scale Romeral Fault System that extends into Ecuador. We present the first
regional-scale dataset of zircon U-Pb LA-ICP-MS ages for multiple intrusive and metamorphic rocks of the
autochthonous Tahami Terrane, Early Cretaceous igneous para-autochthonous rocks (Quebradagrande
Complex) and accreted Late Cretaceous oceanic crust of the allochthonous Calima Terrane. The U-Pb
zircon data are complemented by multiphase 40Ar/39Ar crystallization ages. The geochronological data
have been combined with whole rock major oxide, trace element and REE data (XRF and LA-ICP-MS) from
the same units to constrain the tectonic origin of the rock units and terranes exposed in the Central and
Western cordilleras of Colombia. Our data show that metamorphic rocks forming the basement of the
Tahami Terrane, which are exposed in the Central Cordillera consist of a complex assemblage of lower
Paleozoic gneisses that were intruded by Permian granites, which were unconformably overlain by Triassic
sedimentary rocks that subsequently underwent anatexis (Cajamarca Complex). Discrete Precambrian
age populations indicate the Paleozoic-Triassic sedimentary rocks were probably derived from the Guyana
Shield and are native to South America. A distinct peak of U-Pb detrital zircon ages at 220-240 Ma yielded
by the Triassic metasedimentary rocks defines their maximum depositional age. The S-type granites yield
ages as young as 240 Ma, suggesting the high-temperature metamorphic event that partially melted the
sedimentary rocks was related to the disassembly of Pangea, and the initiation of the western Tethys-
Pacific Wilson cycle. Continental arc magmatism spanned the entire Jurassic and is preserved along
the whole length of the Central Cordillera. The youngest pulse of Mesozoic continental arc magmatism
occurred at 145 Ma.

xi
 An oceanic marginal basin and intra-oceanic arc, represented by the Quebradagrande Complex formed
during the Early Cretaceous, and its inception may have been caused by back-stepping of the Jurassic slab
due to the introduction of buoyant sea-mounts. The coexistence of both MORB-like gabbros and basalts
in close association with pillowed arc basalts, locally covered by marine sediments with both an oceanic
and continental provenance suggests an oceanic arc origin for the Quebradagrande Complex, with a back-
arc located proximal to the continent. The Quebradagrande Complex accreted against the Tahami Terrane
during the late Aptian, which was accompanied by the obduction of medium-high P–T metamorphic rocks
of the Arquía Complex onto the Cretaceous forearc. The oceanic basement of the Western Cordillera
and the Cauca-Patía Valley (the Calima Terrane) formed above an oceanic hotspot, which generated a
plateau that was intruded by an intra-oceanic arc, forming the Late Cretaceous Caribbean-Colombian
Oceanic Province. Geochronological analyses of the plateau rocks yield an age range of 100-92 Ma. The
remnant ocean basin located between South America and the Caribbean-Colombian Oceanic Province
was consumed via a double-vergent subduction system, giving rise to a continental and oceanic arc. The
Caribbean-Colombian Oceanic Province collided and accreted to South America during ~75-70 Ma along
the Cauca-Almaguer Fault, resulting in the cessation of both arcs and the Paleocene onset of subduction
beneath the accreted oceanic crust.

Chapter 3 focuses on low- and medium-temperature thermochronometers. New multiphase 40Ar/39Ar

data, fission track (zircon and apatite) and (U–Th)/He (zircon and apatite) ages record a complex cooling
history in the Central and Western cordilleras of Colombia that is a function of Early Cretaceous to late
Miocene tectonic events. Alkali-feldspar 40Ar/39Ar cooling ages obtained from crystalline rocks located to
the south of the laterally extensive Ibagué Fault yielded ages of ~138–130 Ma and are contemporaneous
with the cessation of Jurassic arc-magmatism and a major unconformity within the retro-forearc region of
the Northern Andes. We interpret these ages as cooling driven by exhumation in response to a dynamically
supported upper plate and isostatic rebound during and subsequent to fragmentation of the Jurassic slab.
Oceanward, back-stepping of the slab during the earliest Cretaceous gave rise to the Lower Cretaceous
Quebradagrande oceanic arc sequence. Medium-temperature thermochronometers (biotite and alkali-
feldspar 40Ar/39Ar with closure temperatures >230°C) in rocks of the Central Cordillera (paleocontinental
margin) located north of the Ibagué Fault reveal the presence of a younger cooling event at 107–117 Ma,
which was contemporaneous with hornblende 40Ar/39Ar cooling ages (cooling below 550-500°C) obtained
from medium–high P–T metamorphic rocks of the Arquía Complex, which are probably a relict of the
Late Jurassic - Early Cretaceous subduction channel. This previously unidentified cooling event has been
attributed to exhumation driven by the collision and accretion of the Quebradagrande arc against the
continental margin, and the obduction of the subduction channel onto the forearc. Numerical modelling
of low-temperature thermochronometric data (zircon and apatite fission track and (U–Th)/He), acquired
from rocks sampled throughout the Central and Western Cordillera reveals three periods of rapid cooling
since the Late Cretaceous. The earliest phase is recorded by Jurassic and Cretaceous granitoids (Ibagué
and Antioquia Batholith) that were emplaced in the Central Cordillera in Colombia and cooling rapidly
from ~550˚C to ~60˚C during 75–65 Ma. We attribute cooling to exhumation of the continental margin
at an average rate of ~1.6 km/My during ~75-70 Ma, which was forced by the collision and accretion of
the Caribbean-Colombian Oceanic Province in the Campanian. Contemporaneous clastic sedimentation
sourced from rocks of the Central Cordillera fed the retro-foreland basin and the peripheral basin
corroborating observed exhumation. The Central Cordillera exhumed at moderate rates of ~0.3 km/My
during the Eocene (~45–30 Ma), which are also observed over widely dispersed regions along the Andean
chain, and were probably caused by an increase in continent-ocean plate convergence rates. Elevated
exhumation rates in the middle - late Miocene have been identified from the apatite (U-Th)/He data.
The greatest amount of middle - late Miocene exhumation occurred in southern Colombia, and spatially
corresponds with elevated exhumation rates in northern Ecuador. The spatial pattern suggests that
exhumation was a consequence of erosion during and subsequent to rock uplift, in response to collision
and subduction of the buoyant Carnegie Ridge.

xii
 Chapter 4 describes how low-temperature thermochronology can help constraining variations on
vertical tectonics at a continental crust-oceanic plateau boundary zone, and how this knowledge can
be used for tectonic reconstructions. We have used apatite fission track data (with U contents obtained
by the LA-ICP-MS method) collected along several traverses and a single vertical profile to quantify the
thermal histories of surface rocks of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta (SNSM).

The topographically prominent Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta is hosted by a faulted block of continental
crust located along the northern boundary of the South American Plate, hosts the highest peak in the
world (~5.75km) whose local base is at sea level, and juxtaposes oceanic plateau rocks of the Caribbean
Plate. Quantification of the amount and timing of exhumation will constrain interpretations of the history
of the plate boundary, and the driving forces of rock uplift along the active margin. The Sierra Nevada
Province of the southernmost Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta exhumed at elevated rates (≥0.2 Km/My)
during 65-58 Ma in response to the collision of the Caribbean Plateau with north-western South America.
A second pulse of exhumation (≥0.32 Km/My) during 50-40 Ma was driven by underthrusting of the
Caribbean Plate beneath northern South America. Subsequent exhumation at 40-25 Ma (≥0.15 Km/My) is
recorded proximal to the Santa Marta–Bucaramanga Fault. More northerly regions of the Sierra Nevada
Province exhumed rapidly during 26-29 Ma (~0.7 Km/My). Further northwards, the Santa Marta Province
exhumed at elevated rates during 30-25 Ma and 25-16 Ma. The highest exhumation rates within the Sierra
Nevada de Santa Marta progressed towards the northwest via the propagation of NW-verging thrusts.
Exhumation is not recorded after ~16 Ma, which is unexpected given the high elevation and high erosive
power of the climate, implying that rock and surface uplift that gave rise to the current topography was
very recent (i.e. ≤1 Ma?), and there has been insufficient time to expose the fossil apatite partial annealing
zone.

Chapter 5 presents a summary of the results, interpretations and conclusions.

References
Aspden, J. A., McCourt, W. J., and Brook, M., 1987, Geometrical control of subduction-related magmatism: the
Mesozoic and Cenozoic plutonic history of Western Colombia: Journal of the Geological Society, v. 144, no.
6, p. 893-905.
Cardona, A., Cordani, U. G., and MacDonald, W. D., 2006, Tectonic correlations of pre-Mesozoic crust from the
northern termination of the Colombian Andes, Caribbean region: Journal of South American Earth Sciences,
v. 21, no. 4, p. 337-354.
Ordóñez-Carmona, O., and Pimentel, M. M., 2002, Rb-Sr and Sm-Nd isotopic study of the Puquí complex, Colombian
Andes: Journal of South American Earth Sciences, v. 15, no. 2, p. 173-182.
Restrepo, J. J., Ordoñez-Carmona, O., Martens, U., Correa, A.M., 2009, Terrenos, Complejos y provincias en la
Cordillera Central de Colombia: XII Congreso Colombiano de Geologia, p. 12.
Restrepo-Moreno, S. A., Foster, D. A., Stockli, D. F., and Parra, L. N., 2009, Long-term erosion and exhumation of the
“Altiplano Antioqueño”, Northern Andes (Colombia) from apatite (U-Th)/He thermochronology: Earth and
Planetary Science Letters, v. 278, no. 1-2, p. 1-12.
Vinasco, C. J., Cordani, U. G., González, H., Weber, M., and Peláez, C., 2006, Geochronological, isotopic, and
geochemical data from Permo-Triassic granitic gneisses and granitoids of the Colombian Central Andes:
Journal of South American Earth Sciences, v. 21, no. 4, p. 355-371

xiii
xiv
Résume étendu
Ce projet de thèse présente des données
géochronologiques, thermochronologiques et
géochimiques de différents types de roches se
situant dans les cordillères occidentale, centrale,
et dans la vallée de Cauca-Patía (Figure 1),
de la frontière équatorienne méridionale à la
prolongation septentrionale des cordillères, ainsi
que des données thermochronologiques de basse
température de roches provenant de la Sierra
Nevada de Santa Marta (nord de la Colombie,
Figure 1). Une introduction générale de ce projet
ainsi que des conclusions sont présentées dans cet
abstract.
90°W 80°W
20°N
SNSM
10°N
Plaque de Cocos
CC
e
La particularité de la zone andine septentrionale
(incluant l’Équateur, la Colombie et le Venezuela) en
comparaison de la zone andine méridionale (Pérou-
Chili) est que celle-ci comprend de nombreux blocs
d’accrétions océaniques allochtones mis en place
principalement durant le Crétacé, et juxtaposés
contre la paléo-marge continentale en face du
système de faille Romeral (Figure 1), une large
zone faillée abritant des blocs allochtones et para-
autochtones.
Les rares données géochronologiques et
thermochronologiques existantes de K/Ar, Rb/Sr
[voir compilation de Aspden et al., 1987; Restrepo
et al., 2009] et de (U-Th)/He dans des apatites
70°W 60°W
[Restrepo-Moreno et al., 2009] étaient les seules
Plaque Nord-américaine
contraintes temporelles jusqu’à récemment
pour cette région, jusqu’à la publication d’études
Plaque Caraïbe
présentant des âges U-Pb de zircon plus précis
[e.g. Cardona et al., 2006; Vinasco et al., 2006;
Ordoñez-Pimentel, 2006]. Ces études ont apporté
des contraintes temporelles sur les principales
Venezuela périodes de métamorphisme et de mise en place
d’intrusion dans la cordillère centrale. Dans ce

CO
dg

EC
Ri
s
co

Colombie
travail, de nouvelles données quantitatives sont
Co

VM

présentées (Figure 2), comprenant 16 datations

Plaque Sud-américaine
VCP
0°N
Carnegie Ridge
Equateur 0 Km 400
U-Pb de zircon, 35 âges 40Ar/39Ar dans des phases
Plaque de Nazca
RC minérales distinctes, 108 âges déterminés à partir
-8 km -6 km -4 km -2 km 0 2km 4km
de traces de fission dans des apatites et des zircons,
Bathymétre Altitude
et 21 âges (U-Th)/He d’apatite et de zircon. De
Zone de subduction

Faille
plus, 43 analyses géochimiques de roches totales
Suture Crétacique ont été réalisées, afin de mieux caractériser le
cadre tectonique dans lequel les principales unités
5°N 1
géologiques ont été formées.
2
Terrane Terrane de
de Calima Tahami
R
SF

Géochronologie, géochimie et
0°
3
évolution tectonique des cordillères
80°W 75°W occidentale et centrale de Colombie

Figure 1. Modèle digital du nord-ouest de l’Amérique du Sud Chapitre 2 : La cordillère centrale de Colombie
et des plaques tectoniques voisines, montrant les Cordillères est formée de roches autochtones définissant
et les failles. La suture crétacée d’océan-continent est
la marge continentale pré-Crétacé (Tahami
montrée comme une ligne noire épaisse. L’encart montre le
secteur d’étude plus détaillé, et les trois régions (a, b et c) Terrane), et sont juxtaposées contre une série
sont celles montrées sur la carte géologique de la Figure 2 de blocs tectoniques para-autochtones et
CC: Cordillère Centrale, CO: Cordillère Occidentale, SFR: allochtones qui se sont accrétés durant le Crétacé,
système de faille Romeral, SNSM: Sierra Nevada de Santa formant le système de faille Romeral à l’échelle
Marta, VCP: Vallée de Cauca–Patía, VM: Vallée du Magdalena.
régionale qui s’étend jusqu’en Équateur. Ce travail
présente la première base de données à l’échelle

xv
xvi
70: 39.1±1.3 08: 106.6±16.0
a 54.8±5.8 b 09: 43.0±1.2 07: 6.1±0.2
148: 53.0±4.8 58.1±5.2 153: 69.7±8.6 30.6±5.8 64.9±10.2 06: 46.3±1.2
76°22’ 55.4±5.2 68.9±0.6 66.6±8.0 74°37’ 74.6±13.4 88.3±12.4 35.8±4.6
7°10’ 95: 62.8±6.8 109.8±2.9 81.3±10.6
62.5±5.2 114.1±0.9 148.9±3.4
78: 25.6±2.6 76°48’ 151.8±0.9 109.7±1.3 4°55’
97.1±2.0 159.5±2.4 147.0±0.5 182.6±2.4
54: 74.4±10.6 04:10.6±0.8, 59.2±20.2
94: 61.5±9.4 159.2±5.2
70.4±6.3 67.9±7.4
53: 13.4±1.4 81.8±10.0 02: 32.1±7.2, 63.6±9.4,
72.9±18.8 95.5±1.1 155.6±6.2, 220-600
63: 20.9±1.2
64.1±9.6 26: 6.1±0.2 03: 37.1±7.2
56: 40.1±1.0 13.9±2.4,45.6±7.6
65.5±6.0 74.8±7.4 01: 116.4±0.9
87.2±1.6 67.9±1.6, 79.7±2.5 Ibagué
64: 59.8±10.2 86: 9.3±0.8
50: 440, 62.6±0.7 FI 35.0±8.2
900-1700
Medellín 65: 43.5±4.8

J
58: 31.0±1.4 28: 64.4±3.6 85: 30.5±5.8
80.8±0.3

A
FS
45.2±1.2 05: 7.5±0.4, 59.8±16.8
67: 113.4±22.8 89: 117.2±9.4

FC
58.5±8.0 85.3±18.2, 153.1±2.0,
112.0±3.7

FSJ
62.6±1.1 80: 41.0±6.6 165.0±15.0
72.3±0.3 90: 128.1±6.0
94.6±2.1 81: 103.6±13.0

P
154: 56.6±7.4 102: 46.9±8.1 130.2±2.8¨

FS
179: 51.8±7.4 53.1±5.6 136.4±0.5
108:75.7±1.6
155: 44.3±6.2 82: 11.2±0.3, 68.3±8.2
165: 37.8±5.2 71.4±9.8 91: 41.3±4.2, 90.9±1.4

FSP
41.6±5.4 77.6±10.8, 137.3±0.9,
156: 30.8±0.7 30: 44.8±8.4, 92.1±0.8 Cali 223.8±3.4, 271.9±3.7
166:3.9±0.2 0 km 50
32.8±0.7 48.2±4.8 42: 77.6±5.7, 99.7±1.3
47.9±5.2 3°15’ 84: 134.3±0.7
167: 38.1±5.4 19: 56.2±9.0,220-1200 14: 65.1±10.2 74°37’

FCA
46.4±5.8 km 18: 19.6±4.2 17: 58.1±6.6
0 50 163: 39.6±7.0
176: 64.5±14.6 55.3±5.4 54.2±6.0
237.5±5.5

Falla d
5°00’
160: 69.4±17.2 161: 43.9±4.2
177: 78.6±19.8 Cordillères occidentale et centrale
Quaternaire - Néogène
Crétacé: arc oceanique Crétacé tardif: intrusives d’arc
Paléocène - Éocène (Batholith d’Antioquia et
c (Complexe de
Quebradagrande) pluton de Córdoba)
129: 4.5±0.1 Cordillère occidentale et
1°43’ 9.3±0.2 vallée de Cauca-Patía Crétacé tardif: roches sédi-
Roches métamorphiques
8.2±1.2 mentaires
de moyenne et haute
139: 18.7±7.4 Crétacé tardif: Plateau P-T
112.0±16.6 Océanique (Fms. Volcanic, Crétacé inférieur:
121: 12.3±0.4 (Complexe d’Arquía) roches sédimentaires
133: 3.6±0.2 Barroso et Amaime)
25.8±4.8
Pasto J Granitoïdes Jurassique (Batholite
FS Mocoa 134: 15.9±4.4 Crétacé tardif: roches sedi-
109.2±10.8 mentaires (Fms. Cisneros, d’Ibagué) et roches volcaniques
Penderisco et Espinal) (Fm. Saldaña)
136: 13.7±2.2 Crétacé tardif: roches intrusives Granitoïdes du Permo-Triasique
106.8±13.6
(Batholithe de Buga)
Roches metasédimentaires et
Echantillons (DV#) meta-ignées du Triasique
(e.g. Complexe de Cajamarca)
(U-Th)/He d’apatite et des autres unités
(U-Th)/He de zircon métamorphiques
Traces de fission dans des apatites
EQUATEUR 0 km 50 Traces de fission dans des zircon
40Ar/39Ar dans des feldspaths
0°10’ 40Ar/39Ar dans de la biotite
78°04’ 76°07’ 40Ar/39Ar dans l’hornblende
U-Pb de zircon
régionale d’âges calculés par U-Pb LA-ICP-MS
dans des zircons pour de nombreuses roches
intrusives et métamorphiques du bloc tectonique
autochtone Tahami, pour des roches ignées para-
autochtones du Crétacé inférieur (Complexe
de Quebradagrande) ainsi que pour la croûte
océanique accrétée durant le Crétacé supérieur
formant le bloc tectonique allochtone de Calima.
Les âges calculés par désintégration d’U-Pb dans
les zircons sont complétés par des âges 40Ar/39Ar
dans différentes phases minérales. Ces données
géochronologiques ont ensuite été combinées
avec les oxydes majeurs de roche totale, les
éléments traces et les données REE (XRF et LA-ICP-
MS) des mêmes unités afin de contraindre l’origine
tectonique des différentes unités de roches et
de blocs tectoniques exposés dans les cordillères
centrale et occidentale de Colombie. Nos données
montrent que les roches métamorphiques formant
le socle du bloc tectonique de Tahami, qui affleure
dans la cordillère centrale, se compose d’un
assemblage complexe de gneiss du Paléozoïque
inférieur dans lesquels firent intrusion des granites
permiens qui furent ensuite recouvert de manière
discordante par des roches sédimentaires du Trias,
qui subirent par la suite une anatexie (Complexe
de Cajamarca). Des populations d’âge Précambrien
distinctes indiquent que les roches sédimentaires
du Paléozoïque-Triasique sont probablement
venues du bouclier de Guyana et sont originaire
d’Amérique du Sud. Une autre population d’âges
calculées par datation U-Pb dans les zircons
définit l’âge de déposition maximum des roches
métasédimentaires à 220-240 Ma. Les granites
de type S présentent des âges aussi récents
que 240 Ma, ce qui suggère que l’événement
métamorphique de haute température qui aurait
fondu partiellement les roches sédimentaires était
lié au démantèlement de la Pangée, et à la création
du cycle occidental de Wilson dans le Téthys-
Pacifique. Le magmatisme d’arc continental s’est
étendu durant tout le Jurassique et est préservé
sur toute la longueur de la cordillère centrale.
La poussée la plus jeune de magmatisme d’arc
continental s’est produite à 145 Ma (Figure 3a).
Un bassin océanique marginal et un arc intra-
océanique, représenté par le complexe de
Quebradagrande, se sont formés lors du Crétacé
inférieur, et leurs origines pourraient provenir
du reculement du slab jurassique en raison de
l’apparition de monts sous-marins (guyots).
La coexistence de gabbros et de basaltes de
composition MORB conjointement avec des
basaltes d’arc en coussins, recouvert localement
par des sédiments marins ayant une provenance
océanique, mais également continentale, suggère
une origine d’arc océanique pour le complexe
de Quebradagrande, avec un arrière-arc situé
proche du continent (Figure 3c). Le complexe de
Quebradagrande s’est accrété contre le Terrane de
Tahami durant l’Aptien tardif, et fut accompagné
par l’obduction de roches métamorphiques de
moyenne et haute P-T du complexe de l’Arquía
sur l’avant-arc crétacé (Figure 3d). Le socle
océanique de la cordillère occidentale et de la
vallée de Cauca-Patía (Terrane de Calima) se
forma au-dessus d’un point chaud océanique, ce
qui généra un plateau qui fut pénétré par un arc
intra-océanique, formant la province océanique
Caribéenne-Colombienne du crétacé tardif (Figure
3e). Des analyses géochronologiques des roches
de ce plateau montre une gamme d’âges de 100-
92 Ma. Le vestige de ce bassin océanique situé
entre l’Amérique du Sud et la province océanique
Caribéenne-Colombienne fut consommé à travers
un système de subduction à double vergent (Figure
3f), créant un arc continental et océanique. La
province océanique Caribéenne-Colombienne se
heurta puis s’accréta à l’Amérique du Sud pendant
~75-70 Ma (Figure 3g) le long de la faille Cauca-

Figure 2 (page précédent) Cartes géologiques des trois régions d’étude dans les cordillères centrales et occidentales
de la Colombie, et la vallée de Cauca-Patía [d’après Gómez et al., 2007], montrant les âges thermochronologiques et
geochronologiques acquis dans cette étude
a) Nord de la Colombie (7°10’N–5°00’N)
b) Colombie Centrale (4°55’N–3°15’N)
c) Sud de la Colombie (1°40N–0°10’N)
Âges: Les couleurs décrivent: les âges d’apatite (U-Th) /He (noir), âges de zircon (U-Th) /He (gras noir), traces de fission
d’apatite (vert), traces de fission de zircon (rouge), 40Ar/39Ar de feldspath (pourpre), 40Ar/39Ar de biotite (jaune), 40Ar/39Ar de
hornblende (brun), U-Pb de zircon (gras vert). Tous les âges sont en million d’années (Ma) et l’erreur est de ±2σ, avec des
codes d’échantillon montrés en bleu (DV##). La faille de Cauca–Almaguer (FCA), la faille San Jerónimo (FSJ) et la faille de
Silvia–Pijao (FSP) forment conjointement le système de faille de Romeral. Autres abréviations présentes : FI: Faille d’Ibagué.

xvii
 A: 180-150 Ma W Batholite d’Ibagué E
- Volcanisme d’arc continental

B: 145-130 Ma Proto-Cordillère
- Recul de la subduction Centrale
- Rebound et exhumation de la plaque supérieur discordance majeure

C: 130-115 Ma Arc de Quebradagrande Fm. Caballos

- Arc intra-oceanique proche du continent Complexe d’Arquía

D: 115-105 Ma Complexe d’Arquía

- Fermeture du bassin
- Accrétion de l’arc de Quebradagrande
- obduction de roches métamorphiques de moyenne
et haute P-T
- Exhumation du continent
E: 95-90 Ma Batholite d’Antioquia
- Magmatism d’arc Complexe d’Arquía
- Formation de la province océanique
Caribéenne-Colombienne

F: 90-80 Ma Batholite de Córdoba

- La province océanique Caribéenne-
Batholite de Buga
Colombienne s’approche au continent

G: 75-70 Ma Cordillère Centrale

- Collision oblique et accrétion de la province Fm. Nogales Fm. El Cobre
océanique Caribéenne-Colombienne
- Exhumation de la marge continentale +

H: ~60 Ma Batholite de Sonsón

- Reprise de la subduction

Figure 3. Reconstruction tectonique de la Colombie pendant le 150-60 Ma. Voir le texte pour d’autres détails. Les flèches
noires sont indicatives des périodes d’exhumation.

xviii
 Figure 4. Sierra Nevada de Santa
Marta et structures tectoniques
74°W 73°W principales. Code d’échantillon
(en bleu) et âge de traces de
13, 28.6
03, 16.3 fission d’apatite en Ma (noir;
15, 20.2 31, 22.2 Echantillon
01, 20.6 erreurs ±2σ entre 20 et 9%).
08, 24.9 32, 27.6 Les provinces structurales
18, 22.4
Sevilla
42, 40.3 principales sont marquées
Santa Marta FA 43, 59.6 [d’après Tschanz et al., 1974].
LS
04, 24.4 44, 43.3 FA: Faille Aguja LS: Linéament
06, 41.0 11°N
de Sevilla, FSMB: Faille Santa
14, 16.0 Marta-Bucaramanga.
17, 21.6 Sierra
Nevada 35, 40.6
09, 19.3
36, 44.4
23, 26.7 37, 42.5
39, 53.8
25, 24.2
24, 29.8
10°N
FS

26, 23.3 28, 28.6

MB

29, 30.3
Bassin du 0 20 40
Magdalena 30, 25.6
Km

Almaguer, menant à l’arrêt des deux arcs et le
commencement paléocène de la subduction sous
la croûte océanique accrétée (Figure 3h).
Histoire thermique et tectonique
post-Jurassique des Andes
Colombiennes
Le chapitre 3 se concentre sur les
thermochronomètres de basses et moyennes
températures. De nouvelles données d’40Ar/39Ar
dans de différentes phases minérales, ainsi que des
âges déterminés à partir des traces de fissions (zircon
et apatite) et des âges (U-Th)/He (zircon et apatite)
enregistrent une histoire de refroidissement
complexe dans les cordillères centrale et occidentale
colombienne, qui sont en lien avec les événements
tectoniques du Crétacé inférieur au Miocène
tardif. Les évidences présentées dans le chapitre
précèdent conjointement avec les caractéristiques
connues des enregistrements sédimentaires
régionaux dans les Andes septentrionales nous
permettent d’identifier l’origine des événements
de refroidissement et contraint les forces qui ont
modelé les Andes colombiennes occidentales.
Les âges de refroidissement d’40Ar/39Ar des
feldspaths alcalins obtenus à partir de roches
alcalines situées au nord et sud de la faille Ibagué,
étendue latéralement, montrent ~133-139 Ma
(Figure 2) et sont contemporains avec l’arrêt
du magmatisme d’arc d’âge jurassique et avec
une discordance majeure au sein de la région
de retro-avant-arc des Andes septentrionales.
Nous interprétons ces âges comme étant dû à un
refroidissement, suite à une exhumation qui prit
place en réponse à une plaque supérieure soutenue
dynamiquement et un rebond isostatique pendant
et ultérieurement à la fragmentation du slab
jurassique (Figure 3b).
Vers l’océan, le recul de la subduction durant
le début du Crétacé cause la séquence d’arc
océanique de Quebradagrande (Figure 3c). Les
thermochronomètres de température moyennes
(isotopes d’40Ar/39Ar dans les biotites et les
feldspaths alcalins avec des températures de
fermeture >230°C) dans les roches de la cordillères
centrale (marge paléocontinentale) situées au
nord de la faille d’Ibagué montrent la présence
d’un événement de refroidissement plus récent,
à 107-117 Ma, étant contemporains aux âges

xix
de refroidissement d’40Ar/39Ar de l’hornblende
(refroidissement en dessous de 550-500°C)
obtenus sur des roches métamorphiques de
moyenne et haute P-T du complexe d’Arquía,
qui sont probablement une structure résiduelle
du chenal de subduction du Jurassique
tardif – début du Crétacé. Cet événement de
refroidissement antérieur non identifié a été
attribué à une exhumation poussée par la collision
et l’accrétion de l’arc de Quebradagrande contre
la marge continentale, et par l’obduction du
chenal de subduction sur l’avant-arc (Figure
3d). La modélisation numérique des données
de thermochronométrie de basse température
(trace de fission et (U-Th)/He dans les zircons et
les apatites), acquises dans des roches prélevées
dans les cordillères occidentale et centrale montre
trois périodes de refroidissement rapide depuis
le Crétacé tardif. La phase la plus ancienne est
enregistrée dans les granitoïdes jurassiques et
crétacés (Batholites d’Ibagué et d’Antioquia) qui
furent mis en place dans la cordillère centrale de
Colombie et refroidit rapidement de ~550°C à ~60°C
de 75-65 Ma. Nous expliquons ce refroidissement
par une exhumation de la marge continentale
à un taux moyen de ~1.6km/My durant ~75-
70 Ma, forcé par la collision et l’accrétion de la
province océanique Caribéenne-Colombienne
durant le Campanien (Figure 3g). La sédimentation
détritique contemporaine prenant sa source
dans les roches de la cordillère centrale nourrit le
bassin de retro avant-pays et le bassin secondaire
(périphérique), confirmant l’exhumation observée.
La cordillère centrale s’exhuma à un taux moyen
de ~0.3 km/My pendant l’Éocène (~45-30 Ma), ce
qui est également observé le long de larges régions
répandues le long de la chaîne andine, et qui fut
probablement causé par une augmentation du
taux de convergence des plaques continentale-
océanique. Les taux d’exhumation élevés dans
le Miocène moyen et tardif ont été identifiés à
partir de données (U-Th)/He dans des apatites.
Le taux le plus élevée d’exhumation durant le
Miocène moyen et tardif se produit en Colombie
méridionale, et correspond spatialement avec
les taux d’exhumation élevés dans le nord de
l’Équateur. Cette distribution spatiale suggère que
l’exhumation a été une conséquence de l’érosion
lors et ultérieurement au soulèvement des roches,
en réponse à la collision et la subduction de la
dorsale flottante de Carnegie.
xx
Thermochronologie de la Sierra
Nevada de Santa Marta
Le Chapitre 4 décrit comment la
thermochronologie de basse température peut
aider à contraindre les variations de tectoniques
verticales dans une zone frontière entre la croûte
continentale et le plateau océanique, et comment
ces connaissances peuvent être utilisées pour la
reconstruction tectonique. Nous avons utilisé des
données de traces de fission dans des apatites
(obtenues par LA-ICP-MS) collectées le long de
plusieurs traverses et une unique coupe vertical
afin d’estimer les histoires thermales des roches de
surface de la Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta (SNSM,
Figure 1 and 4).
La topographiquement proéminente Sierra
Nevada de Santa Marta est un bloc faillé, isolé et
triangulaire de croûte continentale situé le long de
la frontière nord de la plaque Sud Américaine, et
abrite le sommet le plus élevé au monde (5.75km)
dont la base est situé directement au niveau
marin. Sa location avec celle de la zone frontière
de la plaque Caraïbe méridionale, réunie avec les
dépressions adjacentes extensives et profondes,
semble indiquer que toute la limite de plaque se
déplaçant latéralement est caractérisée par un
mouvement vertical intensif. L’estimation de la
quantité et du timing de soulèvement des roches
et de l’exhumation soutiendrait n’importe quelle
interprétation de l’histoire des limites des plaques.
La province de Sierra Nevada, qui est la partie la
plus méridionale de la Sierra Nevada de Santa
Marta, a subi une exhumation à des taux élevés
de ≥0.2 Km/My pendant 65-58 Ma en réponse à
l’accrétion de la province océanique Caribéenne-
Colombienne à la limite nord-ouest de l’Amérique
du Sud. Une seconde impulsion d’exhumation, à un
taux de ≥0.32 Km/My pris place entre 50-40 Ma
dû au sous-charriage de la plaque Caraïbe sous le
nord de l’Amérique du Sud. Une impulsion plus
récente, à 40-25 Ma et caractérisée par des taux
d’exhumation de ≥0.15 Km/My, est enregistrée
proche de la faille de Santa Marta-Bucaramanga
au sein de la province de Sierra Nevada, alors que
les régions plus septentrionales de la province
de Sierra Nevada, situées proche de l’alignement
structural de Sevilla, se sont exhumées plus
rapidement pendant la période 26-29 Ma à des taux
de ~0.7 Km/My. L’alignement structural de Sevilla
sépare la province de Sierra Nevada de celle de
Santa Marta et de celle du nord de Sevilla. Au nord
de cet alignement structural de Sevilla, la province
de Santa Marta, densément faillée, s’est exhumée
à des taux élevés de ≥0.3 Km/My et ≥0.8 Km/My
pendant 30-25 Ma et 25-16 Ma respectivement,
sans aucune corrélation claire entre le timing
d’exhumation et la location. Ce modèle général
montre que le lieu ou le taux d’exhumation était le
plus élevé a progressé graduellement vers le nord-
ouest au sein de la province de Sierra Nevada,
peut-être via l’extension des copeaux tectoniques
avec une vergence au NW. Les taux d’exhumation
les plus élevés après 30 Ma se retrouvent dans
la province de Santa Marta, suggérant que le
déplacement le long de l’alignement structural de
Sevilla a peut-être conduit à un découplage partiel
de la province de Sierra Nevada. Les âges les plus
récents de refroidissement et d’exhumation de
25-16 Ma sont inattendus étant donné l’élévation
importante et le fort pouvoir érosif du climat,
impliquant que l’élévation des roches et de la
surface qui forma la topographie actuelle est
probablement très récente (dans le dernier 1 Ma?)
et le temps d’érosion insuffisant pour permettre
d’exposer la zone d’apatite fossile partiellement
réchauffée.
Restrepo, J. J., Ordoñez-Carmona, O., Martens, U.,
Correa, A.M., 2009, Terrenos, Complejos y
provincias en la Cordillera Central de Colombia:
XII Congreso Colombiano de Geologia, p. 12.
Restrepo-Moreno, S. A., Foster, D. A., Stockli, D. F.,
and Parra, L. N., 2009, Long-term erosion and
exhumation of the “Altiplano Antioqueño”,
Northern Andes (Colombia) from apatite (U-
Th)/He thermochronology: Earth and Planetary
Science Letters, v. 278, no. 1-2, p. 1-12.
Tschanz, C. M., Marvin, R. F., Cruz B, J., Mehnert, H. H.,
and Cebula, G. T., 1974, Geologic Evolution of
the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, Northeastern
Colombia: Geological Society of America
Bulletin, v. 85, no. 2, p. 273-284.
Vinasco, C. J., Cordani, U. G., González, H., Weber, M.,
and Pelaez, C., 2006, Geochronological, isotopic,
and geochemical data from Permo-Triassic
granitic gneisses and granitoids of the Colombian
Central Andes: Journal of South American Earth
Sciences, v. 21, no. 4, p. 355-371

Références
Aspden, J. A., McCourt, W. J., and Brook, M., 1987,
Geometrical control of subduction-related
magmatism: the Mesozoic and Cenozoic
plutonic history of Western Colombia: Journal of
the Geological Society, v. 144, no. 6, p. 893-905.
Cardona, A., Cordani, U. G., and MacDonald, W. D.,
2006, Tectonic correlations of pre-Mesozoic
crust from the northern termination of the
Colombian Andes, Caribbean region: Journal of
South American Earth Sciences, v. 21, no. 4, p.
337-354.
Gómez, J., Nivia, A., Montes, N.E., Jimenez, D.M.,
Tejada, M.L., Sepulveda, J., Osorio, J.A., Gaona,
T., Diederix, H., Uribe, H., Mora, M., 2007,
Geological map of Colombia. Escala 1:1’000.000.:
Ingeominas, 2nd Edition, Bogota.
Ordóñez-Carmona, O., and Pimentel, M. M., 2002,
Rb-Sr and Sm-Nd isotopic study of the Puquí
complex, Colombian Andes: Journal of South
American Earth Sciences, v. 15, no. 2, p. 173-182.

xxi
xxii
Chapter 1
Introduction
Thermochronology is the study of the thermal
histories of minerals, which can in turn be used to
estimate the vertical motion of rocks relative to
the earth’s surface, assuming that cooling can be
reliably converted to exhumation. Every isotopic
system behaves as an open system at sufficiently
high temperatures, where isotopes rapidly partition
into fluid rich phases and solid phases with lower
concentrations of the solute (i.e. daughter isotope).
Assuming that daughter isotope loss is dominated
by thermally activated diffusion, we can define a
temperature range where daughter isotopes are
partially retained within their lattice of origin.
Furthermore, we can also mathematically define a
closure temperature, Tc [Dodson, 1973], which lies
within the range of daughter isotope retention, and
is approximately equivalent to the temperature at
which ~42% of the daughter isotope is retained.
The assumption that thermal histories can be
accurately translated into exhumation histories,
suggest that thermochronological methods are
valuable tools for investigating tectonic processes.
High temperature thermochronology (Tc >750°C)
of magmatic rocks can generally be considered
as a proxy for crystallization [Harley and Kelly,
2007; Harley et al., 2007], whereas medium and
low temperature thermochronometers (<750°C)
generally reveal information about middle and
lower crustal occurrences such as exhumation
during orogenesis or extension sedimentary
basin histories, metamorphic processes and
hydrothermal alteration.
Various geo- and thermochronometers with a
range of temperatures of partial daughter isotope
retention have been employed in this thesis to
elucidate thermal histories within the upper crust.
These are U-Pb in zircon, K/Ar (via 40Ar/39Ar) in
hornblende, biotite, alkali and calcic feldspar,
fission track in zircon and apatite, and (U-Th)/He
in zircon and apatite. The 40Ar/39Ar data has been
used to plot single points on transient thermal
history paths, and closure temperatures have
been determined using the equation of Dodson
[1973]. However, integrated thermal history paths
have been obtained from apatite fission track and
zircon and apatite (U-Th)/He data using the kinetic
data for track annealing and He diffusion of Farley
[2002], Reiners et al. [2002] and Ketcham et al.
[2007].
Within this thesis, we have assigned the
cause of cooling to be exhumation when i) we
can confidentially show that the sample was not
cooling as a result of thermal relaxation of itself,
or of a neighbouring rock mass (e.g. pluton and/or
hydrothermal cell), and ii) periods of cooling were
simultaneous with proximal sedimentation [e.g.
Ehlers and Farley, 2003].
The Pacific margin of the Northern Andes
(Colombia and Ecuador) has been an active margin
for a long time, possibly already since the Proto-
Gondwana whereas by early Carboniferous time it
was located in an active Gondwana margin [Chew
et al., 2008; Cardona et al., 2010]. The Permian
collision event in the northernmost Andes was
probably related to the assembly of the Pangaea
supercontinent (for a review, see Ramos and
Alemán [2000]; Vinasco et al., [2006]), which
was followed by a subsequent breakup of the
supercontinent in Triassic times [Noble et al., 1997;
Vinasco et al., 2006] and the onset of continental
arc magmatism in the Jurassic.
In contrast to the Central and Southern Andes,
post-Jurassic subduction in the Northern Andes
and Central America was interrupted by the
accretion of multiple oceanic allochthonous and
para-autochthonous terranes [Kerr et al., 1997;
Kerr et al., 2004; Spikings et al., in press.]. Those
terranes, which included back-arcs, an oceanic
plateau and island arcs, accreted onto the western
margin of North and South America during Early-
middle Cretaceous to Late Cretaceous, and are also
exposed around the margins of the Caribbean Plate
and within Central America [e.g. Sinton et al., 1998;
Pindell and Kennan, 2009]. Subsequent Paleocene
to Quaternary subduction has been continuous,
giving rise to an extensive arc sequence.
During the previous decade, several workers
have studied the geological evolution of the
Eastern and Western Cordilleras of Ecuador, and
constructed a temporal framework for terrane
accretion and subsequent mountain building
events. Thermochronological data from those
1
studies [Spikings and Crowhurst, 2004; Spikings et 4. Constrain the timing of collision of the Late
al., 2000; 2001, in press] spanned a temperature Cretaceous allochthonous units with the NW South
range of ~380-40°C and was able to resolve a American margin. If these sequences did form part
Late Cretaceous tectonic event related to the of the Caribbean–Colombian Oceanic Province,
accretion of a Late Cretaceous oceanic plateau and then their timing of collision with the South
its overlying arc (Caribbean–Colombian Oceanic American Plate is paramount for reconstructions
Province) onto the South American Plate, and of the Caribbean Plate. This aim is addressed in
younger, post-accretionary events within Ecuador, Chapter 3.
that were driven by major plate rearrangements 5. Quantify the thermochronological response
and the subduction of heterogeneous oceanic of the NW South American plate margin to the
crust. However, all previous thermochronological collision events. How do continental margins
studies in Ecuador yielded post-Campanian cooling tectonically respond to the collision of thickened,
and exhumation histories. relatively buoyant oceanic crust (plateaus)? This
Regardless of the complicated history aim is addressed in Chapter 3.
experienced by rocks exposed in the Colombian 6. Quantify the thermal and tectonic history
Andes, few quantitative data have been published of the Pacific and Caribbean margins of Colombia
[Restrepo-Moreno et al., 2009; Mora et al., 2008; during the Cenozoic (Chapter 3), with an emphasis
Parra et al., 2009] to constrain the evolution of on the topographically prominent massif of the
the north-western corner of the South American
Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta (Chapter 4). Is the
Plate during the Phanerozoic, and a temporally topography in equilibrium, and what were the
constrained framework for the tectonic evolution main driving forces that exhumed the Colombian
of this region has been almost entirely missing, cordilleras during the Cenozoic?.
which has strongly inhibited accurate models for
the early evolution of the Caribbean Plate. The successful investigation of each of these
aims has permitted a coherent model for the
The main aim of this thesis is to propose a evolution of the rocks of the Colombian Cordilleras
tectonic reconstruction for the northwestern to be presented, which is essential to obtain and
South American Plate since the disassembly of accurate reconstruction, and hence understanding
western Pangaea, based on thermochronological, of the tectonic history of the north-western margin
geochemical, geochronological and field of South America, and the Caribbean and eastern
observations. That primary aim can be broken Pacific plates (Nazca and Cocos) since the Early
down into the following sub-aims: Cretaceous.
1. Locate and characterise (lithologically,
geochronologically and geochemically) Palaeozoic
– Triassic rock units within autochthonous terranes
of the Colombian Central Cordillera, to understand
further the consequences of Pangean formation
and disassembly for proximal South America. This
aim is addressed in Chapter 2.
2. Determine the age and tectonic origin
of Jurassic - Early Cretaceous rocks. Are they
allochthonous or autochthonous to the Guyana
Shield? Did the South American Plate grow by
the accretion of island arcs, subsequent to the
disassembly of Pangea? This aim is addressed in
Chapter 2.
3. Determine the age and tectonic origin of
allochthonous Late Cretaceous sequences. Did
these sequences form part of the Caribbean–
Colombian Oceanic Province? This aim is addressed
in Chapter 2.

2
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Ojeda, J. Ruiz, and M. Weber (2010), Permian
to Triassic I to S-type magmatic switch in
the northeast Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta
and adjacent regions, Colombian Caribbean:
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paleogeography, Journal of South American
Earth Sciences, 29(4), 772-783, doi: DOI:
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Chew, D. M., T. Magna, C. L. Kirkland, A. Miskovic, A.
Cardona, R. Spikings, and U. Schaltegger (2008),
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Dodson, M. H. (1973), Closure temperature in cooling
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821X(02)01069-5.
Farley, K. A. (2000), Helium diffusion from
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Harley, S. L., and N. M. Kelly (2007), Zircon Tiny but
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Harley, S. L., N. M. Kelly, and A. Moller (2007),
Zircon Behaviour and the Thermal Histories
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Kerr, A. C., J. Tarney, P. D. Kempton, M. Pringle, and A.
Nivia (2004), Mafic Pegmatites Intruding Oceanic
Plateau Gabbros and Ultramafic Cumulates from
Bolivar, Colombia: Evidence for a ‘Wet’ Mantle
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Kerr, A. C., G. F. Marriner, J. Tarney, A. Nivia, A. D.
Saunders, M. F. Thirlwall, and C. W. Sinton
(1997), Cretaceous Basaltic Terranes in Western
Colombia: Elemental, Chronological and Sr-Nd
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Ketcham, R. A., A. Carter, R. A. Donelick, J. Barbarand,
and A. J. Hurford (2007), Improved modeling
of fission-track annealing in apatite, American
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Mora, A., M. Parra, M. Strecker, E. Sobel, H.
Hooghiemstra, V. Torres, and J. Vallejo Jaramillo
(2008), Climatic forcing of asymmetric orogenic
evolution in the Eastern Cordillera of Colombia,
Geological Society of America Bulletin, 120(7-8),
930-949, 10.1130/b26186.1.
Noble, S. R., J. A. Aspden, and R. Jemielita (1997),
Northern Andean crustal evolution: New U-Pb
geochronological constraints from Ecuador,
Geological Society of America Bulletin, 109(7), 789-
798, 10.1130/0016-7606(1997)109<0789:nacen
u>2.3.co;2.
Parra, M., A. Mora, C. Jaramillo, M. R. Strecker, E. R.
Sobel, L. Quiroz, M. Rueda, and V. Torres (2009),
Orogenic wedge advance in the northern
Andes: Evidence from the Oligocene-Miocene
sedimentary record of the Medina Basin,
Eastern Cordillera, Colombia, Geological Society
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b26257.1.
Pindell, J., and L. Kennan (2009), Tectonic evolution
of the Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean and northern
South America in the mantle reference frame:
an update, Geological Society, London, Special
Publication, James, K., Lorente, M. A. & Pindell,
J. (eds), The geology and evolution of the region
between North and South America, expected
late 2009.
Ramos, V. A., and A. Alemán (2000), Tectonic evolution
of the Andes., in Cordani, U., Milani, E.J., Thomaz
Filho, A., and Campos Neto, M.C., eds.,, Tectonic
Evolution of South America: Rio de Janeiro,
Institut de Recherche pour le Développement,
635-685.
Reiners, P. W., K. A. Farley, and H. J. Hickes (2002), He
diffusion and (U-Th)/He thermochronometry of
zircon: initial results from Fish Canyon Tuff and
Gold Butte, Tectonophysics, 349(1-4), 297-308,
doi: DOI: 10.1016/S0040-1951(02)00058-6.
Restrepo-Moreno, S. A., D. A. Foster, D. F. Stockli,
and L. N. Parra (2009), Long-term erosion and
exhumation of the “Altiplano Antioqueño”,
Northern Andes (Colombia) from apatite (U-
Th)/He thermochronology, Earth and Planetary
Science Letters, 278(1-2), 1-12, doi: DOI:
10.1016/j.epsl.2008.09.037.
Sinton, C. W., R. A. Duncan, M. Storey, J. Lewis, and J. J.
Estrada (1998), An oceanic flood basalt province
within the Caribbean plate, Earth and Planetary
Science Letters, 155(3-4), 221-235, doi: DOI:
10.1016/S0012-821X(97)00214-8.
Spikings, R. A., and P. V. Crowhurst (2004), (U-Th)/He
thermochronometric constraints on the late
Miocene-Pliocene tectonic development of the
northern Cordillera Real and the Interandean
Depression, Ecuador, Journal of South American
Earth Sciences, 17(4), 239-251, doi: DOI:
10.1016/j.jsames.2004.07.001.
Spikings, R. A., P. V. Crowhurst, W. Winkler, and D.
Villagomez Syn- and post accretionary cooling
history of the Ecuadorian Andes constrained by
their in-situ and detrital thermochronometric
3
 record, Journal of South American Earth
Sciences, In Press, Accepted Manuscript, doi:
DOI: 10.1016/j.jsames.2010.04.002.

Spikings, R. A., D. Seward, W. Winkler, and G. M. Ruiz

(2000), Low-temperature thermochronology of
the northern Cordillera Real, Ecuador: Tectonic
insights from zircon and apatite fission track
analysis, Tectonics, 19, 10.1029/2000tc900010.

Spikings, R. A., W. Winkler, D. Seward, and R. Handler

(2001), Along-strike variations in the thermal and
tectonic response of the continental Ecuadorian
Andes to the collision with heterogeneous
oceanic crust, Earth and Planetary Science
Letters, 186(1), 57-73, doi: DOI: 10.1016/S0012-
821X(01)00225-4.

Vinasco, C. J., U. G. Cordani, H. González, M. Weber, and

C. Pelaez (2006), Geochronological, isotopic, and
geochemical data from Permo-Triassic granitic
gneisses and granitoids of the Colombian
Central Andes, Journal of South American Earth
Sciences, 21(4), 355-371, doi: DOI: 10.1016/j.
jsames.2006.07.007.

4
Chapter 2

Geochronology, geochemistry and tectonic evolution of the Western and

Central cordilleras of Colombia

Diego Villagómez1, Richard Spikings1, Tomas Magna2, Andreas Kammer 3, Wilfried Winkler4, Alejandro Beltrán 4

1
Section of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Geneva. 13 Rue des Maraîchers, 1205 Geneva,
Switzerland (Diego.Villagomez@gmail.com)
2
Institut für Mineralogie, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster. Corrensstrasse 24, D-48149 Münster,
Germany
3
Departamento de Geociencias, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, A.A. 14490 Bogotá, Colombia.
4
Geologisches Institut, ETH-Zürich, 8092 Zürich, Switzerland.

Abstract

The Central Cordillera of Colombia is built from autochthonous rocks that define the pre-Cretaceous
continental margin (the Tahami Terrane), juxtaposed against a series of para-autochthonous and
allochthonous terranes that accreted during the Cretaceous and which are exposed in the Western
Cordillera and the Cauca-Patía Valley, along the regional-scale Romeral Fault System that extends into
Ecuador. We present the first regional-scale dataset of zircon U-Pb LA-ICP-MS ages for multiple intrusive and
metamorphic rocks of the autochthonous Tahami Terrane, Early Cretaceous igneous para-autochthonous
rocks (Quebradagrande Complex) and accreted Late Cretaceous oceanic crust of the allochthonous
Calima Terrane. The U-Pb zircon data are complemented by multiphase 40Ar/39Ar crystallization ages. The
geochronological data have been combined with whole rock major oxide, trace element and REE data
(XRF and LA-ICP-MS) from the same units to constrain the tectonic origin of the rock units and terranes
exposed in the Central and Western cordilleras of Colombia. Our data show that metamorphic rocks
forming the basement of the Tahami Terrane, which are exposed in the Central Cordillera consist of a
complex assemblage of lower Paleozoic gneisses that were intruded by Permian granites, which were
unconformably overlain by Triassic sedimentary rocks that subsequently underwent anatexis (Cajamarca
Complex). Discrete Precambrian age populations indicate the Paleozoic-Triassic sedimentary rocks were
probably derived from the Guyana Shield and are native to South America. A distinct peak of U-Pb
detrital zircon ages at 220-240 Ma yielded by the Triassic metasedimentary rocks defines their maximum
depositional age. The S-type granites yield ages as young as 240 Ma, suggesting the high-temperature
metamorphic event that partially melted the sedimentary rocks was related to the disassembly of Pangea,
and the initiation of the western Tethys-Pacific Wilson cycle. Continental arc magmatism spanned the
entire Jurassic and is preserved along the whole length of the Central Cordillera. The youngest pulse of
Mesozoic continental arc magmatism occurred at 145 Ma.
An oceanic marginal basin and intra-oceanic arc, represented by the Quebradagrande Complex formed
during the Early Cretaceous, and its inception may have been caused by back-stepping of the Jurassic slab
due to the introduction of buoyant sea-mounts. The coexistence of both MORB-like gabbros and basalts
in close association with pillowed arc basalts, locally covered by marine sediments with both an oceanic
and continental provenance suggests an oceanic arc origin for the Quebradagrande Complex, with a back-

5
arc located proximal to the continent. The Quebradagrande Complex accreted against the Tahami Terrane
during the late Aptian, which was accompanied by the obduction of medium-high P–T metamorphic rocks
of the Arquía Complex onto the Cretaceous forearc. The oceanic basement of the Western Cordillera
and the Cauca-Patía Valley (the Calima Terrane) formed above an oceanic hotspot, which generated a
plateau that was intruded by an intra-oceanic arc, forming the Late Cretaceous Caribbean-Colombian
Oceanic Province. Geochronological analyses of the plateau rocks yield an age range of 100-92 Ma. The
remnant ocean basin located between South America and the Caribbean-Colombian Oceanic Province
was consumed via a double-vergent subduction system, giving rise to a continental and oceanic arc. The
Caribbean-Colombian Oceanic Province collided and accreted to South America during ~75-70 Ma along
the Cauca-Almaguer Fault, resulting in the cessation of both arcs and the Paleocene onset of subduction
beneath the accreted oceanic crust.

1 Introduction timing of ocean closure and subsequent continent

The continental margin of the South American
Plate in Colombia has experienced at least one
complete Wilson cycle since ~600 Ma with the
opening and closure of the Iapetus and Rheic
oceans, and it is currently undergoing the active
margin stage of the Tethys-Pacific Wilson cycle. The
northern Andes (north of 5°S) are unique among
the Andean mountain chain within the Pacific
Wilson cycle because they include Cretaceous
allochthonous terranes that consist of oceanic
crust, whose collision and accretion in the Early
and Late Cretaceous to South America interrupted
the classic Andean western Pacific subduction
system. Regardless of the complicated history
experienced by rocks exposed in the Colombian
Andes, few quantitative data has been published
to constrain the evolution of the northwestern
corner of the South American Plate during the
Phanerozoic. We aim to constrain temporally
the composition and evolution of the Paleozoic
– Mesozoic South American Plate boundary, and
the indenting allochthonous Cretaceous rocks by
geochemical characterization, U-Pb and 40Ar/39Ar
geochronology.
The U-Pb LA-ICP-MS method has been applied to
zircons (both autocrystic and xenocrystic) extracted
from igneous rocks and metasedimentary rocks
along the Paleozoic – Mesozoic margin of Colombia,
which are exposed in the Tahami Terrane. These
rocks span the termination of the Iapetus cycle
and the initiation of Tethys-Pacific cycle, and hence
provide information that temporally constrains the
depositional ages of the rock sequences, and the
timing of crustal anatexis during high-temperature
metamorphic events, yielding information about the
disassembly. Similar data has been acquired from
the indenting Cretaceous oceanic crust, which
permits its origin to be assessed. 40Ar/39Ar data
(hornblende, biotite and plagioclase) has also
been acquired from continental arc sequences and
older rocks of continental crust to complement the
U-Pb zircon data. The geochemical characteristics
of metamorphosed and non-metamorphosed
magmatic rocks have been acquired to identify
the tectonic origin of various rock sequences from
both the oceanic and continental sequences.
This study is the first regional-scale study of
the rocks exposed in the Central and Western
cordilleras of Colombia, which attempts to
combine geochemical data with interpretable
geochronological data. An improved understanding
of the ages and tectonic origins of the rocks with
both continental and oceanic affinities will provide
new information concerning i) the amalgamation
of western Pangea, ii) the disassembly of western
Pangea during rifting in the western Tethys, iii)
transition from a passive to an active margin, iv)
evolution of the active margin and its interruption
via the introduction of heterogeneous oceanic
crust to the trench, e.g. the collision of the Trans-
American arc and the Caribbean Cretaceous
Oceanic Province. This improved knowledge of
the evolution of northwestern South America
contributes to a greater understanding of the
evolution of the Caribbean Plate, which was the
source region for the accreted terranes during the
Early and Late Cretaceous. The interpretations
have been partly derived by combining the data
acquired here, with thermochronological data that
is presented in Chapter 3 of this thesis.

6
 90°W 80°W 70°W 60°W

North American Plate

20°N

Caribbean Plate

SNSM GP

10°N SJ

Cocos Plate SM
CP Venezuela
CC
e

WC
dg

EC
Ri
s
co

Colombia
Co

MV
South American Plate
CPV
0°N
Carnegie Ridge
Ecuador 0 Km 400
Nazca Plate
RC

-8 km -6 km -4 km -2 km 0 2km 4km
Bathymetry Land elevation

Subduction zone
Chocó-
Panamá Faults
Terrane
Cretaceous sutures
OPF

Figure 1. Digital elevation model of northwestern South

5°N a America and surrounding tectonic plates, showing the
PF main cordilleras, faults and the location of the subducting
DF Carnegie Ridge. The Cretaceous ocean-continent suture is
F

shown as a thick black line. Inset shows the study area in

CP

more detail, and the three sample regions (a, b and c) that
b are presented in Figure 2. CC: Central Cordillera, CP: Chocó–
Calima Tahami Panamá Block, CPF: Cali-Patía Fault, CPV: Cauca–Patía Valley,
Terrane Terrane
S

DF: Dabeiba–Garrapatas Fault, EC: Eastern Cordillera, GP:

RF

Guajira Peninsula, MV: Magdalena Valley, OPF: Otú-Pericos

Fault, PeF: Peltetec Fault (Ecuador), PF: Palestina Fault,
RC: Raspas Complex (Amotape Province in Ecuador), RFS:
Romeral Fault System, SJ: San Jacinto belt; SNSM: Sierra
c Nevada de Santa Marta, WC: Western Cordillera.
0°
F
Pe

80°W 75°W
7
2 Geological Framework
The northern Andes of Colombia comprise three
sublinear topographic ridges, referred to as the
Western, Central and Eastern cordilleras, and the
rocks exposed in each cordillera reveal contrasting
geological histories. The ridges are separated by
depressions that become wider towards the north,
and include the Cauca Valley and the Magdalena
Valley (Figure 1).
The basement crystalline rocks of the Colombian
Andes include distinct allochthonous and terranes
that are floored by mafic and ultramafic rocks,
which are thought to have accreted during the
Mesozoic. The mafic terranes are exposed within
the Western Cordillera and the Cauca Valley, and
are juxtaposed against the para-autochthonous
and autochthonous paleo-continental margin
across the regional-scale Romeral Fault System
(Figure 1). This broad faulted zone (up to 30 km
wide) corresponds to a ~2000 km long tectonic
suture that extends southwards into Ecuador,
and includes anastomosed zones of mafic and
ultramafic rocks, high-pressure assemblages
and mélange zones. Within Colombia, the suture
zone can be divided into three major branches
[Chicangana, 2005], which are the San Jerónimo
Fault, Silvia–Pijao Fault and the Cauca–Almaguer
Fault, which generally define the break-of-slope of
the western flank of the Central Cordillera.
2.1 Continental Crust of the Central
Cordillera: Autochthonous terranes.
Continental crust is exposed within the Central
Cordillera to the east of the easternmost branch
of the Romeral Fault System (the San Jerónimo
Fault; Figures 1 and 2), and west of the Otú-Pericos
Fault (Figure 1). Restrepo and Toussaint [1988]
referred to these rocks as the Tahami Terrane,
which consists of Paleozoic gneisses of the Puqui
and La Miel units [Ordóñez-Carmona and Pimentel,
2002] that are in unconformable contact with
metasedimentary and meta-igneous rocks of the
temporally poorly constrained Cajamarca Complex.
Detailed geological maps of the Central Cordillera
are scarce [e.g. Gómez et al., 2007; Cediel and
Cáceres, 2003] and show widespread presence of
variably deformed Permo-Triassic granitoids that
8
may have formed via crustal melting during the
Permian assembly of Pangea and its subsequent
fragmentation during the Triassic [Vinasco et al.,
2006; Cardona et al., 2006].
The Eastern Cordillera of Ecuador, which hosts
the along-strike equivalent rock sequences to those
exposed in the Tahami Terrane, has been mapped
in considerably more detail [e.g. Aspden et al.,
1992; Litherland et al., 1994; Pratt et al., 2005] and
is commonly divided into four distinct terranes.
In Colombia, in contrast, all these lithologies have
been traditionally grouped into the Tahami Terrane
[Restrepo and Toussaint, 1988], which is reported
as a coherent belt of metamorphic and intrusive
rocks that was uplifted along the Otú-Pericos Fault
to the east and the Romeral Fault System to the
west (Figures 1 and 2). More recently, localized
mapping within the northern Central Cordillera of
Colombia led Restrepo et al. [2009a] to propose
the existence of distinct Phanerozoic crustal
blocks that were metamorphosed at different
times. These blocks are referred to as the Tahami,
Panzenu and Anacona terranes in the northern
Central Cordillera [Restrepo et al., 2009a]. Terrane
amalgamation occurred in the late Paleozoic
[Vinasco et al., 2006; Cardona et al., 2006] in the
wake of the collision of Gondwana and Laurassia to
form Pangea, and during the Triassic disassembly
of Pangea [Aspden et al., 1987; Noble et al., 1997;
Pindell, 1993; Vinasco et al., 2006].
The pre-Jurassic metamorphic rocks are
intruded and contact metamorphosed by
undeformed Jurassic, calc-alkaline, I-type
granitoids of the Ibagué Batholith (K/Ar biotite
and hornblende ages of 140–150 Ma) [Brook,
1974; Vesga and Barrero, 1978], which are partly
overlain by contemporaneous high-SiO2 volcanic
rocks of the Saldaña Fm., which represent the
most voluminous and extensive period of volcanic
activity along the western margin of the American
plates [Pindell et al., 2005]. Subsequently, the
Tahami Terrane in the northern Central Cordillera
was intruded by the calc-alkaline, Late Cretaceous
Antioquia Batholith (83–88 Ma) [Ibañez-Mejía et
al., 2007], which is a large (7,600 km2; Figure 2a)
dioritic-granitic intrusive sequence. Continental arc
granites of the Paleocene Sonsón Batholith (65–55
Ma; zircon U-Pb) [Ordóñez-Carmona et al., 2001]
were emplaced through the Antioquia Batholith.
Published K/Ar and Rb/Sr ages of metamorphic
and granitic rocks of the Central Cordillera range
between 343–57 Ma [see compilation in Aspden
et al., 1987; Restrepo et al., 2009a]. Most of these
ages have been interpreted to record thermal
events during the early Mesozoic to early Cenozoic
[McCourt et al., 1984; Restrepo et al., 2009a].
However, the analytical techniques do not provide
parameters that can be used to constrain the time
and degree of partial resetting of the Rb/Sr and
K/Ar isotopic systems, and hence the geological
relevance of the ages is uncertain.
2.2 Terranes within the Romeral Fault
System: The Quebradagrande and Arquía
Complexes.
The San Jerónimo Fault separates continental
rocks of the Tahami Terrane from an intensively
deformed belt of oceanic volcanic rocks and
marine to terrestrial sedimentary rocks of the
Quebradagrande Complex (Figure 2a–b). This
complex is in tectonic contact with medium- and
high-pressure metamorphic rocks of the Arquía
Complex across the Silvia–Pijao Fault. The western
limit of exposures of these units corresponds to
the Cauca–Almaguer Fault. Collectively, the San
Jerónimo, Silvia–Pijao and Cauca–Almaguer faults
(SJF, SPF and CAF in Figure 2) represent the regional-
scale Romeral Fault System [Chicangana, 2005],
which is thought to extend southwards beneath the
Cenozoic volcanic rocks and is probably continuous
with the Peltetec fault system in Ecuador [Cediel et
al., 2003].
The Quebradagrande Complex (Figures 2a-
b) consists of unmetamorphosed to low-grade
metamorphosed gabbros, diorites, basalts
and andesites that are covered by marine and
terrestrial sedimentary rocks of the Abejorral Fm.,
which hosts Hauterivian to lower Albian fossils
[González, 1980]. The igneous rocks are considered
to have formed in either a mid-oceanic ridge
setting [González, 1980], an island arc [Toussaint
and Restrepo, 1994] or an ensialic marginal basin
[Nivia et al., 2006]. The Quebradagrande Complex
is in faulted contact with isolated tectonic slices
of garnet-bearing amphibolites of the Arquía
complex (K–Ar hornblende: 113 Ma) [Restrepo and
Toussaint, 1976] (40Ar/39Ar total fusion hornblende:
107 Ma) [Restrepo et al., 2008] and lawsonite-
glaucophane schists (the Jambaló and Barragán
blueschist complexes; 40Ar/39Ar phengite: 120–60
Ma) [Bustamante 2008] exposed along the western
flank of the Central Cordillera (Figure 2a–b). Nivia
et al. [2006] consider the medium- and high-
pressure metamorphic rocks to be Neoproterozoic
continental rocks, based on cross-cutting field
evidence that was apparently misinterpreted [see
Restrepo et al., 2009b].
The origin and timing of peak metamorphism
of the Arquía Complex is poorly constrained.
However, Bustamante [2008] using geochemistry,
geothermobarometry and 40
Ar/39Ar
thermochronology in fine-grained white mica
propose that the protolith of the blueschist
sequence of the Jambaló unit was basaltic and
could have originated at either an island arc or mid-
ocean ridge setting, and was metamorphosed at
~63 Ma. The protolith of the high-pressure rocks of
the Barragán unit originated at a mid-ocean ridge
and equilibrated with blueschist P–T conditions
prior to 120 Ma.
2.3 Exotic terranes in the Cauca-Patía
Valley
The Cauca-Patía Valley in Colombia (Figure 1)
is located immediately to the west of the Cauca–
Almaguer Fault and is limited to the west by the
Cali–Patía Fault (Figure 2). The valley’s width varies
between 15 km to 30 km, abruptly disappears
at ~6ºN, is flat bottomed and it hosts numerous
Cenozoic intermontane basins that cover most of
the basement. The basement is exposed to the
west of the Cauca–Almaguer Fault (Figure 2a–b)
and consists of basalts and gabbros of the Amaime
Fm. and ultramafic cumulate rocks of the Ginebra
and Los Azules Fms, which are consistent with
the strongly positive Bouguer gravity anomalies
observed in the region (+135 to +75 mgal) [Case et
al., 1971].
Aspden et al. [1987] suggested that the
basement of the Cauca-Patía Valley in Colombia
defines a Jurassic–Lower Cretaceous ophiolitic
sequence. However, a more recent geochemical
study showed that these rocks formed in an
oceanic plateau setting, and proposed that they
may represent an older, Early Cretaceous segment
of terranes composed of similar lithologies within
the Western Cordillera [Kerr et al., 1997]. However,
few radiometric ages have been published for
9
the Amaime and Los Azules Fms, and include a
groundmass, total fusion 40Ar/39Ar age of 76 Ma
[Sinton et al., 1998] and K/Ar ages that range
between 104–78 Ma [De Souza et al., 1984]
with potentially disturbed isotopic systems and
(partially) reset ages. The Buga Batholith intrudes
these sequences, and thus constrains the minimum
age for the mafic basement of the Cauca-Patía
Valley. Unfortunately, previous Rb/Sr and K/Ar
radiometric ages of 114–94 Ma obtained from the
Buga Batholith [Brook, 1984] are associated with
large uncertainties and do not precisely constrain
the age of the basement sequence.
2.4 Exotic terranes in the Western
Cordillera and the coastal ranges
Few detailed descriptions and maps exist for
rocks located to the west of the Cali–Patía Fault,
within the Western Cordillera and the present-day
forearc region of Colombia. Restrepo and Toussaint
[1988] group the rocks from the Western Cordillera
and the basement of the Cauca-Patía depression
into the Calima Terrane (Figure 1) whereas rocks
exposed in the coastal ranges are part of the so-
called Chocó-Panamá Terrane. The Calima Terrane
is composed of three Upper Cretaceous sequences
of rocks, which are: i) an imbricate sequence of
pillow and massive basalts as well as gabbros of
the Volcanic and Barroso Fms (Figure 2) [Barrero,
1979; Aspden, 1984; Kerr et al., 1997; Sinton et al.,
1998], ii) the Bolívar Ultramafic Complex (Figure
2b), which is composed of norites, olivine norites
and gabbronorites, with incompatible trace
element ratios similar to those of the Volcanic Fm.
[Kerr et al., 2004], and iii) turbidites of the Espinal,
Cisneros and Penderisco Fms (Figure 2), which
consist of a sequence of shales with thin lenses of
limestones and cherts that are occasionally slightly
metamorphosed to slates and phyllites and contain
Albian–Maastrichtian radiolarites and ammonites
[Barrero, 1979; Etayo-Serna et al., 1985a]. The
Chocó-Panamá Terrane (Figure 1) is bounded to
the east by the Dabeiba-Garrapatas Fault [Cediel et
al., 2003] and consists of basalts rocks with similar
geochemical characteristics to the Volcanic and
Barroso Fms [Kerr et al., 1997].
It is generally accepted that the ultramafic and
mafic rocks of the Calima and Chocó-Panamá
terranes exposed in western Colombia form part
of the Caribbean Large Igneous Province (CLIP)
[Kerr et al., 1997], which is also referred to as
the Caribbean–Colombian Oceanic Province [Kerr
et al., 2004]. Mafic to ultramafic rocks formed
in response to Late Cretaceous, mantle plume-
related volcanism in the eastern Pacific [Pindell,
1990, 1993; Kerr et al., 1997; Luzieux et al., 2006]
and accreted against northwestern South America
in the Campanian [e.g. Hughes and Pilatasig,
2002; Jaillard et al., 2004; Spikings et al., 2005;
Vallejo et al., 2009; this study, Chapter 3]. A single
groundmass 40Ar/39Ar age of 91.7±2.7 Ma has
been acquired from the Volcanic Fm. [Kerr et al.,
1997], which is consistent with fossil evidence
obtained from intercalated sedimentary rocks.
Several authors have utilised radiometric and
biostratigraphic evidence to show that the plateau
rocks exposed in the Caribbean, Colombia and
Ecuador (and elsewhere) ranges between 92 and
88 Ma [Kerr et al., 1997; Kerr et al., 1999; Sinton et
al., 1997, 1998; Luzieux et al., 2006; Vallejo et al.,
2009] with a minor pulse at 76–72 Ma [Kerr et al.,
1997].
Several authors [Sinton et al., 1998; Kerr et al.,
2004; Luzieux et al., 2006; Pindell and Kennan,
2009] have proposed a similar model for the
generation and migration for the basement of the
Caribbean–Colombian Oceanic Province, which
invoke an origin at the Galápagos hot spot. In this
context, Spikings et al. [2001] proposed a model for
northwestern South America, where the plateau
fragmented into several tectonic slices, during and
subsequent to its collision with the northwestern
margin of the South American plate.

Figure 2 (Next page). Geological maps of the three study regions (see Figure 1) within the Central and Western Cordilleras
of Colombia, and the Cauca-Patía Valley [after Gómez et al. 2007], showing sample locations (sample codes shown in blue;
DV##), the radiometric ages acquired in this study (±2σ error), and the locations of samples analysed for geochemical data. (U-
Pb data shown as detrital zircon peak ages for samples DV19 and DV50). Abbreviations: The Cauca–Almaguer Fault (CAF), San
Jerónimo Fault (SJF) and the Silvia–Pijao Fault (SPF) collectively define the Romeral Fault System, which is s set of Cretaceous
ocean-continent sutures. Other abbreviations, BB: Buga Batholith (Figure 2b), BUC: Bolívar Ultramafic Complex (Figure 2b);
CP: Córdoba Pluton (Figure 2b), CPF: Cauca–Patía Fault, IF: Ibagué Fault, MB: Mande Batholith (Figure 2a), OPF: Otú-Pericos
Fault; PF: Palestina Fault, PP: Piedrancha Pluton (Figure 2c).

10
 a b
76°22’ 74°37’
7°10’
78-79 19:220-1200 18:237.5±5.5
Dabeiba OPF 76°48’
4°55’

F
78: 25.6±2.6 159
26:79.7±2.5 PF

OP
02: 220-600
94:95.5±1.1 CPF 155.6±6.2
50: 440, Armenia
900-1700 CP Ibagué IF 04:159.2±5.2
95:97.1±2.0
56: 87.2±1.6 26
87-88 28-29 05:165.0±15.0
PF BUC 153.1±2.0
91:90.9±1.4 90-157
Medellín 158 06:182.6±2.4

F
58: 94.6±2.1

F
07:148.9±3.4

SJ
30:92.1±0.8
147.0±0.5

CA
43 91
30 09:159.5±2.4
74 109 102-103 151.8±0.9

F
108:75.7±1.6 BB

SJF
75 105-106 97 82: 271.9±3.7

SP
156 38-104 99 223.8±3.4
165-167
178 Sonsón 42:99.7±1.3

SPF
110
40
176
39 111 km
MB 174-175 173 0 50
PF OPF 112
171 3°15’
74°37’

CAF
0 km 50

Falla d
5°00’ Central and Eastern Cordillera
Quaternary - Neogene
Cretaceous oceanic arc Late Cretaceous arc intrusives
Paleogene - Eocene (Antioquia Batholith and
(Quebradagrande
Complex) Córdoba pluton)
c Western Cordillera and
Cauca-Patia Valley Upper Cretaceous
Medium-high pressure
1°43’ sedimentary rocks
metamorphic rocks
Upper Cretaceous oceanic (Arquía Complex)
plateau (Volcanic, Barroso Upper Cretaceous
and Amaime Fms) sedimentary rocks

F
Upper Cretaceous sedimentary Jurassic granitoids (Ibagué

CP
122 Pasto Batholith) and volcanic rocks
PP S JF rocks (Cisneros, Espinal and
Penderisco Fms) (Saldaña Fm.)
125-126
Ricaurte 138 Late Cretaceous intrusive Permo-Triassic granitoids
(Buga batholith)
Triassic metasedimentary and
Geochronology meta-igneous rocks (Cajamarca
sample number (DV#) Complex) and older metamorphic
Zircon U/Pb units
Plagioclase 40Ar/39Ar
Biotite 40Ar/39Ar
Hornblende 40Ar/39Ar
ECUADOR 0 km 50

11
Whole rock geochemistry
0°10’
78°04’ 76°07’ sample number (DV#)
 Tertiary magmatic rocks with a subduction-
related origin intrude the Calima and Chocó-
Panamá terranes. The Mande Batholith (U-Pb
zircon age of 42–43 Ma) [Cardona, 2010, pers.
comm.] and associated volcanic rocks of the
Dabeiba unit (plagioclase 40Ar/39Ar of 43.1±0.4 Ma)
[Kerr et al., 1997] are exposed within the Chocó-
Panamá Block in northern Colombia. Within the
southern Western Cordillera, Late Tertiary volcanic
rocks of the Ricaurte Fm. are likely to have erupted
onto the accreted basement of the Calima Terrane,
similar to the Eocene Macuchi Fm. in Ecuador [e.g.,
Vallejo et al., 2009].
3 Sampling and methods
Rocks were sampled along several traverses
(between 7°N and 1°N; Figure 2) that crossed
the Central Cordillera, Cauca-Patía Valley and the
Western Cordillera of Colombia. Appendix 1 and
2 provide a brief petrographic description and
location information for all of the samples analysed
in this study. U–Pb zircon dating and multiphase
40
Ar/39Ar analysis (Figures 3a-c and 4; Tables 1 and
2, respectively) of the main units exposed west
of the eastern border of the Central Cordillera
has been performed to determine their age. We
have also performed whole rock geochemistry
(Table 3) on several major magmatic units along
the Colombian cordilleras to constrain the tectonic
setting in which they formed.
3.1 Zircon U–Pb geochronology
Samples were crushed and milled to <300 μm,
cleaned and density separated using a Wilfley table
and passed through a Frantz magnetic separator.
The dense (>3.32 g/cm3), non-paramagnetic
fraction was obtained via gravity separation using
di-iodomethane, and subsequently handpicked to
select inclusion-free zircons. Zircon crystals were
imaged using the SEM-CL facility at the University
of Lausanne. Laser-ablation ICP-MS coupled with
liquid internal Tl–U normalization was employed
for U-Pb isotope measurements and the in-house
Excel macro, Lamdate tool (J. Košler) was used
for offline data reduction together with Isoplot v.
3.31 for age calculations [Ludwig, 2003]. Analytical
12
details are presented in Appendix 3 and 4.
3.2 40
Ar/39Ar geochronology
Unaltered, inclusion-free hornblende and biotite
were separated using a Wilfley table, a Frantz
magnetic separator and partially diluted (with
acetone) di-iodomethane. Mineral concentrates
were cleaned in an ultrasonic bath for 5 minutes,
in distilled water (biotite, plagioclase) and weak
5% HNO3(aq) (hornblende). Feldspar concentrates
were separated from quartz by centrifuging at
8000rpm for 5 minutes in sodium polytungstate
with a density of 2.62 g/cm3. Five milligrams of
the freshest crystals were selected by handpicking
using a binocular microscope at 50x magnification.
Samples were loaded into Cu foil packages,
mounted inside a silica-glass tube and irradiated
for either 30 hours (Early Cretaceous and older
samples) or 15 hours (Late Cretaceous and younger
samples) in the CLICIT facility of the TRIGA reactor
at the Oregon State University. Fish Canyon Tuff
sanidine was used as a flux monitor assuming
a standard age of 28.02±0.28 Ma [Renne et al.,
1998], and J values were obtained via interpolation
along the silica glass tube. Samples were analysed
via incremental heating using a 30W CO2-IR laser,
and a stainless-steel extraction line coupled with
a multi-collector Argus mass spectrometer (GV
Instruments), housed at the University of Geneva
and equipped with four high-gain (1012 Ω resistivity)
Faraday cups for the measurement of 36Ar, 37Ar,
38
Ar, and 39Ar, and a single 1011 Ω-resistivity Faraday
cup for 40Ar measurements. Analytical details are
presented in Appendix 3 and 5.
3.3 Whole rock geochemistry
Major oxide and trace element data were
acquired from unaltered igneous and metamorphic
rocks to constrain their tectonic origin (Table 3).
Samples were crushed using a steel jaw crusher
and powdered using an agate disc mill. Major
and some trace elements were analyzed using a
Philips PW 2400 XRF spectrometer at the Institute
of Mineralogy and Geochemistry, University of
Lausanne using the Rhodes traces methodology
[e.g. Schütte, 2009]. Uncertainties estimated from
repeated measurement of standards are generally
<2% (2σ) for major elements and <5% (2σ) for trace
elements. Selected trace elements and rare earth
element abundances were determined by LA-
ICPMS using a 193nm Excimer laser coupled to a
Perkin Elmer ELAN 6100 DRC quadrupole ICPMS
by ablating glass bead fragments (recovered from
previous XRF analyses) at the Institute of Mineralogy
and Geochemistry, University of Lausanne.
Ninety-second background measurements were
followed by 30–40s of raw data collection, and
measurements were performed in triplicate for each
sample. Two-σ uncertainties were <8% for REE and
selected trace elements. Internal standardization
was based on CaO (previously determined by XRF)
by reference to the NIST SRM610 and SRM612
glass bead standards. Data reduction, including
spike correction, was performed using the Matlab-
based SILLS program [Guillong et al., 2008].
4 Results U–Pb LA-ICP-MS
SEM-CL images and summary LA-ICP-MS U–Pb
zircon age data (206Pb/238U) from specific regions of
single grains are shown in Figures 3a-c and Table 1.
Detailed LA-ICPMS results are shown in Appendix
4 and all errors are reported at the 2σ-level.
4.1 Autochthonous units
4.1.1 Pre-Jurassic metamorphic and igneous
rocks of the Tahami Terrane
Pre-Jurassic rock sequences have been
previously poorly studied, and hence the source
regions for metasedimentary rocks, ages of
intrusive sequences and tectonic evolution prior to
the Jurassic are mainly undetermined.
Zircons extracted from a Paleozoic orthogneiss
exposed in Northern Colombia (La Miel Gneiss;
DV50; Figure 2a) host complex inherited crystals
and xenocrystic cores (ranging from 900 to 1700
Ma with a major peak at 1200 Ma, n=40; Figure 3a)
surrounded by magmatic rims. Two analyses from
the oscillatory rim zone yielded ages of 440Ma–
470Ma, which we interpret as a maximum age for
the intrusion.
A granitoid body located at the eastern border
of the Central Cordillera in central Colombia
(DV82; Figure 2b) shows a bimodal histogram age
distribution with one major peak that yielded a
weighted mean age of 271.9±3.7 Ma (MSWD=1.2)
from euhedral zircons, and a minor peak at ~305
Ma obtained from xenocrystic cores (Figure 3a).
Euhedral to subhedral zircons from a white mica-
bearing granodioritic gneiss that is mapped as
part of the Cajamarca Complex (DV18; Figure 2b)
east of the Palestina Fault in central Colombia
yielded a weighted mean average of 237.5±5.5 Ma
(MSWD=1.6). A quartzite of the Cajamarca Complex
(DV19) found at the same locality as gneiss DV18
yielded several detrital U-Pb age sub-populations
(n=30) with a major peak at ~240 Ma and less
prominent populations at ~500-600 and ~1000–
1200 Ma (Figure 3a). Zircons from a paragneiss of
the Cajamarca Complex (DV02; Figure 3a), located
in central Colombia, east of the Otú-Pericos
Fault (Figure 2b) show several detrital zircon sub-
populations. The small number of analyses (n=12)
inhibits the extraction of useful age populations,
although it is significant that the youngest ages
range between 220–270 Ma.
4.1.2 Jurassic–Cretaceous Intrusive rocks of the
Tahami terrane
A granite of the Ibagué Batholith (DV09; Figure
2b) exposed within a brittle deformed zone related
to the Ibagué Fault within central Colombia yielded
a weighted mean average zircon U–Pb age of
159.5±2.4 (MSWD 0.63; n=20; Figure 3b), which
we consider to approximate the emplacement
age of the sample. A granodiorite (DV05) of the
Ibagué batholith located within 10km of granite
DV09 yielded a weighted mean 206Pb/238U age of
165.0±15.0 Ma from seven zircon crystals, with
an MSWD of 3.6, indicating that it is unlikely that
they define a single age population. Excluding
two discordant analyses, which are the youngest
(potentially affected by Pb loss) and the oldest
(potentially xenocrystic) ages, the 206Pb/238U
weighted mean age recalculates to be 166.0±10
Ma, with an acceptable MSWD of 0.29, that we
assume as a proxy for magma emplacement.
Granite DV56 forms part of the large Antioquia
Batholith located in the northern Central Cordillera
(Figure 2a) and yields a weighted mean 206Pb/238U
age of 87.2±1.6 Ma (MSWD 0.81; n=16; Figure 3b).
Granite DV58 also forms part of the Antioquia
13
 a) Magmatic Units

14
Weighted
Sample Unit Lithology Period Altitude Latitude Longitude CL characteristics mean

Table 1
206 number
Pb/238U age
of grains
(m) N W (Ma) ±2σ (Ma) ±(%) MSWD
Central Cordillera

presence of xenocrystic cores with borders

of low CL (cathodoluminiscence)
surrounded by OZP (oscillatory zoned
DV82 Permian intrusives granite Permian 1051 4°17'15.5'' 75°13'59.2'' pattern ). Presence of some inclusions 271.9 3.7 1.4 25 1.20
prismatic crystals, local intermediate
Permotriassic magmatic WM granodioritic resorption, alteration of outer rim, presence
DV18 units gneiss Triassic 3292 4°28'19.0'' 75°33'18.1'' of melt inclusions 237.5 5.5 2.3 16 1.60

prismatic crystals, large uniform central

Zircon U-Pb results from Colombia

DV09 Ibagué Batholith granite Jurassic 1354 4°24'29.7'' 75°18'11.8'' zone surrounded by zoned oscillatory 159.6 2.4 1.5 20 0.63
long prismatic crystals with well-defined
DV05 Ibagué Batholith granodiorite Jurassic 1064 4°24'27.7'' 75°16'05.3'' OZP. 165.0 15.0 9.1 7 3.60
short prismatic zircons, absence of
inherited cores, continuous OZP with minor
DV56 Antioquia Batholith granite Late Cretaceous 2192 6°03'19.8'' 75°12'42.7'' resorption in the outer rims 87.2 1.6 1.8 16 0.81
stubby crystals, possible core (antecryst?),
well defined OZP, resorbed (low-CL) outer
DV58 Antioquia Batholith granite Late Cretaceous 1143 6°01'06.3'' 75°08'10.8'' rims 94.6 2.1 2.2 19 2.70

prismatic crystals, well-defined OZP with

DV26 Córdoba Pluton granodiorite Late Cretaceous 1389 4°24'30.9'' 75°41'24.2'' minor resorption textures in outer rims 79.7 2.5 3.1 13 0.27
Western Cordillera and Cauca-Patía Valley

stubby crystals, faintly visible OZP, zones

Volcanic Fm (Palmar hornblende of high-CL in the borders maybe caused by
DV42 Gabbro) gabbro Late Cretaceous 1102 3°37'05.0'' 76°39'15.1'' alteration of the outer rim 99.7 1.3 1.3 16 0.62

Volcanic Fm. (Bolívar big prismatic crystals, well-defined OZP

DV94 complex) pegmatite Late Cretaceous 1032 4°20'25.7'' 76°11'44.0'' and discordant OZP overgrowths 95.5 1.1 1.2 22 0.26
Volcanic Fm. (Bolívar big prismatic crystals, do not show
DV95 complex) pegmatite Late Cretaceous 1198 4°20'02.1'' 76°11'52.0'' recognizable OZP, areas with low-CL 97.1 2.0 2.1 18 1.20
DV30 Buga Batholith tonalite Late Cretaceous 1664 3°54'10.6'' 76°10'50.4'' stubby faceted crystals 92.1 0.8 0.9 43 0.66

stubby crystals with an inner homogenous

DV91 Buga Batholith diorite Late Cretaceous 1117 3°55'31.0'' 76°14'42.4'' domain surrounded by OZP overgrowths 90.2 1.8 2.0 22 2.30
DV108 Espinal Fm. lithic tuff Late Cretaceous 800 3°46'51.8'' 76°38'47.4'' prismatic crystals, well-defined OZP 75.5 1.6 2.1 29 0.56

b) metasediments + metaigneous rocks

Sample Unit Lithology Altitude Latitude Longitude CL characteristics

206
Pb/238U age
populations number
(m) N W (Ma) of grains

zircon interior with re-homogenized high-

CL domains and overgrowth of poorly 440, 800, 1000-
DV50 La Miel gneiss gneiss Paleozoic 1857 6°06'15.6'' 75°38'02.7'' recognizable OZP with low-CL 1400 40
variety of crystal usually showing inherited
cores with OZP which are partially
rebsorbed and surrounded by highly 220-240, 400,
DV02 Cajamarca Complex gneiss Triassic 685 4°46'41.8'' 74°57'54.2'' altered outer rims 600 12
variety of reworked crystals from rounded
to euhedral without OZP and generally low- 220-400, 500-
DV19 Cajamarca Complex quartzite Triassic 3292 4°28'19.0'' 75°33'18.1'' CL 600, 1000-1200 30
 Pre-Jurassic metamorphic and igneous rocks of the Tahami Terrane
DV82: Granite - Permian granite DV50: Orthogneiss - La Miel Gneiss
box heights are 2σ
360 10
n=40
320
age (Ma)

8
280
6

Number
206Pb/238U

240 100 μm
100 μm
4
200
271.9±3.7 Ma (MSWD=1.2)
2
160

120 0
200 600 1000 1400 1800 2200

DV18: Orthogneiss - Cajamarca Complex. DV02: Paragneiss - Cajamarca Complex

box heights are 2σ
300 237.5±5.5 Ma (MSWD=1.6) 05DV02_17
8 n=12
280
age (Ma)

260 6

Number
1: 270±10
240
100 μm 4 100 μm
206Pb/238U

220
05DV02_1
200
2
180
1: 367±37
236.2±6.3 Ma (MSWD=0.61)
160 0
200 600 1000 1400 1800 2200
100 μm

DV19: Quartzite - Cajamarca Complex

12
n=30
10
Figure 3a. U-Pb isotopic data acquired from zircons by
Number

8
the LA-ICP-MS method, showing cathodoluminescence
6
images of the representative zircon grains, representative
analysed regions and the 206Pb/238U ages of those regions. 4
Preferred weighted mean ages and their associated MSWD 2
are shown in bold. Effects of excluding certain groups of
0
zircons (potentially influenced by analytically irresolvable 200 600 1000 1400 1800 2200 100 μm
antecrystic components or Pb loss, following the approach Age (Ma)
of Schütte [2009]) from the calculation of the weighted
mean ages is illustrated in the plot (displayed in italics) and
always correspond to statistically acceptable MSWD values
for a single zircon population [Wendt and Carl, 1991]. If
both ages are indistinguishable within error we prefer the
age with larger amount of zircons as more robust (outlined
with green line, see text for further discussion). Data shown
in grey (e.g. sample DV82) is excluded from the calculation
of the weighted mean age based on cathodoluminescence
images and the older nature of the ages, suggesting they may
relate to xenocrystic and antecrystic material. Error bars and
weighted mean uncertainties correspond to analytical error
at the 2σ level. Data acquired from Pre-Jurassic metamorphic
and igneous rocks of the Tahami Terrane. Left: Weighted
mean 206Pb/238U age plots; right: age histograms (40 Ma bins)
and distribution curves for metasedimentary and magmatic
(inherited cores) samples. All diagrams generated using the
Isoplot v.3.31 Excel macro [Ludwig, 2003].

15
 Jurassic-Cretaceous Intrusive rocks of the Tahami Terrane
DV09: Granite - Ibagué Batholith
box heights are 2σ
190
0.029 180
age (Ma)

170
160

206Pb/238U
0.025
150
140
206Pb/238U

50 μm 0.021
130

110
159.6±2.4 Ma (MSWD=0.63) 0.017
0.06 0.14 0.22
90 207Pb/235U

DV05: Diorite - Ibagué Batholith

box heights are 2σ
230 0.034 

165±15 Ma (MSWD=3.6)
210 0.030 190
age (Ma)

206Pb/238U
190
0.026 170
170
150
206Pb/238U

150 100 μm 0.022

130
130
0.018
110 166.0±10.0 Ma (MSWD=0.29) 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
207Pb/235U
90

DV56: Granite - Antioquia Batholith

box heights are 2σ
115
87.2±1.6 Ma (MSWD=0.81) 0.018 110
105
0.016
age (Ma)

95 90
206Pb/238U

0.014
85 50 μm 0.012
206Pb/238U

70
75 0.010

65 0.008
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3
55
207Pb/235U

DV58: Granite - Antioquia Batholith

box heights are 2σ
0.017
130 104
94.6±2.1 Ma (MSWD=2.7) 0.016
age (Ma)

120
93.5±1.5 Ma (MSWD=1.3) 0.015 96
206Pb/238U

110
0.014 88
Figure 3b. Jurassic to
206Pb/238U

100 100 μm Cretaceous intrusive

0.013
90 80 rocks of the Tahami
0.012 Terrane. The same
80 0.05 0.09 0.13 0.17 statistical criteria as
70 207Pb/235U previous figure are
applied for the weighted
DV26: Granodiorite - Córdoba Pluton mean 206
Pb/238U
box heights are 2σ ages. Also shown
79.7±2.5 Ma (MSWD=0.27)
100 90 are U‐Pb Concordia
0.0135 diagrams (error ellipses
90 correspond to 1σ error)
age (Ma)

206Pb/238U

80
of magmatic zircons
80 0.0115
50 μm 70 dated by LA-ICP-MS.
206Pb/238U

70 All diagrams generated

0.0095 using the Isoplot v.3.31
60 0.00 0.08 0.16 Excel macro [Ludwig,
207Pb/235U 2003].
50

16
 Late Cretaceous allochthonous rocks
DV42: Hb-gabbro - Volcanic Fm. (Palmar Gabbro)
box heights are 2σ
0.020
99.7±1.3 Ma (MSWD=0.62)
130 120
120 0.018
110
age (Ma)

206Pb/238U
110 0.016 100
200 μm
206Pb/238U

100 90
0.014
90 80
0.012
80 0.00 0.08 0.16 0.24
207Pb/235U
70
DV94: Pegmatite - Bolívar Ultramafic Complex
box heights are 2σ
120 0.0175
95.5±1.1 Ma (MSWD=0.26)
108
110 0.0165
age (Ma)

100

206Pb/238U
0.0155
100
0.0145 92
206Pb/238U

200 μm
90 0.0135
84
80 0.0125
0.00 0.08 0.16 0.24
207Pb/235U
70
DV95: Pegmatite - Bolívar Ultramafic Complex
box heights are 2σ

115
97.1±2.0 Ma (MSWD=1.2) 0.0175
110
0.0165
age (Ma)

105
206Pb/238U

0.0155 100
0.0145
95 90
206Pb/238U

200 μm 0.0135
85 0.0125 80
0.0115
75
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
207Pb/235U
65
DV30: Tonalite - Buga Batholith
box heights are 2σ
108 0.0175
- 

92.1±0.8 Ma (MSWD=0.66) 108

104 0.0165
age (Ma)

100 0.0155 100

206Pb/238U

96 0.0145 92
92 0.0135
206Pb/238U

100 μm 84
88 0.0125
84 76
0.0115
80 0.04 0.08 0.12 0.16 0.20 0.24
207Pb/235U
76
DV91: Diorite - Buga Batholith
box heights are 2σ
0.020 Figure 3c. Late Cretaceous
115
90.2±1.8 Ma (MSWD=2.3) 0.018 110 allochthonous rocks of the Calima
105 0.016 Terrane. The same statistical
age (Ma)

206Pb/238U

95 0.014 90
criteria as previous figure are
85 0.012 applied for the weighted mean
100 μm 70
206Pb/238U

0.010 206
Pb/238U ages. Also shown are
75
65
0.008 U‐Pb Concordia diagrams (error
0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 ellipses correspond to 1σ error) of
90.6±1.3 Ma (MSWD=0.38)
55 207Pb/235U
magmatic zircons dated by LA-ICP-
DV108: Lithic tuff - Espinal Fm. MS. All diagrams generated using
box heights are 2σ
95 the Isoplot v.3.31 Excel macro
0.014 90
75.5±1.6 Ma (MSWD=0.56) [Ludwig, 2003].
85 0.013
age (Ma)

80
206Pb/238U

0.012
75 0.011 70
206Pb/238U

100 μm 0.010
65 60
0.009
55 0.008
0.03 0.05 0.07 0.09 0.11
207Pb/235U
45

17
Batholith (Figure 2a) and yields a weighted mean
age of 94.6±2.1 Ma from 19 grains, and an MSWD
of 2.7 indicating it is unlikely that they define a
single U-Pb age population. Excluding the youngest
age (potentially reflecting Pb loss) and three older
grains (ranging from 100 to 110 Ma, which may
be xenocrystic), we obtain an age of 93.5±1.5 Ma
with a statistically acceptable MSWD of 1.3 (n=15).
As both ages are indistinguishable, we consider
94.6±2.1 Ma to be a more robust estimate for the
timing of crystallization and emplacement.
Euhedral, zoned zircons from the small Córdoba
pluton (granodiorite DV26; Figure 2b and 3b),
which intrudes the Quebradagrande Complex
along the western flank of the Central Cordillera in
central Colombia, yielded a weighted mean age of
79.7±2.5 Ma (n=13; Figure 3b), which is considered
to represent the time of intrusion emplacement.
4.2 Late Cretaceous allochthonous rocks
exposed in the Cauca-Patía Valley and the
Western Cordillera.
A hornblende-gabbro (Palmar gabbro unit;
DV42) that is mapped as part of the Volcanic Fm.
(Figure 2b) yielded a weighted mean 206Pb/238U
age of 99.7±1.3 Ma (Figure 3c), with a statistically
acceptable MSWD of 0.62 (n=16). Large (>400
μm) euhedral zircon crystals extracted from
two hornblende and biotite-bearing pegmatites
exposed in the Bolívar Ultramafic Complex (Figure
2b) yielded weighted mean 206Pb/238U ages of
95.5±1.1 Ma (DV94; Figure 3c; MSWD= 0.26; n=22)
and 97.1±2.0 Ma (DV95; Figure 3c; MSWD=1.2;
n=18). Both the Palmar gabbro and the Bolívar
Ultramafic Complex form part of the magmatic
sequence of the Calima Terrane [Nivia, 2001],
which is exposed in the Western Cordillera and is
widely considered to represent a detached sliver
of the Caribbean–Colombian Oceanic Province
[Kerr et al., 2004].
A medium-grained lithic tuff (DV108) of the
marine Espinal Fm. located within the central
Western Cordillera (Figure 2b) consisting of
hemipelagic turbidites, limestones and tuffs, which
lie unconformably on top of the plateau rocks of the
Caribbean–Colombian Oceanic Province [Moreno-
Sánchez and Pardo-Trujillo, 2002, 2003] yielded
zoned euhedral zircons with a weighted mean age
18
of 75.5±1.6 Ma (Figure 3c; MSWD = 0.56; n=29),
which represents a maximum depositional age for
the Espinal Fm. This age corroborates the presence
of Upper Cretaceous radiolarites [Barrero, 1979;
Aspden, 1984; Etayo-Serna, 1985b].
Magmatic zircon crystals from a tonalite (DV30)
of the Buga Batholith, which intrudes the Amaime
Fm. and crops out within the Cauca-Patía Valley,
west of the Romeral Fault System (Figure 2b)
yielded a weighted mean U-Pb age of 92.1±0.8
Ma (MSWD=0.66; n=43; Figure 3c). Similarly, a
diorite (DV91) of the same intrusion, located within
~7km of sample DV30, yielded a less precise but
indistinguishable age of 90.2±1.8 (MSWD=2.3;
n=22; Figure 3c).
5 Results: 40Ar/39Ar
Summary argon isotope data acquired from
hornblende, biotite and plagioclase are shown in
Figure 4 and Table 2, and all errors are reported at
the 2σ-level.
5.1 Autochthonous rocks of the Tahami
Terrane
A majority of hornblendes extracted from
diorites and granites of the Jurassic Ibagué Batholith
in the Central Cordillera in central Colombia yielded
plateau ages (Figure 4) according to the definition
of Lanphere and Dalrymple [1978]. Hornblende
extracted from granite DV04 yielded a weighted
mean plateau age of 159.2±5.2 Ma (80% of the 39Ar
released) with no evidence of excess 40Ar. Similar
Late Jurassic ages were obtained from granitoids
DV05 (U-Pb zircon age 166.0±10.0 Ma; this study)
and DV07, which yielded mean weighted plateau
ages of 153.1±2.0 Ma (85% of the 39Ar released)
and 148.9±3.4 Ma (50% of the 39Ar released),
with non-radiogenic 40Ar/36Ar ratios that overlap
with the currently accepted atmospheric value
of 295.5 [Steiger and Jager, 1977]. Hornblende
from granite DV06 yielded a disturbed, stair-case
age spectrum with low temperature step-ages of
~140 Ma that increase to ~180 Ma in the highest
temperature steps. The hornblende was unaltered
and free of inclusions, and we tentatively interpret
the age spectrum to be a consequence of Ar loss A single 40Ar/39Ar hornblende age obtained from
during either slow cooling, or post-crystallization a gneiss of the Cajamarca Complex (DV02), located
reheating at some point during the Cretaceous. proximal (hundreds of meters) to the contact
The oldest age of ~180 Ma may approximate the with the intruding Ibagué Batholith in central
timing of crystallization, although it predates the Colombia (Figure 2b) yielded a weighted plateau
U-Pb zircon ages acquired from other samples of age of 155.6±6.2 Ma (>50% of 39Ar released;
the Ibagué Batholith. Figure 4), which has a non-radiogenic 40Ar/36Ar
intercept (MSWD 1.22) that is indistinguishable
Biotite from granite DV07 of the Ibagué
from atmospheric Ar. The 40Ar/39Ar hornblende age
Batholith yielded a 40Ar/39Ar plateau age of
is significantly younger than the youngest U-Pb
147.0±0.5 Ma (>50% of 39Ar released; Figure 4),
age (~220 Ma; this study) obtained from detrital
which is indistinguishable from its hornblende
zircons, and it is likely that it was reset by thermally
age of 148.9±3.4 Ma. The 40Ar/36Ar ratio of the
activated diffusion during intrusion of the Ibagué
non-radiogenic component for the biotite age is
Batholith.
extremely imprecise due to clustering of the data
close to the radiogenic-axis, and hence we do not A Permian granitoid body (DV82) located at the
consider the inverse isochron to be useful. The eastern border of the Central Cordillera in central
indistinguishable hornblende and biotite ages Colombia (Figure 2b), which gave a zircon U-Pb age
suggest the sample cooled rapidly from >550°C to of 271.9±3.7 Ma (this study), yielded a disturbed
<300°C (closure temperature of hornblende and 40
Ar/39Ar age spectrum with a total fusion age
biotite, respectively) [McDougall and Harrison, of 225.3±1.1 Ma (hornblende; Figure 4) that is
1999] during 147-150 Ma, which may have been significantly younger than its emplacement age.
a consequence of thermal relaxation subsequent
to magmatic emplacement of the sample. Granite
DV09 of the Ibagué batholith yielded a weighted 5.2 Allochthonous rocks of the Western
mean age of 151.8±0.9 Ma over the flattest region
Cordillera and the Cauca-Patía Valley
of a disturbed age spectrum where individual step
ages differ by less than 1% and account for ~70%
of the total 39Ar released. The same sample yielded Plagioclase separated from groundmass of
a zircon U–Pb age of 159.5±2.4 Ma, suggesting the andesite (DV78) of the Eocene [Kerr et al., 1997]
biotite age may record slow cooling via thermal Dabeiba Fm., which forms part of the Dabeiba
relaxation, subsequent to intrusion during the Late Volcanic Arc located along the eastern flank of the
Jurassic. northern Western Cordillera, yielded a total fusion

Weighted Inverse
40
Stratigraphic elevation Latitude N Longitude W mean age ± Total Fusion Isochron Ar/36Ar
1
Sample Unit Lithology Age (m) d°m's'' d°m's'' Phase 2σ (Ma) obs MSWD Age±2σ (Ma) Age±2σ (Ma) intercept MSWD2
Central Cordillera
DV02 Cajamarca Complex gneiss Triassic 685 4°46'41.8'' 74°57'54.2'' Hbl 155.6±6.2 P 2.11 151.2±3.8 164.6±9.0 261.3±30.7 1.22
DV04 Ibagué Batholith gabbro-diorite Jurassic 933 4°47'00.2'' 74°58'31.4'' Hbl 159.2±5.2 P 2.26 157.5±4.6 155.0±18.3 331.0±65.9 2.80
DV05 Ibagué Batholith granodiorite Jurassic 1064 4°24'27.7'' 75°16'05.3'' Hbl 153.1±2.0 P 0.48 149.2±2.8 155.4±6.0 260.5±38.7 0.48
DV06 Ibagué Batholith granite Jurassic 1277 4°24'08.9'' 75°17'40.3'' Hbl 182.6±2.4 DS 4.19 171.2±1.0 185.0±12.2 261.1±86.9 7.59
DV07 Ibagué Batholith granite Jurassic 1363 4°24'25.4'' 75°18'04.5'' Hbl 148.9±3.4 P 1.43 146.4±2.9 148.6±10.8 298.8±11.1 1.90
DV07 Ibagué Batholith granite Jurassic 1363 4°24'25.4'' 75°18'04.5'' Bt 147.0±0.5 P 2.03 141.3±0.4 145.9±5.7 334.6±217.6 2.56
DV09 Ibagué Batholith granite Jurassic 1354 4°24'29.7'' 75°18'11.8'' Bt 151.8±0.9 P 25.88 147.9±0.4 154.0±0.6 65.9±41.4 3.60
DV82 Permian granites granite Triassic 1051 4°17'15.5'' 75°13'59.2'' Hbl 223.8±3.4 DS 8.18 225.3±1.1 106.7±120.0 1899±1593 6.26
Western Cordillera
Eocene-
DV78 Dabeiba Fm. andesite Oligocene 470 7°00'54.9'' 76°18'29.5'' Pl n/a TF n/a 25.6±2.6 n/a n/a n/a

39
P: plateau, >3 contiguous heating steps that span >50% Ar released (the age is the weighted mean age of the plateau),
39
DS: Disturbed Spectrum over a region that contains >3 contiguous heating steps that span > 50% Ar released, and individual step ages differ by less than 5%;

TF: Total fusion age

n/a: Not Applicable
1
Mean Square of Weighted Deviates of the weighted mean age
2
Mean Square of Weighted Deviates of the inverse isochron linear regression
Mineral abbreviations: Hbl: hornblende, Bt: botite, Pl: plagioclase

Table 2
40
Ar/39Ar age results

19
 a) Central Cordillera

DV04-Hbl: Diorite, Jurassic Ibagué Batholith DV02-Hbl: Gneiss, Triassic Cajamarca Schist
Inverse Isochron: 155.0±18.3 Ma Inverse Isochron: 164.6±9.0 Ma
40Ar/36Ar intercept: 331±65.9 40Ar/36Ar intercept: 261.3±30.7

/ 40Ar (10-3)
Weighted Plateau

/ 40Ar (10-3)
260 4 500 Weighted plateau 4 MSWD: 1.22
Total Fusion: 157.5±4.6 Ma MSWD: 2.80

Age (Ma)
Total Fusion: 151.2±3.8 Ma
Age (Ma)

220 3 400 3
180 300
2 155.6±6.2 Ma 2
140
200

36Ar
1 1

36Ar
100 159.2±5.2 Ma 100
60
0 20 40 60 80 100 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0 20 40 60 80 100 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10

DV05-Hbl: Granodiorite, Jurassic Ibagué Batholith DV82-Hbl: Granite, Permian granite

Age: 106.7±120.0 Ma
Inverse Isochron: 155.4±6.0 Ma 340 40Ar/36Ar intercept: 1899±1593

/ 40Ar (10-3)
40Ar/36Ar intercept: 260.5±38.7 4 MSWD: 6.26
280 Weighted Plateau 4

Age (Ma)
/ 40Ar (10-3)

MSWD: 0.48
240 Total Fusion: 149.2±2.8 Ma 223.8±3.4 Ma
Age (Ma)

3 260 3
200 153.1±2.0 Ma
160 2 2
120 180
1

36Ar
1 Disturbed spectrum
80
36Ar

Total Fusion: 225.3±1.1 Ma

40 100
0 20 40 60 80 100 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06
0 20 40 60 80 100 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
39Ar / 40Ar

DV07-Hbl: Granite, Jurassic Ibagué Batholith b) Western Cordillera

Inverse Isochron: 148.6±10.8 Ma
Weighted plateau 40Ar/36Ar intercept: 298.8±11.1 DV78-Pl: Andesite, Dabeiba Fm.
/ 40Ar (10-3)

300 Total Fusion: 146.4±2.9 Ma 4 MSWD: 1.90

Age (Ma)

240 3 Total Fusion age: 25.6±2.6 Ma

148.9±3.4 Ma
180 50
2
Age (Ma)

120
1 30
36Ar

60
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 10

0 20 40 60 80 100
Cumulative 39Ar Released (%)
DV06-Hbl: Granite, Jurassic Ibagué Batholith
200 Age: 185.0±12.2 Ma
40Ar/36Ar intercept: 261.1±86.9
4
/ 40Ar (10-3)

180 MSWD: 7.59

Age (Ma)

3
160 182.6±2.4 Ma
140 2

120 Disturbed spectrum 1

36Ar

Total Fusion: 171.2±1.0 Ma

100
0 20 40 60 80 100 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08

DV07-Bt: Granite, Jurassic Ibagué Batholith

Inverse Isochron: 145.9±5.7 Ma
40Ar/36Ar intercept: 334.6±217.6
4
/ 40Ar (10-3)

160 MSWD: 2.56

Age (Ma)

3
120 147.0±0.5 Ma
2
80
Weighted plateau 1
36Ar

Total Fusion: 141.3±0.4 Ma

40
0 20 40 60 80 100 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10

DV09-Bt: Granite, Jurassic Ibagué Batholith

180 Inverse Isochron: 154.0±0.6 Ma
40 36
/ 40Ar (10-3)

Ar/ Ar intercept: 65.9±41.4

4 MSWD: 3.60 Figure 4. 40Ar/39Ar age spectra and associated inverse isochron
Age (Ma)

140 3
151.8±0.9 Ma plots for hornblende (hbl), biotite (bt) and plagioclase
100 2 (pl) from rocks located in the a) Central Cordillera, and b)
36Ar

Weighted plateau
Total Fusion: 147.9±0.4 Ma
1 Western Cordillera. See text for further discussion on MSWD
60
0 20 40 60 80 100 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
values and robustness of the data. All errors are ±2σ.
Cumulative 39Ar Released (%) 39Ar / 40Ar

20
age of 25.6±2.6 Ma (Figure 4) from a disturbed
age spectrum. The Dabeiba Fm. forms part of the
Chocó-Panamá Terrane, which is also considered
to be underlain by oceanic plateau material [Kerr et
al., 1997]. Our age is distinguishably younger than
a plagioclase 40Ar/39Ar age of 43.1±0.4 Ma obtained
by Kerr et al. [1997] from the same rocks.
6 Results: Whole rock
geochemistry
Forty-three samples exposed in the Western
and Central cordilleras of Colombia were selected
for a reconnaissance study of whole-rock major and
trace elements (Table 3) to determine their most
likely tectonic origin. Our interpretations are mainly
based on relatively immobile high-field-strength
elements (HFSE) and rare earth elements (REE),
given that the less compatible light ion-lithophile
elements (LILE) are susceptible to remobilization
during alteration and metamorphism, which
is most prevalent in rocks sampled from the
Quebradagrande and Arquía complexes.
6.1 Jurassic to Cretaceous magmatism
within the Tahami Terrane
Major oxide and trace element data (Figure
5) have been acquired from i) a rhyolite of the
Jurassic Saldaña Fm. (DV138), which is considered
to be contemporaneous and likely the extrusive
equivalent of continental arc rocks of the Ibagué
Batholith [Toussaint, 1995], ii) intrusive rocks of the
Late Cretaceous Antioquia Batholith (DV58; zircon
U-Pb age spans 94-87 Ma), iii) the Late Cretaceous
Córdoba Batholith (DV26; zircon U-Pb age of
79.7±2.5 Ma), and iv) the Paleocene (DV156; zircon
U-Pb ages span 65–55 Ma) [Ordóñez-Carmona et
al., 2001] Sonsón Batholith. All of the sampled
rocks are classified as granites and granodiorites
(total alkali-silica classification) [Le Bas et al.,
1986], with SiO2 values ranging between 60 and
70%, and fall into the calc-alkaline field on an AFM
diagram, corroborating LREE enrichment ((La/Yb)N
8.81 to 11.46). Multi-element plots reveal negative
Nb–Ta and Ti anomalies and are indicative of a
subduction-related origin (Figure 5).
Central Cordillera: Subduction related rocks
1000
Saldaña Fm.
Antioquia Batholith
Rock/Primitive Mantle
100 Córdoba Pluton
Sonsón Batholith
10
0.1
Rb Ba Th U K Nb Ta La Ce Sr Nd P Hf Zr Sm Ti Tb Y Tm Yb
1000
100
Rock/Chondrite
10
1
La Ce Pr Nd Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
Figure 5. Primitive-mantle-normalized spider diagram and
C1 chondrite-normalized REE plot of samples from acidic-
intermediate igneous rocks sampled from the autochthonous
Tahami Terrane in the Central Cordillera of Colombia.
Normalization values are from Sun and McDonough [1989].
6.2 Para-autochthonous rocks entrained
within the Romeral Fault Zone
6.2.1 Igneous rocks of the Quebradagrande
Complex
Basalts and gabbros (DV43, DV48, and DV173;
SiO2 wt% 46 to 50; MgO wt% 6 to 9) of the
Quebradagrande Complex (Figure 2b-c) located
along the western flank of the Central Cordillera
are characterized by flat- to positive slopes on
chondrite-normalized REE plots (La/YbN 0.59-
0.76; Figure 6a) and high Zr/Th ratios (>650) that
are indicative of a depleted mantle source origin
such as at a mid-oceanic ridge. Negative Nb–Ta
and Ti anomalies are not present suggesting that
these rocks are not petrogenetically related to
subduction zone magmatism.
A group of basaltic andesites and andesites
21
Table 3
Concentration of major and trace element in various lithologies of igneous and metamorphic rocks in Colombia

Samples Method DV38 DV39 DV40 DV74 DV75 DV102

Volcanic Fm. Volcanic Fm. Volcanic Fm.
Unit Volcanic Fm. Volcanic Fm. Volcanic Fm. (Barroso Fm.) (Barroso Fm.) (Zabaletas Stock )

Lithology Diabase Gabbro Dolerite Basalt Basalt Gabbro-diorite

Latitude N 3°46'23.6'' 3°27'48.3'' 3°28'40.9'' 6°00'07.0'' 5°53'43.4'' 3°49'10.6''
Longitude W 76°44'23.9'' 76°35'13.5'' 76°38'47.7'' 75°47'34.2'' 75°54'05.8'' 76°36'00.7''

SiO2 % XRF 47.07 49.89 50.16 49.15 50.12 62.90

TiO2 % XRF 1.27 1.47 1.08 0.96 0.97 1.76
Al2O3 % XRF 15.28 12.99 13.82 14.28 13.81 13.05
Fe2O3 % XRF 11.48 13.91 11.87 10.85 10.27 3.19
MnO % XRF 0.20 0.20 0.19 0.34 0.18 0.04
MgO % XRF 7.37 5.78 7.55 8.39 7.70 5.14
CaO % XRF 11.18 10.25 11.53 9.36 13.27 6.03
Na2O % XRF 2.53 2.17 2.14 3.01 1.88 5.64
K2O % XRF 0.95 0.04 0.13 0.05 0.07 0.09
P2O5 % XRF 0.09 0.13 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.17
LOI % XRF 2.25 3.34 1.34 3.51 2.01 1.61
Cr2O3 % XRF 0.04 0.01 0.03 0.05 0.07 0.00
NiO % XRF 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.00
Total % XRF 99.71 100.18 99.92 100.03 100.44 99.60
Cr ppm XRF-Rho 261 51 203 324 430 3
Ni ppm XRF-Rho 106 57 110 134 137 21
Cu ppm XRF-tr n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d.
Zn ppm XRF-Rho 92 107 90 81 75 14
Ga ppm ICP-MS 85.15 17.86 18.06 37.01 15.21 16.20
Sc ppm ICP-MS 50.21 47.87 55.42 52.47 46.04 41.84
V ppm ICP-MS 343.72 425.60 359.86 323.32 299.05 450.21
Co ppm ICP-MS 44.03 43.51 46.19 42.23 38.78 7.95
Cs ppm ICP-MS 0.28 0.09 0.17 0.25 0.06 0.04
Ba ppm ICP-MS 466.62 15.14 34.45 162.38 21.12 13.72
Rb ppm ICP-MS 10.48 1.05 1.45 1.15 1.34 1.52
Th ppm ICP-MS 0.26 0.38 0.24 0.19 0.38 0.50
K ppm XRF 7871 321 1065 401 569 735
Nb ppm ICP-MS 2.94 5.29 3.39 2.87 5.23 7.29
Ta ppm ICP-MS 0.32 0.40 0.39 0.16 0.34 0.50
Sr ppm ICP-MS 130.51 59.05 111.56 91.91 103.62 25.71
P ppm ICP-MS 383.89 548.40 344.44 336.87 342.13 729.88
Zr ppm ICP-MS 63.61 71.89 47.73 42.20 46.44 133.43
Hf ppm ICP-MS 1.56 2.05 1.29 1.08 1.34 3.78
Ti ppm XRF 7617 8807 6446 5726 5815 10556
Y ppm ICP-MS 23.15 29.06 18.73 17.61 15.63 42.65
Pb ppm ICP-MS 1.20 0.70 0.62 3.31 0.52 1.24
U ppm ICP-MS 0.12 0.13 0.34 0.08 0.07 0.07
La ppm ICP-MS 2.89 4.26 2.90 2.28 3.87 3.82
Ce ppm ICP-MS 8.30 10.78 8.67 6.67 9.66 11.03
Pr ppm ICP-MS 1.33 1.82 1.28 0.97 1.47 1.78
Nd ppm ICP-MS 7.84 7.99 7.27 5.18 7.11 10.48
Sm ppm ICP-MS 1.96 3.06 2.51 1.51 1.82 3.62
Eu ppm ICP-MS 0.97 1.02 0.73 0.62 0.64 1.01
Gd ppm ICP-MS 3.08 3.30 2.55 2.24 1.89 5.08
Tb ppm ICP-MS 0.64 0.86 0.55 0.38 0.43 0.91
Dy ppm ICP-MS 4.10 5.58 3.67 3.26 2.85 6.85
Ho ppm ICP-MS 0.85 1.25 0.65 0.67 0.61 1.60
Er ppm ICP-MS 2.55 3.36 2.44 1.91 1.74 4.56
Tm ppm ICP-MS 0.43 0.51 0.61 0.29 0.22 0.77
Yb ppm ICP-MS 2.38 3.90 2.04 1.98 1.93 4.92
Lu ppm ICP-MS 0.42 0.51 0.27 0.29 0.30 0.70
YbN 13.99 22.96 12.02 11.66 11.35 28.92
(La/Yb)N 0.87 0.78 1.02 0.82 1.44 0.56
(La/Sm)N 0.95 0.90 0.75 0.97 1.37 0.68
Sr/Y 5.64 2.03 5.96 5.22 6.63 0.60
Nb/La 1.02 1.24 1.17 1.26 1.35 1.91

XRF analysis: Rho=Rhodes program, tr=trace element program.

All analyses performed at the University of Lausanne.

22
Table 3. (continued)

Samples DV103 DV104 DV105 DV106 DV109 DV110 DV111

Unit Volcanic Fm. Volcanic Fm. Volcanic Fm. Volcanic Fm. Volcanic Fm. Amaime Fm. Amaime Fm.

Lithology Basalt Basalt Basalt Gabbro Basalt Basalt Basalt

Latitude N 3°48'57.5'' 3°46'46.6'' 3°46'31.0'' 3°46'04.0'' 3°47'43.6'' 3°33'20.0'' 3°25'07.4''
Longitude W 76°36'31.8'' 76°43'24.3'' 76°41'55.3'' 76°40'38.9'' 76°38'01.4'' 76°11'10.0'' 76°11'10.7''

SiO2 49.68 46.86 43.60 49.80 49.32 49.27 49.59

TiO2 1.03 1.03 2.51 0.99 1.20 0.84 0.84
Al2O3 13.66 15.01 12.73 13.81 14.15 14.23 14.36
Fe2O3 11.42 11.43 18.92 9.40 12.64 11.12 10.55
MnO 0.17 0.18 0.24 0.16 0.20 0.19 0.18
MgO 8.16 8.31 6.56 9.45 7.61 8.25 9.04
CaO 10.39 12.80 8.27 9.96 10.37 11.29 12.73
Na2O 2.86 1.89 2.99 3.56 2.56 2.62 1.55
K2O 0.12 0.22 0.06 0.11 0.13 0.45 0.08
P2O5 0.08 0.09 0.23 0.07 0.10 0.07 0.07
LOI 2.94 2.62 2.94 3.07 2.16 1.91 1.39
Cr2O3 0.04 0.06 0.01 0.03 0.04 0.06 0.07
NiO 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.02
Total 100.56 100.51 99.07 100.41 100.50 100.33 100.47
Cr 208 394 39 180 245 377 443
Ni 130 149 42 131 136 147 147
Cu n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d.
Zn 83 89 190 59 101 75 76
Ga 21.24 68.09 31.93 17.93 18.36 15.06 13.84
Sc 51.55 48.83 43.34 51.48 52.04 50.64 49.29
V 344.76 311.87 540.16 300.82 392.19 348.21 296.38
Co 43.45 48.47 49.63 40.36 45.35 41.50 44.55
Cs 0.03 0.12 0.78 0.10 0.10 0.09 0.05
Ba 60.24 316.12 92.76 38.63 24.88 20.47 15.82
Rb 1.45 2.46 1.33 1.78 1.64 11.95 1.20
Th 0.20 0.16 0.79 0.13 0.20 0.18 0.22
K 967 1860 483 885 1056 3746 655
Nb 3.32 2.65 10.69 2.25 3.75 2.49 3.54
Ta 0.23 0.21 0.73 0.16 0.25 0.15 0.20
Sr 144.73 213.79 43.12 75.39 96.64 90.91 82.80
P 338.91 382.52 1016.27 296.14 427.02 299.66 301.25
Zr 44.74 44.87 147.82 35.25 52.17 38.19 39.14
Hf 1.21 1.39 4.36 0.98 1.27 0.99 1.04
Ti 6168 6188 15064 5927 7214 5057 5025
Y 18.38 18.59 50.40 15.45 21.97 17.60 15.51
Pb 0.37 0.54 0.96 0.43 0.54 0.74 9.07
U 0.09 0.08 0.21 0.06 0.10 0.06 0.07
La 2.60 2.42 8.26 1.85 3.14 1.99 2.82
Ce 6.89 6.88 22.14 5.29 8.29 5.99 6.96
Pr 0.97 1.07 3.34 0.86 1.20 0.86 0.94
Nd 5.97 6.56 18.21 4.20 6.15 4.96 4.87
Sm 2.20 2.30 5.59 1.85 2.21 1.90 1.56
Eu 0.62 0.78 1.67 0.73 0.89 0.59 0.64
Gd 2.34 2.85 7.27 2.36 3.45 1.91 1.95
Tb 0.52 0.51 1.36 0.46 0.60 0.46 0.40
Dy 3.47 3.50 9.36 2.85 4.18 2.89 2.69
Ho 0.72 0.71 1.87 0.62 0.80 0.68 0.55
Er 2.04 2.03 5.67 1.91 2.41 1.86 1.88
Tm 0.32 0.28 0.89 0.26 0.35 0.30 0.26
Yb 2.10 1.85 6.01 1.65 2.88 1.97 2.27
Lu 0.31 0.32 0.83 0.30 0.39 0.36 0.30
YbN 12.33 10.86 35.34 9.73 16.93 11.57 13.36
(La/Yb)N 0.89 0.94 0.99 0.80 0.78 0.73 0.89
(La/Sm)N 0.76 0.68 0.95 0.65 0.92 0.68 1.17
Sr/Y 7.88 11.50 0.86 4.88 4.40 5.17 5.34
Nb/La 1.28 1.10 1.29 1.21 1.19 1.25 1.25

23
Table 3. (continued)

Samples DV112 DV26 DV58 DV138 DV156 DV30 DV91

Unit Amaime Fm. Córdoba Pluton Antioquia Batholith Saldaña Fm. Sonsón Batholith Buga Batholith Buga Batholith

Lithology Basalt Granodiorite Granite Rhyolite Granite Granodiorite Diorite

Latitude N 3°18'36.2'' 4°24'30.9'' 6°01'06.3'' 1°06'45.0'' 5°45'14.3'' 3°54'10.6'' 3°55'31.0''
Longitude W 76°11'36.7'' 75°41'24.2'' 75°08'10.8'' 76°50'18.6'' 75°18'00.5'' 76°10'50.4'' 76°14'42.4''

SiO2 49.36 60.30 70.08 63.68 68.34 67.60 50.99

TiO2 0.96 0.65 0.24 0.45 0.44 0.28 0.31
Al2O3 14.13 16.98 17.05 16.03 14.78 14.47 13.50
Fe2O3 10.22 5.55 1.69 3.66 3.76 5.24 9.38
MnO 0.16 0.09 0.03 0.09 0.07 0.09 0.17
MgO 8.95 1.68 0.69 1.21 1.94 2.58 10.84
CaO 11.95 5.61 3.31 2.94 3.62 5.57 11.31
Na2O 2.41 5.00 3.38 4.26 3.35 3.38 1.31
K2O 0.19 0.68 1.14 3.96 3.03 0.72 0.17
P2O5 0.09 0.19 0.06 0.12 0.10 0.07 0.04
LOI 1.80 2.68 1.95 2.83 0.46 0.45 2.30
Cr2O3 0.07 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.09
NiO 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.02
Total 100.30 99.42 99.61 99.24 99.91 100.46 100.42
Cr 456 10 18 9 43 53 618
Ni 176 6 4 5 11 19 164
Cu n.d. n.d. 2.00 18.00 4.00 n.d. n.d.
Zn 72 45 41 56 58 41 69
Ga 17.49 78.81 16.25 15.60 15.65 41.53 19.75
Sc 52.29 8.07 4.49 8.67 11.70 18.90 51.84
V 311.95 112.06 29.23 76.45 89.91 127.30 196.70
Co 44.72 9.56 2.88 6.57 8.31 12.34 47.41
Cs 0.08 2.11 2.20 3.44 5.69 0.38 1.66
Ba 24.39 414.28 174.69 1435.74 743.51 203.89 65.31
Rb 4.13 19.60 43.38 97.07 109.77 12.19 3.97
Th 0.50 3.18 9.30 6.58 13.96 1.00 0.41
K 1549 5654 9441 32904 25120 5950 1379
Nb 4.92 2.28 4.43 5.56 6.04 1.73 0.63
Ta 0.29 0.18 0.40 0.30 0.58 0.27 0.07
Sr 101.23 402.02 214.81 525.66 267.59 195.79 148.66
P 385.71 849.27 256.71 508.74 434.39 304.11 170.56
Zr 50.73 307.70 101.54 176.13 133.41 65.78 24.56
Hf 1.32 6.61 2.96 4.57 3.79 1.75 0.78
Ti 5769 3908 1410 2679 2625 1671 1874
Y 18.19 12.84 12.66 18.55 19.49 9.17 7.09
Pb 0.71 2.69 15.42 10.36 10.62 1.62 0.60
U 0.20 1.37 1.83 1.93 4.22 0.40 0.11
La 3.80 15.42 19.25 25.38 28.71 4.54 1.70
Ce 9.06 29.17 33.72 47.93 54.81 10.23 4.09
Pr 1.25 3.24 3.28 5.09 5.93 1.36 0.58
Nd 7.36 14.41 10.86 18.24 21.59 5.82 3.04
Sm 1.79 2.20 1.86 3.42 4.09 2.59 0.62
Eu 0.63 1.10 1.23 0.90 0.70 0.48 0.38
Gd 2.34 2.27 1.81 3.01 3.63 1.84 1.06
Tb 0.44 0.31 0.29 0.46 0.55 0.31 0.21
Dy 2.79 2.07 1.87 2.83 3.06 2.05 1.22
Ho 0.70 0.49 0.39 0.58 0.63 0.50 0.28
Er 2.15 1.49 1.27 1.89 1.83 1.46 0.88
Tm 0.28 0.23 0.19 0.30 0.32 0.26 0.16
Yb 1.97 1.26 1.43 1.92 1.80 1.23 1.05
Lu 0.28 0.26 0.21 0.31 0.29 0.27 0.15
YbN 11.58 7.38 8.41 11.32 10.57 7.22 6.16
(La/Yb)N 1.39 8.81 9.66 9.46 11.46 2.65 1.17
(La/Sm)N 1.37 4.52 6.69 4.80 4.54 1.13 1.79
Sr/Y 5.56 31.30 16.96 28.34 13.73 21.36 20.96
Nb/La 1.29 0.15 0.23 0.22 0.21 0.38 0.37

24
Table 3. (continued)

Samples DV78 DV79 DV122 DV125 DV126 DV165 DV167

Unit Dabeiba Fm. Dabeiba Fm. Ricaurte arc Ricaurte arc Ricaurte arc Mande Bath Mande Bath

Lithology Andesite Basaltic andesite Porphyritic basalt Andesite Andesite Diorite Granodiorite
Latitude N 7°00'54.9'' 7°00'54.2'' 1°12'08.1'' 1°16'33.6'' 1°13'17.5'' 5°46'04.7'' 5°46'15.1''
Longitude W 76°18'29.5'' 76°18'16.0'' 77°58'42.2'' 78°05'40.1'' 78°03'44.5'' 76°14'56.3'' 76°14'51.1''

SiO2 52.09 50.00 49.85 49.52 56.92 60.69 60.05

TiO2 0.62 0.93 0.65 0.69 0.54 0.58 0.56
Al2O3 17.08 17.19 18.27 15.65 15.05 16.01 16.25
Fe2O3 7.87 9.43 9.86 8.97 7.11 6.93 7.06
MnO 0.18 0.30 0.11 0.14 0.22 0.16 0.15
MgO 2.38 2.73 4.87 8.67 4.22 2.79 2.76
CaO 5.85 9.12 8.63 9.83 9.24 6.12 5.94
Na2O 4.73 2.57 3.00 1.86 4.65 3.17 3.17
K2O 3.94 2.67 1.10 0.62 0.35 2.00 2.35
P2O5 0.43 0.48 0.17 0.11 0.09 0.14 0.15
LOI 4.59 4.02 2.87 3.47 0.98 0.59 0.68
Cr2O3 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.04 0.01 0.00 0.00
NiO 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00
Total 99.76 99.43 99.37 99.58 99.38 99.18 99.11
Cr 8 7 49 240 71 12 8
Ni 4 4 23 93 22 5 4
Cu n.d. n.d. 112 41 17 72 64
Zn 83 98 87 71 60 57 57
Ga 101.80 97.95 16.49 13.26 11.60 13.60 15.19
Sc 17.78 27.70 30.03 35.30 30.50 19.08 21.13
V 216.79 268.00 380.63 252.85 274.89 171.66 187.73
Co 17.37 25.08 27.07 33.45 20.93 15.20 15.71
Cs 0.92 0.60 0.38 0.55 0.07 0.61 0.81
Ba 578.28 527.64 106.46 54.80 194.79 433.06 586.88
Rb 75.91 59.79 24.86 12.40 4.84 37.36 43.34
Th 1.74 1.53 0.73 0.59 0.76 5.60 3.89
K 32708 22145 9110 5128 2877 16587 19540
Nb 4.54 5.92 0.64 0.99 0.63 2.14 2.37
Ta 0.29 0.36 0.04 0.06 0.03 0.14 0.10
Sr 661.32 809.26 481.34 294.86 221.94 403.20 415.76
P 1873.43 2093.77 720.45 463.31 388.88 607.32 650.10
Zr 91.12 85.54 47.99 35.43 39.01 168.87 147.19
Hf 2.43 1.93 1.38 1.14 1.20 4.57 4.15
Ti 3717 5579 3900 4165 3264 3456 3334
Y 21.61 22.52 15.55 14.26 13.72 27.61 34.99
Pb 4.17 3.01 2.63 1.07 2.07 2.66 8.11
U 1.00 0.77 0.21 0.14 0.29 1.62 0.97
La 13.94 12.02 7.36 4.64 5.63 19.41 19.64
Ce 28.19 26.13 17.45 11.31 13.10 39.43 43.79
Pr 3.67 3.51 2.63 1.78 1.93 5.31 6.29
Nd 17.19 14.09 12.07 8.84 8.81 22.36 26.86
Sm 4.21 3.64 3.02 2.35 2.02 4.96 6.21
Eu 1.17 1.24 0.99 0.79 0.73 1.14 1.26
Gd 4.19 4.30 2.93 2.63 2.31 4.72 6.03
Tb 0.60 0.62 0.45 0.41 0.34 0.75 0.95
Dy 3.81 4.11 2.67 2.57 2.16 4.26 5.75
Ho 0.80 0.77 0.60 0.50 0.52 0.95 1.24
Er 2.34 2.47 1.72 1.58 1.31 2.75 3.52
Tm 0.32 0.33 0.24 0.21 0.18 0.41 0.52
Yb 2.23 2.30 1.55 1.58 1.20 2.97 3.32
Lu 0.32 0.33 0.23 0.23 0.20 0.44 0.55
YbN 13.12 13.53 9.13 9.31 7.04 17.49 19.54
(La/Yb)N 4.48 3.75 3.40 2.10 3.38 4.68 4.24
(La/Sm)N 2.14 2.13 1.57 1.27 1.80 2.53 2.04
Sr/Y 30.60 35.93 30.95 20.67 16.18 14.60 11.88
Nb/La 0.33 0.49 0.09 0.21 0.11 0.11 0.12

25
Table 3. (continued)

Samples DV43 DV48 DV159 DV171 DV173 DV174 DV175 DV176

Quebradagrande Quebradagrande Quebradagrande Quebradagrande Quebradagrande Quebradagrande Quebradagrande Quebradagrande
Unit complex complex complex complex complex complex complex complex

Lithology Gabbro Gabbro-diorite Andesite Andesite Basalt Basaltic andesite Basaltic andesite Diorite
Latitude N 6°05'36.8'' 6°07'07.7'' 4°55'36.7'' 5°20'51.0'' 5°23'31.7'' 5°24'49.4'' 5°24'49.4'' 5°27'16.0''
Longitude W 75°39'09.0'' 75°43'59.5'' 75°37'25.7'' 75°28'53.0'' 75°28'26.8'' 75°28'30.3 75°28'30.3'' 75°28'28.2''

SiO2 50.45 46.19 60.40 58.87 48.20 57.58 51.05 64.91

TiO2 1.52 1.46 0.77 0.70 1.63 0.74 0.87 0.42
Al2O3 13.67 15.23 17.16 17.79 14.19 17.06 18.01 17.22
Fe2O3 11.56 10.14 5.63 5.05 11.26 5.42 7.67 2.97
MnO 0.21 0.16 0.08 0.08 0.19 0.08 0.12 0.06
MgO 7.30 8.99 2.91 3.07 6.18 3.16 6.00 2.39
CaO 9.70 14.01 5.37 3.90 8.79 3.50 5.45 2.13
Na2O 3.37 2.18 4.22 5.85 3.11 6.04 3.28 6.27
K2O 0.09 0.04 1.85 1.08 0.92 0.99 2.70 0.94
P2O5 0.13 0.09 0.24 0.19 0.17 0.21 0.21 0.17
LOI 2.40 1.69 0.56 2.63 4.66 4.43 3.64 2.02
Cr2O3 0.02 0.07 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.01 0.06 0.01
NiO 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.00
Total 100.43 100.25 99.19 99.22 99.33 99.21 99.07 99.50
Cr 128 506 73 54 220 43 394 51
Ni 67 127 23 33 81 27 112 34
Cu n.d. n.d. 16 29 31 36 37 2
Zn 103 37 89 63 97 68 89 40
Ga 13.99 18.71 19.59 21.55 14.99 19.82 23.80 16.87
Sc 43.83 50.88 13.64 11.61 41.99 13.33 25.43 7.65
V 343.00 414.68 149.73 138.30 377.47 156.38 195.78 73.41
Co 38.05 43.08 13.05 14.62 39.97 14.12 30.38 8.83
Cs 0.23 0.13 1.85 0.38 0.50 0.27 0.50 0.22
Ba 8.07 12.46 1133.10 761.73 912.54 522.27 1243.06 243.13
Rb 1.27 2.18 49.09 12.55 22.05 14.52 35.38 15.94
Th 0.10 0.19 5.26 2.54 0.15 2.63 2.50 3.83
K 729 326 15354 8970 7675 8248 22390 7808
Nb 1.74 3.09 4.81 9.71 2.23 10.53 10.36 17.14
Ta 0.16 0.20 0.29 0.59 0.15 0.56 0.50 0.98
Sr 99.01 281.88 597.40 655.65 241.17 466.31 1012.34 517.68
P 553.76 386.14 1041.44 849.66 748.66 917.20 924.80 726.81
Zr 87.95 135.28 119.65 127.21 97.85 138.26 136.74 109.65
Hf 2.51 3.67 3.19 3.27 2.70 3.36 3.35 2.88
Ti 9127 8781 4589 4201 9769 4409 5197 2525
Y 33.61 44.79 20.28 11.94 37.30 13.41 16.92 7.76
Pb 1.16 0.97 10.55 3.70 0.72 5.66 2.73 2.88
U 0.04 0.24 2.16 1.19 0.19 1.15 1.18 1.38
La 2.93 5.46 20.85 16.79 3.96 18.61 16.29 20.03
Ce 10.04 16.12 37.62 35.68 12.23 40.10 36.45 36.09
Pr 1.55 2.66 5.10 4.49 2.09 5.01 4.73 3.77
Nd 9.34 14.25 20.10 18.41 11.02 20.71 20.24 13.35
Sm 3.33 4.92 4.61 3.90 3.74 4.42 4.51 2.20
Eu 0.90 1.62 1.23 1.17 1.40 1.42 1.51 0.67
Gd 4.85 6.35 3.92 3.27 5.40 3.63 3.99 1.98
Tb 0.87 1.04 0.54 0.47 0.97 0.43 0.54 0.23
Dy 6.03 7.67 3.12 2.42 6.21 2.41 2.86 1.33
Ho 1.23 1.85 0.67 0.50 1.40 0.45 0.58 0.30
Er 3.59 4.96 1.86 1.21 4.10 1.25 1.60 0.77
Tm 0.54 0.85 0.27 0.22 0.60 0.21 0.22 0.12
Yb 3.57 4.77 1.77 1.25 3.72 1.35 1.43 0.74
Lu 0.53 0.73 0.28 0.22 0.57 0.21 0.22 0.12
YbN 21.02 28.06 10.44 7.38 21.89 7.94 8.42 4.38
(La/Yb)N 0.59 0.82 8.43 9.60 0.76 9.89 8.17 19.29
(La/Sm)N 0.57 0.72 2.92 2.78 0.68 2.72 2.33 5.87
Sr/Y 2.95 6.29 29.46 54.90 6.47 34.77 59.82 66.71
Nb/La 0.59 0.57 0.23 0.58 0.56 0.57 0.64 0.86

26
Table 3. (continued)

Samples DV178 DV28 DV29 DV87 DV88 DV90 DV157 DV158

Quebradagrande
Unit complex Arquía Complex Arquía Complex Arquía Complex Arquía Complex Arquía Complex Arquía Complex Arquía Complex
Garnet white mica
Lithology Basalt amphibolite Garnet amphibolite Mica schist Amphibolitic schist Amphibolite Garnet amphibolite Amphibolitic schist
Latitude N 5°37'05.7'' 4°22'47.1'' 4°22'47.1'' 4°18'15.1'' 4°18'02.9'' 4°15'51.4'' 4°17'13.1'' 4°17'50.4''
Longitude W 75°30'16.3'' 75°43'09.0'' 75°43'09.0'' 75°46'58.5'' 75°46'41.1'' 75°47'23.9'' 75°47'05.7'' 75°46'46.5''

SiO2 51.63 48.71 47.33 47.02 49.30 48.15 51.46 46.90

TiO2 0.62 2.18 1.13 1.88 1.65 1.92 2.23 2.25
Al2O3 17.82 14.37 19.16 15.40 14.57 14.50 13.06 13.43
Fe2O3 7.96 11.97 8.33 12.20 11.13 12.16 12.90 13.69
MnO 0.16 0.20 0.28 0.18 0.18 0.20 0.20 0.21
MgO 3.30 8.07 5.86 6.76 7.42 7.87 6.01 7.56
CaO 9.97 9.69 12.02 12.35 10.27 10.37 8.38 9.87
Na2O 2.04 2.32 1.36 2.56 3.24 3.28 4.04 3.33
K2O 1.12 0.35 0.33 0.17 0.06 0.15 0.16 0.11
P2O5 0.39 0.22 0.04 0.18 0.15 0.17 0.19 0.21
LOI 4.03 1.52 4.06 1.81 1.73 1.26 0.53 1.50
Cr2O3 0.01 0.03 0.05 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.03 0.04
NiO 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02
Total 99.07 99.63 99.96 100.54 99.75 100.07 99.19 99.11
Cr 61 204 357 279 293 334 176 300
Ni 22 73 159 102 94 99 49 141
Cu 118 n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. 19 4
Zn 90 203 156 99 90 60 120 122
Ga 17.37 24.42 64.25 11.41 15.92 17.70 17.58 19.24
Sc 19.62 49.15 34.63 41.10 44.90 46.36 37.73 38.68
V 209.73 425.12 315.26 281.49 358.53 325.31 433.78 429.61
Co 19.19 36.92 44.34 37.36 38.03 38.07 34.64 45.13
Cs 1.47 0.46 1.02 0.07 0.06 0.14 0.08 0.12
Ba 296.18 60.89 299.73 3.13 9.24 33.91 12.25 15.71
Rb 21.85 4.72 6.26 0.55 0.46 1.33 0.92 1.54
Th 3.60 0.18 1.25 0.05 0.35 0.29 0.26 0.18
K 9318 2943 2708 1386 489 1230 1321 899
Nb 2.57 3.13 4.57 1.55 2.87 3.45 2.51 2.62
Ta 0.16 0.21 0.28 0.07 0.20 0.42 0.16 0.14
Sr 1868.44 140.55 269.35 137.51 119.49 94.27 69.41 130.11
P 1716.44 945.43 167.47 771.37 643.24 732.53 824.72 902.56
Zr 69.99 134.81 95.71 32.55 99.16 39.70 137.33 136.95
Hf 1.99 3.59 2.77 1.17 2.60 1.00 3.68 3.60
Ti 3738 13045 6786 11243 9896 11482 13355 13460
Y 16.79 46.21 24.59 22.09 35.26 17.21 48.47 49.71
Pb 8.25 6.64 12.35 0.33 0.58 0.47 2.01 0.58
U 1.33 1.31 1.04 0.05 0.11 0.28 0.10 0.10
La 13.82 4.97 6.09 1.09 4.22 2.81 5.00 5.20
Ce 29.99 15.57 13.70 5.40 12.91 6.82 16.73 17.48
Pr 3.86 2.67 1.87 1.12 2.07 1.21 2.79 2.88
Nd 17.02 15.27 9.05 6.79 11.73 5.12 15.40 15.98
Sm 3.77 4.67 2.49 2.62 3.97 1.52 5.32 5.37
Eu 1.09 2.01 0.97 0.98 1.29 0.61 1.66 1.68
Gd 3.15 7.03 3.02 3.50 4.98 3.20 7.20 7.23
Tb 0.50 1.25 0.55 0.65 0.92 0.40 1.32 1.34
Dy 2.73 8.44 4.57 4.26 6.19 3.42 8.34 8.30
Ho 0.60 1.91 0.89 0.82 1.22 0.78 1.79 1.84
Er 1.66 5.44 2.40 2.56 3.95 2.09 5.14 5.42
Tm 0.25 0.68 0.41 0.29 0.54 0.32 0.74 0.75
Yb 1.74 4.93 3.00 2.28 3.60 2.62 5.08 5.20
Lu 0.26 0.71 0.37 0.32 0.55 0.32 0.72 0.76
YbN 10.23 29.02 17.63 13.39 21.17 15.43 29.88 30.60
(La/Yb)N 5.70 0.72 1.46 0.34 0.84 0.77 0.71 0.72
(La/Sm)N 2.36 0.69 1.58 0.27 0.69 1.20 0.61 0.63
Sr/Y 111.27 3.04 10.95 6.23 3.39 5.48 1.43 2.62
Nb/La 0.19 0.63 0.75 1.42 0.68 1.23 0.50 0.50

27
 a) Quebradagrande Complex b) Arquía Complex

1000 1000
Quebradagrande arc Arquía Complex
Quebradagrande MORB
Rock/Primitive Mantle

Rock/Primitive Mantle
100 100

10 10

1 1

0.1 0.1
Rb Ba Th U K Nb Ta La Ce Sr Nd P Hf Zr Sm Ti Tb Y Tm Yb Rb Ba Th U K Nb Ta La Ce Sr Nd P Hf Zr Sm Ti Tb Y Tm Yb

1000 100.0
Rock/Chondrite

Rock/Chondrite
100 10.0

10 1.0

1 0.1
La Ce Pr Nd Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu La Ce Pr Nd Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu

1.6
seamounts
1.4 E-MORB
Figure 6. Primitive-mantle-normalized spider diagram, C1
1.2
chondrite-normalized REE plots of para-autochthonous
rocks of the Central Cordillera of Colombia. Normalization 1.0
MORB
Nb/La

values are from Sun and McDonough [1989]. a) Igneous rocks 0.8
from the Quebradagrande Complex. b) Basic metamorphic 0.6
rocks from the Arquía Complex, bottom right: tectonic
0.4
discrimination diagram (Nb/La v (La/Sm)N) [John et al., 2010]. continental arc
0.2 oceanic
arc
0.0
0.0 0.50 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
(La/Sm)N

(DV159, DV171, DV174, DV175, DV178; SiO2 wt%

51 to 60; MgO wt% 2 to 6) and a diorite (DV176;
SiO2 wt% 64; MgO wt% 2) are less altered and
metamorphosed than basalts and gabbros. These
magmatic rocks differ distinctly from the previous
group because they yield negative Nb–Ta and
Ti anomalies on a primitive-mantle normalized
multi-element plot (Figure 6a) suggesting they
are petrogenetically related to subduction. These
rocks are strongly depleted in Y (<20 ppm) and
HREE, enriched in Sr (>400 ppm), and thus qualify
as adakitic in composition [Richard and Kerrich,
2007]. While Sr contents may be partly influenced
by metasomatism, uniformly elevated Sr contents
and the absence of negative Eu anomalies (Figure
6a) suggest that parental melts to these rocks
evolved at high pressures outside the stability field
of plagioclase.
6.2.2 Arquía Complex
Garnet-bearing amphibolites of the Arquía
Complex located along the western flank of the
Central Colombia display significant scatter in LILE
(Figure 6b), which is indicative of remobilization
via alteration processes. The amphibolites yield
(La/Sm)N <0.6 and are mostly characterized by
the absence of negative Nb–Ta and Ti anomalies,
precluding a subduction-related origin.
High-field-strength element concentrations
were utilised to define both a mid-oceanic ridge
and seamount-type origin [Bosch et al., 2002; John
et al., 2010] in medium to high P–T amphibolites
and eclogites located along-strike of the Arquía
Complex in southern Ecuador (the Raspas Complex
in the Amotape province). The Raspas Complex lies

28
within the same structural position as the Arquía show evidence of LILE remobilization due to
Unit, relative to the juxtaposing Paleozoic rocks and metasomatism (locally prehnite-pumpellyite facies)
it is likely that it is equivalent to the Arquía Complex but show constant geochemical characteristics,
in Colombia. Tectonic discrimination based on Nb/ such as flat chondrite-normalized REE patterns
La v (La/Sm)N (Figure 6b) [after John et al., 2010] and a lack of subduction-related signatures such
suggests that the protolith of the amphibolites of as absence of negative Nb–Ta and Ti anomalies
the Arquía Complex may also be mid-ocean ridge in a primitive mantle-normalized plot (Figure 7a).
basalts and hot-spot related rocks. Samples from the Volcanic Fm. in the Western
Cordillera show 0.68<(La/Sm)N<0.95 (Table 3) with
the exception of a single basalt DV75 ((La/Sm)
6.3 Allochthonous rocks of the N
=1.37). Similarly, rocks from the Amaime Fm. in
the Cauca-Patía Valley have the same ratios with
Caribbean–Colombian Oceanic Province
the exception of slight LREE enrichment for basalt
exposed in the Western Cordillera (Volcanic DV112 ((La/Sm)N=1.37). Thus, the Amaime Fm.
Fm.) and the Cauca-Patía Valley (Amaime and Volcanic Fm. appear to be petrologically and
Fm.) geochemically identical.
These geochemical characteristics have been
We present data from several basalts and well documented by several authors in Western
gabbros collected along the Western Cordillera Colombia [Kerr et al., 1997, 2004] and Western
(Volcanic Fm. in Central and Southern Colombia, Ecuador [e.g. Mamberti et al., 2003] as typical
which is locally called the Barroso Fm. in Northern of most of the basalts forming the basement of
Colombia) and basalts from the Cauca-Patía the Caribbean–Colombian Oceanic Province (the
Valley (Amaime Fm.) (Figure 2). All these samples plateau rocks).

a) Western Cordillera and the Cauca-Patía Valley: b) Western Cordillera and the Cauca-Patía Valley:
Volcanic Fm. and Amaime Fm. Subduction related magmatic rocks
1000 1000
Volcanic Fm. Buga Batholith
Rock/Primitive Mantle

Amaime Fm. Dabeiba Fm.

Rock/Primitive Mantle

100 100 Mande Batholith

Ricaurte Fm.

10 10

1 1

0.1 0.1
Rb Ba Th U K Nb Ta La Ce Sr Nd P Hf Zr Sm Ti Tb Y Tm Yb Rb Ba Th U K Nb Ta La Ce Sr Nd P Hf Zr Sm Ti Tb Y Tm Yb

100.0 1000
Rock/Chondrite
Rock/Chondrite

10.0 100

1.0 10
Hauff et al. (2000)
Kerr et al. (1997)
0.1 1
La Ce Pr Nd Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu La Ce Pr Nd Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu

Figure 7. Primitive-mantle-normalized spider diagram and C1 chondrite-normalized REE plots of allochthonous rocks of the
Western Cordillera and the Cauca-Patía Valley of Colombia. Normalization values are from Sun and McDonough [1989]. a)
Mafic rocks from the Western Cordillera (Volcanic Fm.) and the Cauca- Patía Valley (Amaime Fm.). Previous works taken from
Kerr et al. [1997] and Hauff et al. [2000]. b) Intermediate–acidic igneous rocks that intrude and cover the Volcanic and Amaime
Fms.

29

6.4 Arc-related rocks within the oceanic
plateau rocks
Several intermediate – acidic intrusive and
volcanic rocks exposed in the Western Cordillera
and the Cauca-Patía Valley yield subduction-related
sequences These include the i) Late Cretaceous
Buga Batholith (zircon U-Pb 92-90 Ma; this study;
Figure 2b), ii) the Mande Batholith (zircon U-Pb
42-43 Ma, Figure 2a) [Cardona, 2010, pers.comm.],
which intrudes the Chocó-Panamá Terrane in the
northern Western Cordillera, and iii) andesitic lavas
and volcanic breccias of the Dabeiba (northern
Western Cordillera; Figure 2a) and Ricaurte Fms
(southern Western Cordillera; Figure 2c).
Primitive mantle normalized multi-element
plots of these rocks yield negative Nb-Ta and
Ti anomalies, and (La/Sm)N values of 1.13-2.53
(Figure 7b), which are typical of subduction zone
processes. All of them plot in the calc-alkaline field
on an AFM diagram. The Buga Batholith yields a
lower enrichment in LREE, with a (La/Sm)N ratio
of 1.13-1.79, similar to values ((La/Sm)N ratio of
1.08-2.99) for the contemporaneous (U-Pb zircon
age of ~87 Ma) [Van der Lelij et al., in press] island-
arc rocks of the Aruba Batholith in the Caribbean
region [White et al., 1999].
7 Interpretations and discussion
7.1 Pre-Early Cretaceous paleo-
continental margin
The new U–Pb zircon LA-ICPMS ages of
autochthonous rocks exposed in the Central
Cordillera of Colombia, west of the Otú–Pericos
Fault, shows that the Tahami Terrane consists of a
variety of geological units with widely varying ages
that have not been properly described or mapped
[e.g. Restrepo et al., 2009a]. The oldest rocks
identified within the Tahami Terrane are early
Paleozoic rocks of the La Miel Fm. (orthogneisses),
which were intruded at a maximum time of
~440–470 Ma and are exposed in the Central
30
Cordillera. These rocks were in turn intruded by
Permian granites at ~270 Ma, and all the Paleozoic
sequences are unconformably overlain by Triassic
metasedimentary rocks that have been partially
melted and are grouped into the Cajamarca
Complex.
The La Miel orthogneiss may be equivalent to
lower Paleozoic granites exposed in the Santander
Massif (SM; Figure 1) of the Eastern Cordillera
of Colombia (e.g. Ocaña Batholith) [Ordóñez-
Carmona et al., 2006]. Inherited and older zircon
U-Pb age populations within the La Miel Fm. and
the Cajamarca Complex of 500–600 Ma and 1000–
1200 Ma show that these rocks were sourced from
Precambrian terranes that were intruded and
metamorphosed during the late Neoproterozoic
Brasiliano Orogeny (assembly of Gondwana)
[Cawood, 2005], and the Grenvillian Sunsas
Orogeny (assembly of Rodinia) [Tassinari and
Macambira, 1999]. The source terranes are likely to
have been located in the east, and currently form
part of the Guyana Shield [e.g. Chew et al., 2008]
or alternatively, correspond to basement inliers
encountered in the Northern Andes of Colombia,
Ecuador and Perú [Cardona et al., 2010].
Permian granites have been found along the
eastern flank of the Central Cordillera (granite
DV82; 15 km south of Ibagué; Figure 2b) and in the
absence of geochemical data or detailed geological
mapping we propose that they form part of the
Permian S-type granite belt that is sporadically
dispersed along the Central Cordillera of Colombia
[Gómez et al., 2007; Vinasco et al., 2006] and formed
during the assemblage of Pangea [e.g., Cardona et
al., 2006; Vinasco et al., 2006]. The final stages
of amalgamation of Pangea took place by late
Permian–Early Triassic time [Vinasco et al., 2006;
Cawood and Buchan, 2007; Cardona et al., 2010],
based on geochronological data acquired from
metamorphic rocks and peraluminous syntectonic
intrusive rocks that formed within a collisional
setting between 280 and 250 Ma [Vinasco et al.,
2006].
Precambrian rocks that are now located
within Central America may represent part of the
protolith for the variably foliated metasedimentary
rocks of the Cajamarca Complex (220–240 Ma)
that are likely to have been deposited during
the Triassic rifting between South America and
North America. The sedimentary sequences are
temporally equivalent to syn-rift deposits observed
in eastern North America, which were deposited
during the fragmentation of Pangea [Pindell, 1993].
Continental break-up was accompanied by high
geothermal gradients and the formation of S-type
granitoids (e.g. the white mica-bearing granodioritic
gneiss DV18; 237.5±5.5 Ma) that were emplaced
syntectonically along shear zones proximal to the
borders of the American continental blocks (e.g.
the Triassic Tres Lagunas granite and Sabanilla
Migmatite in Ecuador) [Litherland et al., 1994;
Chew et al., 2008]. This event could have been
responsible also for thermal resetting of the isotopic
systems in older rocks (e.g. Permian granite DV82
yielded a 40Ar/39Ar total fusion age of 225.3±1.1
Ma). Rifting and crustal anatexis has been dated at
~220-230 Ma in Colombia and Ecuador [Litherland
et al., 1994; Aspden et al., 1992; Noble et al., 1997;
Vinasco et al., 2006; Cardona et al., 2006: Chew et
al., 2008], and may have extended diachronously
as far south as southern Peru, where extension-
related intrusions yield Late Triassic–Early Jurassic
U-Pb zircon ages of ~190–230 Ma [Miskovic et al.,
2009].
The onset of subduction in Colombia and Ecuador
subsequent to Triassic rifting and the opening of
the western Tethys Ocean was previously poorly
constrained [Jaillard et al., 1995]. The new U–Pb
and 40Ar/39Ar ages obtained from undeformed, calc-
alkaline I-type granitoids of the Ibagué Batholith
suggest that subduction-related magmatism was
occurring along the Colombian margin by 180 Ma,
and probably lasted until ~147 Ma (oldest and
youngest 40Ar/39Ar age obtained in this study for
the Ibagué Batholith). A similar range hornblende
and biotite K/Ar ages were obtained by Sillitoe et al.
[1982] and Brook [1984] from the Ibagué Batholith
and other small intrusive bodies. We suggest that
Jurassic continental arc magmatism ceased at ~145
Ma, and its sudden termination was due to back-
stepping of the subduction zone towards the west
possibly caused by the introduction of buoyant
seamounts into the Jurassic trench resulting in slab
break-off (see Chapter 3). The tectonic position
and geochronological data acquired from the
Quebradagrande Complex (section 7.2) suggests
it formed above a new, east-dipping subduction
zone that initiated oceanward of the Jurassic slab.
Westward retreat of the subduction zone is also
depicted in the paleo-reconstruction of Pindell
and Kennan [2009], who refer to the back-arc
basin as the Colombian Marginal Seaway (Figure
8a) [Pindell, 1993].
7.2 Early Cretaceous para-
autochthonous terranes
Nivia et al. [2006] describe medium to high P–T
rocks of the Arquía Complex as a Neoproterozoic
continental block that rifted away from the
continental margin, resulting in the deposition and
eruption of rocks of the Quebradagrande Complex
within a continental marginal basin. The age of
the protolith to the Arquía Complex has not been
constrained but it is unlikely to be Precambrian
based on cross-cutting field evidence [see Restrepo
et al., 2009b]. Our geochemical data, combined
with geochemical and isotopic data from other
authors [e.g., Bustamante, 2008] suggests that
the protolith of the medium to high P–T rocks of
the Arquía Complex formed within a mid-ocean-
ridge setting, although the T-MORB like, chondrite-
normalized REE plots (Figure 6b) suggest they
may also contain components of hot-spot related
material.
The Arquía Complex may be an along-strike
equivalent of high-pressure rocks that are
exposed in the Raspas Complex of the Amotape
Province in southern Ecuador, where a MORB
and seamount protolith is inferred for eclogites
and blueschists [John et al., 2010]. Lu–Hf garnet
ages and geobarometric studies on the Raspas
Complex indicate they experienced prograde,
high-pressure metamorphism at ~130 Ma at
temperatures of ~600°C [Arculus et al., 1999; John
et al., 2010]. Furthermore, the structural positions
of the Raspas and Arquía complexes are extremely
similar because i) both sequences are tectonically
juxtaposed against an arc, and ii) both sequences
are strongly foliated, and are located within
the suture zone linked to the accretion of the
Caribbean–Colombian Oceanic Province. Younger
phengite 40Ar/39Ar ages of 129–123 Ma [Gabriele,
2002; Bosch et al., 2002] and zircon fission track
ages of ~70 Ma [Spikings et al., 2005] from the
Raspas Complex reflect subsequent cooling
through 350-300°C and ~250°C, respectively.
Similarly, we propose that 40Ar/39Ar ages of 117-107
Ma (Chapter 3) obtained in the Arquía Complex
represent cooling ages following emplacement
and exhumation during the Early Cretaceous.
We propose that the Arquía Complex consists
of rocks with a MORB and T-MORB affinity that
31
were metamorphosed at high- to medium P–T
conditions in an east-dipping subduction zone,
which gave rise to the Quebradagrande Complex.
Obduction and accretion of the Arquía Complex
onto the Quebradagrande Arc and the continental
margin occurred during closure of the back-arc
basin during ~117 and ~107, which gave rise to
significant rock uplift and exhumation of these
sequences (Figure 8c; see also Chapter 3).
The Quebradagrande Complex is tectonically
juxtaposed against the Arquía Complex to the
west and Jurassic and colder continental crust
to the east, and is characterized by both MORB
and arc-related rocks. Continent derived, quartz-
rich sedimentary rocks within the back-arc (e.g.,
Abejorral Fm.; Aptian–middle Albian age) [Etayo-
Serna, 1985a; Toussaint, 1996] become more
volcanogenic towards the arc [Gómez-Cruz et al.,
1995], and cover the volcanic sequences. These
rocks are probably comparable with those located
within the Alao region of Ecuador, and the Celica–
Lancones basin in southern Ecuador (the Albian
Alamor Fm.) [Jaillard et al., 2009].
Gómez-Cruz et al. [1995] showed that the
sedimentary input observed in the Quebradagrande
Complex is characterized by continental-
derived material in the eastern side (siliclastic
conglomerates and sandstones), while the western
side was solely sourced from basaltic–andesitic
volcanic rocks, indicating that the arc environment
was not isolated from the South American Plate,
by, for example, an un-filled oceanic trench.
Conspicuous pillow basalts and marine deposits
within the Quebradagrande Complex reveal the
presence of a marine environment. We support an
oceanic back-arc setting for the Quebradagrande
Complex (Figures 8a-b), however no forearc
material has been confirmed west to the arc.
A reliable radiometric minimum age of the
Quebradagrande Complex (U-Pb zircon age
of 112.6±3.1 Ma; MSWD=2.3; sample DV176)
[Cochrane, unpublished data] from a dioritic
dyke located close to the San Jerónimo Fault
(Figure 2a) overlaps with proposed fossil ages for
this unit (Hautevarian – early Albian) [González,
1980]. Assuming the fossil ages are correct, the
dyke intruded during the waning stage of arc
magmatism (the closure of the back-arc basin)
and syntectonically with the formation of the San
Jerónimo Fault [Kammer, 2007, pers. comm.]. The
San Jerónimo Fault is located to the east of the
Quebradagrande Complex and formed during the
accretion of the complex onto the continent, which
occurred between 117–107 Ma (Figure 8c), based
on thermochronological data (this study, Chapter
3).
Evidence for an intra-oceanic subduction
related origin for the Quebradagrande Complex
in contrary to an ensialic marginal basin proposed
by Nivia et al. [2006] includes: i) low SiO2 and
low K arc rocks, as well as the presence of rocks
with N- to T-MORB signatures, ii) the majority of
the eruption took place in submarine conditions
giving rise to pillowed basalts, and sedimentary
rocks were mainly deposited in a marine setting
[Etayo-Serna, 1985a; Nivia et al., 2006] and iii) the
absence of continental basement to the west of
the San Jerónimo fault and the lack of continent-
derived detritus to the west of the back-arc
[Gómez-Cruz et al., 1995; Restrepo et al., 2009b].
Furthermore, the proposition of Nivia et al. [2006]
that the protolith of the Arquía Complex was
continental crust should be reconsidered given
the geochemical evidence presented in this work
(section 6.2.2). The absence of forearc rocks is
enigmatic, although we suggest that some may be
tectonically buried beneath the Arquía Complex,
and may also have been indiscriminately mapped
as the Arquía Complex. For example, the Sabaletas
greenschists (whole rock K/Ar 127±5 Ma) [Toussaint
et al., 1978] exposed west of Medellín, displays a
lower metamorphic grade (greenschist facies) than
the Arquía Complex s.s. and have a sedimentary
and volcanic, mafic protolith [García et al., 2007;
Giraldo et al., 2007].

Figure 8 (next page). Proposed paleotectonic reconstructions during Cretaceous time modified and simplified from Pindell
and Kennan [2009]. Relative paleopositions of North and South America from Pindell and Kennan [2009]. Reference frames:
a-b) North-America, c-f) Indo-Atlantic (hot spot reference frame of Müller et al. [1993]). Relative convergence direction: CA/
HS: Caribbean Plate/Hot spot, CA/NA: Caribbean Plate/North America, CA/SA: Caribbean Plate/South America. Abbreviations:
AB: Antioquia Batholith, AC: Arquía Complex, BB: Buga Batholith, CCOP: Caribbean–Colombian Oceanic Province, NOAM:
North American Plate, QGC: Quebradagrande Complex, RC: Raspas Complex in Ecuador, SOAM: South American Plate, T–C:
Tangula–Curiplaya intrusions. The Early Cretaceous Trans-American Arc is show as dark grey, Late Cretaceous arc is shown as
medium grey and the CCOP is shown in purple.

32
 a) 130 Ma d) 100 Ma
-80° -70° -60° -50° -40°
20°
-110° -100° -90° -80° NOAM Plate
30°

NOAM Plate
(fixed) 10°

20° Proto-
CA/NA Caribbean

mi
0°

ha
CCOP ?
Tr

Ta
an

Colombian CA/HS
s-

mi
Marginal QGC,
Am

10°
ha
Seaway AC
er

Ta SOAM
ica

Plate
n

SOAM
Ar

Farallón -10°
Plate
c

CA/SA
Plate QGC
0°
Early Cretaceous arc Early Cretaceous arc
(Trans-American arc) (Trans-American arc)
-20°

b) 125 Ma e) 95-85 Ma
-80° -70° -60° -50° -40° -80° -70° -60° -50° -40°
20° 20°
NOAM Plate
(fixed)
Caribbean
Plate Proto-
10° Caribbean
CA/NA CCOP subduction 10°
zone
BB
AB
CA/HS SOAM

i
Plate

am
0° CA/SA 0°

h
Ta
Depositation of
i
am

Santa Marta schist

h
Ta

T-C protolith, San Jacinto

Farallon QGC metasedimentary
SOAM -10° rocks. -10°
Plate ?
Plate
Early Cretaceous
Early Cretaceous arc arc
(Trans-American arc) Late Cretaceous arcs
-20° -20°

c) 117-107 Ma f) 75-70 Ma
-80° -70° -60° -50° -40° -90° -80° -70° -60° -50°
20° 30°
NOAM Plate

10° 20°
Proto-
Caribbean

CA/NA Caribbean
Plate CA/NA
0° CCOP 10°
Caribbean
CA/SA
i

Plate
Taham

CA/HS
a

i
lim

am

AC QGC
Ca

CA/HS
Ta

-10° 0°
RC SOAM
Early Cretaceous arc Early Cretaceous SOAM
Plate arc
(Trans-American arc) Plate
Late Cretaceous arcs
CA/SA
-20° -10°

33
 Based on the above exposed evidence we 7.3 Late Cretaceous allochthonous
favour the idea of an oceanic marginal basin oceanic terranes
bordered to the west by the Trans-American arc as
the origin of part of the Quebradagrande Complex,
Mafic basement rocks exposed west of the
as suggested by Pindell [1993]. Pindell [1993],
Cauca–Almaguer Fault in the Cauca-Patía Valley
Pindell and Kennan [2009] referred to the tract
(Amaime Fm.) and in the Western Cordillera
of water that separated the palaeo-continental
(Volcanic Fm.) share similar petrographic and
margin from the Quebradagrande arc rocks as the
geochemical characteristics, consistent with them
Colombian Marginal Seaway, which was a back-arc
forming part of an oceanic plateau [see also Kerr
basin sequence located proximal to the continental
et al., 1997]. Geochronological zircon U-Pb data
margin. Figures 8a–b show the tectonic setting
from the Palmar gabbro (99.7±1.3 Ma) and the
during the Early Cretaceous according to Pindell
Buga batholith (~90-92 Ma) which intrudes the
[1993], where the marginal basin is flanked by the
Amaime Fm. constrain the ages of these rocks to
Trans-American Arc that formed above an east-
92–100 Ma, suggesting that they define a single
dipping subduction zone that extended along the
oceanic plateau sequence, that forms part of the
western margin of the North American and South
Caribbean–Colombian Oceanic Province. The
American plates (see reconstruction in Pindell and
U-Pb zircon age of 99.7±1.3 Ma obtained from the
Kennan [2009]).
Palmar gabbro (Volcanic Fm.) is the oldest reliable
Any reconstruction of the Caribbean Plate age obtained for the basement of the Western
in the Cretaceous must take into account a Cordillera of Colombia and the entire Caribbean–
subduction polarity reversal that terminated Colombian Oceanic Province within Colombia, and
east-dipping subduction (which gave rise to the could be interpreted as a proxy for the earliest
Trans-American Arc), and initiated a west-dipping time of its formation (Figure 8d).
subduction zone beneath the Caribbean Plate.
Subduction of proto-Caribbean crust below the
Current models suggest the reversal occurred at
plateau rocks of the Caribbean–Colombian Oceanic
either ~90 Ma [Burke, 1988; Kerr et al., 2003; Van
Province generated an intra-oceanic arc sequence
der Lelij et al., in press.] or 120–100 Ma [Pindell
that is sporadically preserved within Colombia
et al., 2005]. Aptian obduction and exhumation
(Figure 2b) as the Buga Batholith (U-Pb zircon
of medium-high P–T metamorphic rocks is widely
90–92 Ma; Cauca-Patía Valley) and the Espinal
observed in the Caribbean [Pindell et al., 2006],
Fm. (U-Pb zircon ~75 Ma; Western Cordillera). The
Colombia (this study; Chapter 3) and Ecuador
Late Cretaceous Buga Batholith (Figure 8e) slightly
(Raspas Complex; Figure 8c) [John et al., 2010].
predates intrusions with similar geochemical
An Aptian age for polarity reversal [Pindell et al.,
characteristics in Ecuador (Pujilí Granite; U-Pb
2005] would be coincident with the accretion of
zircon 85.5±1.4 Ma) [Vallejo et al., 2006] and Aruba
the Quebradagrande and Arquía complexes onto
(Aruba Batholith; U-Pb zircon 87.0±0.9 Ma) [Van
the Colombian continental margin (~117–107 Ma;
der Lelij et al., in press.], both of which intrude
Figure 8c; see also Chapter 3). We suggest that
hot-spot related mafic rocks of the Caribbean–
accretion of the southern segment of the Trans-
Colombian Oceanic Province and erupted above
American arc, assisted by oblique subduction
a west-dipping subduction zone [e.g. Hughes and
of the Farallón Plate [Pindell and Kennan, 2009]
Pilatasig, 2002; Spikings et al., 2005; Vallejo et al.,
beneath the arc could have triggered the polarity
2009]. The Pujilí Granite in Ecuador is considered to
flip observed in the Caribbean (Figure 8c). However,
form part of the Río Cala Arc, which yields 40Ar/39Ar
alternative driving forces for obduction could
ages of 85–72 Ma and erupted above oceanic-
include a rapid increase in convergence rates and
plateau rocks prior to its collision with the South
we are unable to prove or disprove the timing of
American Plate [Vallejo et al., 2009]. The U-Pb
subduction reversal.
zircon age of intercalated tuffs within the mainly
sedimentary Espinal Fm. corroborates Campanian–
Maastrichtian fossil ages [Etayo-Serna, 1985b], and
the presence of euhedral zircon crystals reveals the
presence of a coeval volcanic source that may have
erupted during waning stages of arc magmatism

34
above a west-dipping subduction zone, prior to its
collision with the continent. We propose that the
Aruba, Buga and Pujilí batholiths formed within an
arc sequence that was related to a common, west-
dipping subduction zone that circumnavigated a
large part of the Caribbean–Colombian Oceanic
Province.
Late Cretaceous subduction of the Proto-
Caribbean oceanic crust (Figure 8d) below the
South American Plate gave rise to the Antioquia
and Córdoba Batholiths (U-Pb zircon 95–80
Ma). The along-strike continuity of the Late
Cretaceous, continental magmatic arc towards
Ecuador is uncertain, as it is only documented in
southernmost Ecuador with the emplacement of
the Tangula Batholith and minor associated plutons
(e.g. Curiplaya intrusion, U–Pb zircon 92.0±1.0 Ma;
Figure 8d) [Schütte, 2009]. In addition, siliciclastic
rocks of the Yunguilla Fm. in Ecuador, deposited
during the Campanian–Maastrichtian along the
paleocontinental margin reveal the presence of a
minor volcanic source (72.4±6.4 Ma) [Vallejo et al.,
2009], which may have been coeval. The northern
prolongation of this subduction zone beneath
northern South America may correspond to the
proto-Caribbean trench (Figure 8e) and subduction
zone [Pindell et al., 1988, 2006].
Thermochronological, geochronological and
sedimentological data from Colombia suggests the
Caribbean–Colombian Oceanic Province (which
hosts an oceanic-plateau that is intruded by an
arc sequence) accreted to continental margin of
South America at some point between 75 and 70
Ma (Figure 8f; see also Chapter 3), resulting in the
cessation of east-facing arc magmatism above the
Caribbean–Colombian Oceanic Province at ~75 Ma
and the onset of rapid exhumation in Northern
Central Cordillera of Colombia (see Chapter 3 for
a more detailed discussion). Upper Cretaceous
sedimentary rocks of the Nogales Fm. along the
western flank of the Central Cordillera in Colombia,
and the Yunguilla Fm. along the western flank of
the Eastern Cordillera of Ecuador unconformably
overlay rocks of the accreted Caribbean–Colombian
Oceanic Province. The suture zone is represented
by the Cauca–Almaguer Fault (the westernmost
branch of the Romeral Fault System), which has
severely dismembered the entrained rocks of the
Arquía Complex and the partly overlying Nogales
Fm. Upper Cretaceous metasedimentary rocks
equivalent to the Nogales Fm. are widespread in
northwestern Colombia within the San Jacinto
deformed belt (Figure 1; Cansona Fm.) [Guzmán
et al., 2004], the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta
(Figure 1; Santa Marta Schist) [Cardona et al.,
2009], the present-day southern Caribbean (Bahía
Honda schists in the Guajira Peninsula; Figure
1), which have been denominated as the Ruma
Metamorphic zone by MacDonald et al. [1971]. We
suggest that these Upper Cretaceous sedimentary
sequences were deposited prior and during the
collision of the Caribbean–Colombian Oceanic
Province (Figure 8e) with Northern South America,
which proceeded diachronously along the northern
margin [e.g. Van der Lelij et al., in press.].
7.4 Tertiary arc rocks in the Western
Cordillera
A post-collisional calc-alkaline arc (e.g. the
Paleocene Sonsón Batholith) established in the
Central Cordillera of Colombia at 65–55 Ma
(zircon U-Pb) [Ordóñez-Carmona et al., 2001].
Trenchward migration of magmatism is recorded
in the Oligocene with the emplacement of the
Piedrancha pluton and extrusion of the Ricaurte
volcanics in the southern Western Cordillera
(Figure 2c). Eocene-Oligocene magmatic rocks
exposed in the Northern Western Cordillera of
Colombia (Mande batholith and Dabeiba volcanic;
Figure 2a) were formed in the trailing edge of the
Caribbean–Colombian Oceanic Province (Chocó-
Panamá Terrane) [Duque-Caro, 1990] and accreted
to northwestern South America at some point
between the late Miocene–Pliocene (Chapter 3).­
8 Conclusions
1. Zircon U-Pb age dating of metamorphic
rocks of the Tahami terrane shows that the
basement of the Central Cordillera consists of a
complex assemblage of lower Paleozoic gneisses
intruded by Permian granites, which are equivalent
to rocks exposed in the Santander Massif,
suggesting they may define dispersed regions of
a common terrane. We propose that the Permian
granitoids formed during the amalgamation of
Pangea.
35

2. Triassic rocks within the Tahami Terrane
consist of variably deformed metasedimentary
and meta-intrusive rocks that we group into
the Cajamarca Complex. Zircon U-Pb analyses
of the metasedimentary sequence yield a
maximum depositional age of ~220–240 Ma, and
represent a maximum age for high-temperature
metamorphism and anatexis. White mica bearing
granodioritic gneisses host zircons with U-Pb ages
of ~220–240 Ma, implying that sedimentary rocks
deposited during the disassembly of Pangea were
accompanied by migmatization along major shear
zones.
3. Subsequent to Triassic rifting, arc
magmatism commenced along the Colombian
margin at ~180 Ma and lasted until ~145 Ma.
The sudden termination of magmatism was
contemporaneous with the initiation of an oceanic
back-arc basin (the Quebradagrande Complex) in
the Early Cretaceous, close to the paleocontinent,
and hence it is plausible to propose that slab
stepped oceanwards to form the so-called Trans-
American arc [Pindell, 1993].
4. Geochemical analyses of the medium-high
P–T rocks of the Arquía Complex yield N-NORB
and T-MORB characteristics that may indicate the
presence of seamounts. These signatures have also
been obtained from the Peltetec Unit and Raspas
Complex in Ecuador [John et al., 2010; Spikings,
2010, pers. comm.], which are probably along-
strike equivalent rock sequences. We propose that
these rocks represent an exhumed fragment of the
subduction channel that was responsible for the
Trans-American arc.
arc and highly oblique subduction of the Farallón
Plate beneath both American plates [Pindell et
al., 2005] may have been responsible for the
abandonment of the east-dipping subduction zone
and could have given rise to the disputed polarity
reversal of the subduction zone in the Aptian.
6. Zircon U-Pb data obtained from the
allochthonous Late Cretaceous rocks, combined
with whole rock geochemistry show that the
basement rocks of the Calima terrane form part
of the Caribbean–Colombian Oceanic Province
and range in age between 100 and 92 Ma. Mafic
oceanic rocks exposed in the Cauca–Patía Valley
(Amaime Fm.) and the Western Cordillera (Volcanic
Fm.) probably form part of the same Cretaceous
oceanic plateau.
7. We propose that the remnant oceanic
crust located between the converging Caribbean
Cretaceous Oceanic Province and South America
was consumed via a divergent, double subduction
system that gave rise to an island arc through the
oceanic plateau and a continental arc through
northwestern South America. The island arc
system includes the Buga Batholith in Colombia,
and probably also the Pujilí Granite in Ecuador and
the Aruba batholith in Aruba [Vallejo et al., 2009;
Van der Lelij et al., in press]. The continental arc
included the Antioquia Batholith and Córdoba
pluton in Colombia. We propose that some
of the Upper Cretaceous clastic sedimentary
sequences found along the continental margin
(e.g. metasedimentary rocks of the Cansona Fm. in
the San Jacinto belt and the Santa Marta schist in
the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta; Figure 1) were
sourced from the continent and deposited in the
forearc.

5. Closure of the Early Cretaceous oceanic

8. Lateral accretion of the Caribbean–
back-arc basin during ~117–107 Ma and final
Colombian Oceanic Province (oceanic plateau
accretion onto the paleocontinent along the
rocks and its associated arc-sequences) took place
San Jerónimo Fault led to the obduction of the
between 75–70 Ma along the Cauca–Almaguer
Arquía Complex. Widespread Early Cretaceous
Fault. This accretion led to rapid exhumation of the
exhumation of high-pressure rocks is observed west
paleocontinental margin and the cessation of both
of the Trans-American arc in the circum-Caribbean
arcs.
region [Pindell and Kennan, 2009]. We envisage
that the accretion of the southernmost segment of
the Trans-American arc onto northwestern South
America, as well as the drastic lengthening of the

36
 9. Subduction beneath the accreted
Caribbean–Colombian Oceanic Province (Calima
Terrane in Colombia) and the paleocontinent
resumed in the Early Tertiary, forming Paleocene
arc rocks (e.g. Sonsón Batholith). Eocene arc rocks
of the Dabeiba arc probably formed along the
trailing edge of the Caribbean–Colombian Oceanic
Province and may have collided with northwestern
South America during the middle Miocene–
Pliocene [Duque-Caro, 1990; Mann and Corrigan,
1990].

37
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42
 a) Northern Colombia
Traverse Geological Units Field observations

1) Central Cordillera: east of Medellín
Cajamarca Complex, Antioquia Batholith
Schist and gneisses of the Cajamarca Complex in tectonic contact with granitic gneisses of La Miel forming
the Tahami terrane which is in turn intruded by the Antioquia Batholith. The host rocks show evidence of
contact metamorphism. The Antioquia Batholith in the region varies from hornblende-bearing granodiorite,
diorite to minor granites. There is not apparent structural control in the emplacement of the Batholith and
major faults bordering the Cordillera do not tectonically displace the major intrusive body which form a nearly
circular outcrop pattern except in its westernmost part where tectonic deformation is more intense.

2) Central Cordillera: south of Medellín
3) Western Cordillera
Quebradagrande Complex, Abejorral Fm.
Volcanic Fm. (locally named as Barroso Fm.), Late
Cretaceous Espinal Fm., Tertiary Mande batholiths
and Dabeiba volcanics.
Andesites, basalts and gabbros of the Quebradagrande Complex often showing sea-floor metamorphism. It is
topped by siliclastic sediments of the Abejorral Fm. to the east whereas to the west the sedimentary cover
consist of immature sediments with clast of basic and intermediate volcanic rocks.
Basalts and gabbros of the Volcanic Fm. covered by Late Cretaceous marine sediments of the Espinal Fm.
(locally named Penderisco Fm.) which are intruded by diorites of the Mande batholith and locally covered by
volcanics of the Dabeiba Fm.

b) Central Colombia
Traverse Geological Units Field observations
Appendix 1. Field observations

Exposures of the Cajamarca Complex varies from a dominant quartzites, fine-medium greenschist (meta-
arenites) to metapelites. and non reported orthogneisses (La línea) and non-reported Permian granites (15
Km. south of Ibagué). To the east, the Cajamarca complex is intruded by the Jurassic Ibagué Batholith that
4) Central Cordillera: eastern flank Cajamarca Complex, Ibagué Batholith consist of middle-coarse grained granodiorites and granites. Intense faulting and deformation in the area.

5) Central Cordillera: western flank
6) Cauca-Patía Valley
The Quebradagrande Complex correspond to pillowed basalts and basaltic andesites intruded by fine grain
gabbroic feeder dikes, locally topped with marine sediments. It is in intense tectonic contact to the west with
Quebradagrande and Arquía Complexes intruded by garnet bearing-amphibolites and amphibolitic schists of the Arquía Complex. Rocks of the Quebradagrande
small plutons Complex are locally intruded by small dioritic plutons (e.g. Córdoba pluton).
The best exposures of the Amaime Fm. consisting of basalts and gabbros and thin lenses of ultramafic rocks
Amaime Fm. and Buga batholith (Ginebra Fm.) intruded by the dioritic Buga batholith.

Ultramafic rocks of the Bolívar Ultramafic Complex in the Eastern border of the Cordillera consisting of
gabbros, norites, locally intruded by coeval hornblende and biotite bearing pegmatites. The Volcanic Fm.
consisting of predominant massive basalts is in tectonic contact with more restricted gabbroic sheets bodies
Volcanic Fm, Bolívar Ultramafic complex and Late (e.g. Palmar gabbro). All those igneous sequences are in contact with turbidites, shales and tuffs of the
7) Western Cordillera Cretaceous Espinal Fm. Espinal Fm. which locally are weakly metamorphosed (Cisneros Fm).

c) Southern Colombia
Traverse Geological Units Field observations
Granites and granodiorites of the Ibagué Batholith in tectonic contact with acidic lavas and breccias of the
8) Central Cordillera Jurassic Ibagué batholith and Saldaña Fm. volcanics Saldaña Fm.
Basalts of the Volcanic Fm. intruded by quartz-diorites of the Tertiary Piedrancha pluton and locally covered
9) Western Cordillera Volcanic Fm., Ricaurte Fm., Piedrancha pluton by andesites and andesitic breccias of the Tertiary Ricaurte Fm.

43
 Sample Lithology Texture Minerals Alteration Observations Analyses performed

44
metamorphic quartz, hornblende, idiomorphic
titanite, plagioclase (few kfspar), muscovite. Fresh rock. Few plagioclase slightly
DV02 Gneiss gneissic Accesories: epidote, rounded zircon chloritized. U-Pb, 40Ar/39Ar
Probably plagioclase have inclusion of
holocrystalline seriate texture, coarse Hornblendes very fresh. plagioclase are pyroxenes. Smalls cracks filled with a
40
DV04 Gabbro-diorite to medium grained gabbro-diorite Subhedral crystals of hornblende, biotite, quartz slighty argillized. yellow unkown material. Ar/39Ar

Plagioclase, Kfspar, Hornblende: coarse-subhedral

crystals of Kfspar, zoned plagioclase. Subhedral
Phaneritic- coarse-medium grained crystals of hornblende. Accesories: apatite, zircon, plagioclase zoned, hornblendes with
DV05 Granodiorite seriate texture granodiorite monazite Fresh rock inclusions of plagioclase U-Pb, 40Ar/39Ar
Phaneritic, coarse-grained bt-Hbl Kfspar, plagioclase, quartz, hornblende, biotite. Biotite weakly altered by chlorite, illite. Feldpars present parallel albite and
40
DV06 Granite granite Accesories: titanite, zircon, apatite Hornblende are very fresh carlsbad twinning Ar/39Ar
plagioclase present parallel albite and
Quartz, kfspar, biotite, plagioclase, hornblende. carlsbad twinning sometimes. Kfspar show
40
DV07 Granite Phaneritic Accesories: epidote, apatite, titanite, zircon, rutile Fresh rock. Biotite weakly chloritized typical Carlsbad. Ar/39Ar

Quartz, plagioclase, kfspar, biotite, hornblende. hornblende unaltered. plagioclase slightly plagioclase present parallel albite and
DV09 Granite Micro-phaneritic Accesories: apatite, zircon, epidote, magnetite. altered to illite. carlsbad twinning U-Pb, 40Ar/39Ar
whole rock geochemistry

WM granodioritic Quartz, plagioclase, Kfspar, muscovite. Accesories: muscovite altered to chlorite, plagioclase
DV18 gneiss granoblastic zircon, apatite, chiastollite, staurolite (?), pyrite slightly altered to illite U-Pb

Muscovite and plagioclase replaced by finer

Quartz, plagioclase, muscovite (relicts), strongly second generation of muscovite (sericite?).
DV19 Quartzite porphyroblastic altered garnet (?). Accesories: rounded zircons Minor chlorite. Presence of sulphides U-Pb
plagioclase present Carlsbad and albite
coarse grained, inequigranular, Quartz, plagioclase, kfspar, hornblende. Accesories: illite slightly altering plagioclase. Presence twinning. Consertal intergrowth of quartz in
40
DV26 Granodiorite holocrystalline zircon, apatite, magnetite and titanite of carbonates in microfractures (weathering) cummulates. Geochemistry, U-Pb, Ar/39Ar
hornblende, quartz, feldspar. Accesories: white
Garnet white mica, titanite (?), garnet, few small zircons, apatite, syn-kinematic garnet, foliation wrapped
40
DV28 mica amphibolite porphyroblastic epidote fresh rock around the porphyroblast Geochemistry, Ar/39Ar

Garnet hornblende, quartz, feldspar. Accesories: titanite,

DV29 amphibolite porphyroblastic muscovite (primary), porphyroblast of garnet. hornblende slightly altered by illite syn-kinematic garnet Geochemistry

plagioclase, quartz, hornblende. Accesories:

DV30 Tonalite phaneritic epidote, biotite, magnetite, monazite, zircon, apatite illite weakly altering plagioclase. Geochemistry, U-Pb
chlorite, epidote, illite altering plagioclase.
DV38 Diabase phaneritic (relictic) plagioclase, hornblende, pyroxenes. Epidotes (?) Geochemistry
relicts of plagioclase, pyroxenes, vesicles filled with low-T alteration (presence of celadonite:
DV39 Gabbro phaneritic (relictic) celadonite. phillosilicate filling vesicles) Geochemistry
Plagioclase, pyroxenes. Accesories: quartz, Ti- chlorite and argillitization moderately altering
DV40 Basalt poikilitic , microphaneritic oxide, magnetite plagioclase. Geochemistry
Hornblende hornblende, plagioclase, pyroxene, quartz (?). plagioclase altered by illite, chlorite. Two hornblende generations, one fresh the
DV42 gabbro phaneritic Accesories: titanite, zircon, monazite Presence of carbonates other slightly altered. U-Pb

micro-phaneritic, poikilitic plagioclase, hornblende. Accesories: Ti-oxide,

DV43 Gabbro (hornblendes containing plagioclase) magnetite plagioclase moderately altered by illite Geochemistry
moderate argillitization altering feldspar and
DV48 Gabbro-diorite phaneritic hornblende, plagioclase, accesories: quartz, kfspar hornblendes Geochemistry

DV50 Gneiss gneissic quartz, kfspar, hornblende, white mica, zircons feldspars altered to illite and chlorite U-Pb
quartz, kspar (orthoclase and microcline), Weak alteration, very few chlorite altering
plagioclase, biotite, accesories: hornblende, apatite, biotite, muscovite and cores of some microcline (with typical twin) and orthoclase
DV56 Granite porphyritic zircon, rutile plagioclase showing Carlsbad twinning. U-Pb
quartz, plagioclase, kfspar, accesories: hornblende,
DV58 Granite phaneritic biotite, titanite, zircon very weak illite altering plagioclase Geochemistry, U-Pb

plagioclase, . Hornblende, medium-grained plagioclase slightly argillitized and

fenocrystals of pyroxenes, Olivine (3%) fractured choritized. The sample is cut by severals
seriated basalt highly dissected by groundmass consisting of pyroxenes and veins filled with quartz-plag and others with Fast cooling textures, probably flowing
DV74 Basalt veins plagioclase (+olivine?). a green material (actinolite?). textures, brecciation Geochemistry
Appendix 2. Description of samples used for U-Pb and 40Ar/39Ar datation and
 Sample Lithology Texture Minerals Alteration Observations Analyses performed

pyroxenes and plagioclase. Fine matrix consisting of

plagioclase, pyroxene. Accesories: olivine, slightly altered by philosilicates, crossed by
DV75 Basalt microporphyritic magnetite few veins of epidote, quartz presence of vesicles, Geochemistry
plagioclase slightly altered by illite.
plagioclase, hornblende, pyroxenes. Accesories: Hornblendes maybe slightly altered to
40
DV78 Andesite porphyritic magnetite, apatite, quartz chlorite Geochemistry, Ar/39Ar
plagioclase, hornblende, pyroxenes. Accesories:
DV79 Basaltic andesite microphaneritic apatite, rutile celadonite Geochemistry
plagioclase, fedspar, quartz. Accesories:
hornblende, zircon, apatite, titanite, monazite, Weakly altered by illite, chlorite, and few
40
DV82 Granite phaneritic magnetite, rutile carbonates (weathering) U-Pb, Ar/39Ar
hornblende, quartz, feldspar. Accesories: white
DV87 Mica schist porphyroblastic mica, titanite (?), garnet fresh rock syn-kinematic garnet. Geochemistry
Amphibolitic
DV88 schist porphyroblastic hornblende, quartz, feldspar. Accesories: garnet fresh rock Geochemistry
presence of cracks, not filled veins.
euhedral, hornblende, plagioclase, quartz. plagioclase (albite & carlsbad twinning).
subhedral pyroxenes (Hyperstene). Accesories: Some Hornblendes have inclusions of
Appendix 2. (continued)

DV91 Diorite Phaneritic monazite, zircon, apatite. Slight chloritic alteration. quartz Geochemistry, U-Pb
DV94 Pegmatite Pegmatitic plagioclase, hornblende fresh rock U/Pb
DV95 Pegmatite Pegmatitic plagioclase, biotite fresh rock U/Pb
hornblende, plagioclase, accesories: quartz, allanite
40
DV102 Gabbro-diorite phaneritic (?), titanite, zircon, monazite fresh rock lot of titanite Geochemistry, Ar/39Ar
plagioclase, pyroxenes. Accesories: hornblende,
DV103 Basalt microphaneritic apatite, magnetite, quartz (?) chlorite and illite replacing plagioclase Geochemistry

DV104 Basalt microphaneritic plagioclase, pyroxenes, relicts of hornblende (?) chlorite and illite replacing plagioclase Geochemistry
plagioclase, pyroxenes, hornblende (?). Vitreous relatively fresh rock, pyroxenes slightly
DV105 Basalts porphyritic matrix altered highly vesicular filled with celadonite Geochemistry
DV106 Gabbro phaneritic pyroxene, plagioclase. moderately altered to illite, chlorite Geochemistry
Plagiocalses, kfspar, quartz, hornblendematrix Presence of calcite veins. V. well sorted
consisting of plagioclase, calcite. Accesories: and euhedral-subeuhedral xtals. Small
DV108 Lithic tuff porphyritic zircons fresh rock zircons. U-Pb
Sample present quartz filled veins and
plagioclase, hornblende relicts of pyroxenes, plagioclase are slightly altered to illite and close to these veins chloritization of
DV109 Basalt porphyritic floating in a mass consisting of plagioclase pyroxenes are chloritized. pyroxenes is higher Geochemistry

plagioclase, pyroxens, relicts of hornblende (?), plagioclase are weakly altered to illite and
DV110 Basalt porphyritic floating in a mass consisting of plagioclase pyroxenes are chloritized. Geochemistry
DV111 Basalt aphanitic plagioclase, pyroxenes, hornblende (?) smectite, illite, cut by quartz veins Geochemistry
Pyroxenes replaced to illite and clays. Cut
DV112 Basalt aphanitic plagioclase, pyroxenes. by quartz veins Geochemistry
phenocryst: hornblende, plagioclase, matrix:
DV125 Andesite porphyritic plagioclase, pyroxenes, phillosilicates and chlorite fragmented crystal Geochemistry
phenocryst: hornblende, plagioclase, matrix:
DV126 Andesite porphyritic plagioclase, pyroxenes, phillosilicates and chlorite fragmented crystal Geochemistry

plagioclase, kfspar, quartz, biotite, hornblende. moderate altered to illite, chlorite,

DV138 Rhyolite porphyritic Accesories: rutile, zircon, apatite, monazite carbonate. flow structures Geochemistry
kfspar, quartz, plagioclase. Accesories: apatite,
DV156 Granite phaneritic zircon fresh rock Geochemistry
Garnet hornblende, quartz, plagioclase, garnet. Accesories:
DV157 amphibolite porphyroblastic zircon, titanite(?), apatite, rutile fresh metamorphic titanite or sillimanite (?) Geochemistry
Amphibolitic hornblende, quartz, feldspar, garnet Acc:
DV158 schist porphyroblastic metamorphic titanite (?) fresh euhedral horblendes, not elongated Geochemistry
DV165 Diorite phaneritic plagioclas, biotite, hornblende, pyroxene fresh rock Geochemistry

plagioclase, hornblende, quartz, biotite, kfspar. Very fresh hornblende. Biotite weakly
DV167 Granodiorite phaneritic Accesories: apatite, zircon (rounded?), rutile altered by chlorite. Geochemistry

45
plagioclase, quartz, kfspar, relicts of hornblende.
Accesories: titanite, zircon, apatite, rutile, monazite, plagioclase moderately altered to sericite
DV176 Diorite porphyritic altered biotite and illite. Presence of carbonate Geochemistry
Appendix 3. Analytical techniques 10 Hz for rastering and 4 Hz for spot, respectively.
Helium was used as a carrier gas (~1.1 L/min) of the
ablated material from the ablation cell. Raw data
were processed through the software LAMDATE,
U–Pb zircon dating built by J. Košler. This allows a correction of data
by the intercept method [Sylvester and Gadheri,
Zircons were extracted from several kilograms 1997].
of rock samples by conventional means. The sub-
External correction of laser-induced Pb/U
300 µm fraction was processed using a Wilfley
fractionation was monitored by repeated
table and the Wilfley heavies were then passed
measurements of two reference zircons with
through a Frantz magnetic separator at 1 A.
known ages, Plešovice (337.13 ± 0.37 Ma) [Sláma et
The non-paramagnetic portion was afterwards
al., 2008] and 91500 (1065.4 ± 0.3 Ma) [Wiedenbeck
placed in a filter funnel with di-iodomethane
et al., 1995]. The ages measured during this study
(methyleniodide). The resulting heavy fraction was
for Plešovice zircon show a reasonable precision,
then passed again through the Frantz magnetic
accuracy and reproducibility (337.3 ± 2.8 Ma; 2σ;
separator at full current and a side slope of 10º.
n = 66), consistent with recommended values. The
All zircons were handpicked in ethanol using a
91500 zircon standard reproduced at 1076.0 ± 13.0
binocular microscope in order to prove they are
Ma (2σ; n = 11) which is in excellent agreement
inclusion-free and suitable for isotope analysis.
with recommended values.
Zircon grains were mounted into epoxy resin
blocks and polished to obtain flat surfaces. This
was followed by cathodoluminiscence imaging
PL standard
of individual zircon grains with SEM microscope box heights are 2σ

to unravel the internal structures of grains. Elan 380 337.3±2.8 Ma (MSWD=0.64)

6100 DRC ICPMS (Perkin Elmer) coupled with 360

age (Ma)

193-nm Ar-F Geolas 200M Excimer-based laser 340

ablation (Lambda Physik), housed at the University

206Pb/238U

320
of Lausanne, was used for U–Pb isotope analysis. 300
Instrumental mass fractionation was corrected 280
using Tl–U tracer solution (natural Tl mixed with
artificial 233U–236U; 236U/233U = 0.8450 and 205Tl/233U
PL standard
= 1.2) aspirated through an Apex desolvating box heights are 2σ
400
nebulizer. Tracer solution was mixed online with 337.5±4.7 Ma (MSWD=0.65)
380
sample aerosol before reaching the plasma; this is
age (Ma)

360
similar to approach used earlier [Horn et al., 2000;
340
Košler et al., 2002] and follows the methodology
206Pb/238U

320
described elsewhere [Bussien et al., 2008, Chew et
300
al., 2008]. Masses measured were: 201Hg (flyback),
280
202
Hg, 203Tl, 204Pb, 205Tl, 206Pb, 207Pb, 233U, 235U, 236U,
238
U, 249UO, 252UO and 254UO. Oxides have been
91500 standard
reconverted to elemental intensities and added box heights are 2σ
1220
to the corresponding isotopes. No common-Pb 1180
1076±13 Ma (MSWD=1.00)

correction was applied considering very low 204Pb

age (Ma)

1140
intensities and negligible effect on the final ages. 1100
206Pb/238U

Due to differing grain sizes, both rastering and spot 1060

mode were applied. Typically, rastering acquisition 1020

consisted of 1400 readings, comprising ~350 blank
and solution readings and ~1050 data readings,
whereas spot acquisition comprised ~200 blank and
solution readings and ~500 data readings. Output
980
940
Weighted mean ages of Plešovice standard [PL, 336.45±0.3 Ma, Sláma et al., 2008]
and 91500 standard [1065.4±0.3 Ma, Wiedenbeck et al., 1995], which yielded statisti-
cally acceptable MSWD of the weighted mean 206Pb/238U suggesting analytical random

laser energy varied between 120 and 160 mJ/pulse errors are estimated correctly.

with a 30-µm beam diameter at a repetition rate of

46
40
Ar/39Ar

Samples were placed in small pits within a

copper planchette and were heated by rastering
around the pit area. Usual degassing consisted
of 10-14 temperature steps. Blanks for all Ar
isotopes were measured prior to every third
incremental heating experiment step and
comprise the following ranges: 36Ar: 0.7–5.2 x
10-17 mol; 37Ar: 0.25–1.1 x 10-16 mol; 38Ar: 0.7–7.4
x 10-17 mol; 39Ar: 0.17–2.0 x 10-16 mol; 40Ar: 0.54–
1.4 x 10-14 mol. The released gas fraction was
purified for six minutes using two hot getters (at
0.45A and 1.45A). Purified gas was then allowed
to diffuse for 50 seconds into the static-vacuum
multi-collector Argus mass spectrometer (GV
Instruments). The mass spectrometer is equipped
with four high-gain (1012 Ω resistivity) Faraday
cups for the measurement of 36Ar, 37Ar, 38Ar, and
39
Ar, and a single 1011 Ω-resistivity Faraday cup for
40
Ar measurements. The high stability of Faraday
baseline measurements rendered it unnecessary
to record baselines for each analysis. Isotopic
mass/charge ratios were collected using 12
cycles, which were then exponentially regressed
to determine the abundance of individual Ar
isotopes prior to fractionation in the source unit.
Raw data was crunched by using the ArArCalc Excel
macro of Koppers [2002] and corrected for i) mass
discrimination, which in turn was measured via
analyzing clean air-standards in double-air pipette
mode (the final mass discrimination factor was
0.989±0.001 per atomic mass unit), ii) radioactive
decay of 37Ar and 39Ar as well as for nucleogenic
interference from Ca-, K-, and Cl-derived isotopes.
Propagated systematic errors comprise decay
constant, mass discrimination, and J value
uncertainties. All errors are reported at 2σ level.

47
Appendix 4. LA-ICP-MS U-Pb zircon data
DV02

Grain
Isotopic ratios Ages
207 235 206 238 207 235 206 238 207 206
Pb/ U ± 2σ Pb/ U ± 2σ Rho Pb/ U ± 2σ Pb/ U ± 2σ Pb/ Pb ± 2σ

05DV02_1 0.4495 0.0617 0.0586 0.0060 0.37 376.9 43.2 367.1 36.5 438.0 204.0
05DV02_1-2 0.4231 0.0977 0.0590 0.0135 0.50 358.2 69.7 369.8 82.4 283.9 60.3
05DV02_13 0.4386 0.1005 0.0587 0.0103 0.38 369.3 70.9 367.9 63.0 378.0 329.5
05DV02_14 0.4427 0.2287 0.0586 0.0287 0.47 372.2 161.0 366.9 174.7 405.2 366.4
05DV02_3 0.4973 0.1246 0.0596 0.0056 0.19 409.9 84.5 373.3 33.9 621.4 501.4
05DV02_12 0.5595 0.0816 0.0586 0.0062 0.36 451.2 53.1 367.0 37.7 906.9 207.2
05DV02_13-2 0.3067 0.0741 0.0409 0.0079 0.40 271.6 57.6 258.3 48.7 388.2 328.6
05DV02_15-2 0.3064 0.0799 0.0376 0.0071 0.36 271.4 62.1 238.0 44.0 570.4 392.2
05DV02_17 0.3037 0.0122 0.0430 0.0016 0.46 269.3 9.5 271.6 9.7 249.0 37.8
05DV02_16 0.4804 0.1212 0.0636 0.0058 0.18 398.4 83.1 397.5 35.3 403.8 526.2
05DV02_7 0.6100 0.0623 0.0734 0.0031 0.21 483.5 39.3 456.4 18.7 614.5 200.5
05DV02_15 0.7874 0.0631 0.0945 0.0066 0.44 589.7 35.9 581.9 39.1 619.7 83.1

DV05

Grain
Isotopic ratios Ages
207 235 206 238 207 235 206 238 207 206
Pb/ U ± 2σ Pb/ U ± 2σ Rho Pb/ U ± 2σ Pb/ U ± 2σ Pb/ Pb ± 2σ

05DV05_5 0.3323 0.2572 0.0255 0.0022 0.05 291.3 196.0 162.4 13.5 1565.1 1378.7
05DV05_6 0.2409 0.1553 0.0261 0.0052 0.15 219.2 127.1 166.4 32.7 832.6 1278.1
05DV05_8 0.1868 0.4082 0.0263 0.0054 0.05 173.9 349.2 167.6 34.1 260.3 4996.2
05DV05_13 0.7106 0.7065 0.0284 0.0053 0.09 545.1 419.4 180.4 33.0 2667.4 1617.7
05DV05_17 0.1519 0.0450 0.0224 0.0020 0.15 143.6 39.7 143.1 12.7 151.6 661.1
05DV05_18-2 0.6818 3.2375 0.0267 0.0044 0.02 527.9 1954.6 170.1 27.3 2738.9 7466.4
05DV05_20 0.1831 0.1841 0.0286 0.0018 0.03 170.7 158.0 181.6 11.5 22.4 2409.1

DV09

Grain
Isotopic ratios Ages
207
Pb/235U
206
Pb/238U
207
Pb/235U
206
Pb/238U
207
± 2σ ± 2σ Rho ± 2σ ± 2σ Pb/206Pb ± 2σ

05DV09_4 0.1684 0.0384 0.0245 0.0025 0.22 158.0 33.4 156.3 15.5 184.5 476.7
05DV09_4-2 0.1703 0.0404 0.0258 0.0012 0.10 159.7 35.1 164.2 7.6 92.4 551.1
05DV09_5 0.1779 0.0218 0.0254 0.0011 0.17 166.3 18.8 161.5 6.8 352.5 244.4
05DV09_6 0.1781 0.0185 0.0253 0.0017 0.33 166.4 15.9 161.0 10.9 244.2 179.5
05DV09_6-2 0.1726 0.0275 0.0255 0.0019 0.24 161.7 23.8 162.2 12.2 154.2 328.2
05DV09_8 0.1581 0.0513 0.0229 0.0036 0.24 149.1 45.0 146.2 22.9 194.6 658.9
05DV09_8-2 0.1741 0.0477 0.0240 0.0031 0.23 163.0 41.2 152.7 19.4 315.2 550.0
05DV09_9 0.1672 0.0428 0.0254 0.0039 0.30 157.0 37.2 161.8 24.8 84.9 482.3
05DV09_10 0.1751 0.0437 0.0247 0.0015 0.12 163.8 37.8 157.6 9.3 371.5 516.8
05DV09_11-2 0.1792 0.0521 0.0260 0.0028 0.18 167.4 44.9 165.5 17.4 194.2 628.7
05DV09_12 0.1594 0.0287 0.0253 0.0017 0.19 150.2 25.1 161.3 10.9 -21.7 402.4
05DV09_16 0.1550 0.0436 0.0235 0.0031 0.23 146.3 38.3 149.6 19.4 93.0 589.0
05DV09_17 0.1615 0.0344 0.0231 0.0023 0.23 152.0 30.1 147.3 14.3 342.9 400.8
05DV09_18 0.1790 0.0516 0.0261 0.0031 0.21 167.2 44.4 165.9 19.7 185.6 609.9
05DV09_23 0.1762 0.0702 0.0248 0.0029 0.14 164.8 60.6 157.8 17.9 382.9 810.6
05DV09_7 0.0251 0.0008 159.8 5.2
05DV09_9-2 0.0257 0.0025 163.7 16.0
05DV09_11 0.0243 0.0012 154.9 7.8
05DV09_18-2 0.0258 0.0018 164.0 11.3
05DV09_19 0.0240 0.0046 152.6 28.7

DV18

Grain
Isotopic ratios Ages
207
Pb/235U
206
Pb/238U
207
Pb/235U
206
Pb/238U
207
± 2σ ± 2σ Rho ± 2σ ± 2σ Pb/206Pb ± 2σ

05DV18_1-3 0.2731 0.0465 0.0386 0.0021 0.16 245.2 74.1 244.2 25.6 254.4 743.0
05DV18_3 0.2947 0.0164 0.0416 0.0014 0.31 262.2 25.7 262.5 17.6 259.6 201.6
05DV18_4 0.2898 0.0294 0.0404 0.0030 0.37 258.4 46.3 255.3 37.3 286.3 314.5
05DV18_5 0.2639 0.0912 0.0372 0.0013 0.05 237.8 146.6 235.5 16.3 260.6 1580.0
05DV18_10 0.2782 0.0198 0.0376 0.0020 0.38 249.2 31.4 237.9 24.9 357.7 211.7
05DV18_11 0.2870 0.1618 0.0403 0.0020 0.04 256.2 255.4 255.0 24.4 267.0 2578.0
05DV18_12-2 0.2851 0.0413 0.0417 0.0023 0.19 254.7 65.3 263.1 28.7 178.1 623.9
05DV18_13 0.2867 0.0530 0.0391 0.0025 0.17 255.9 83.7 247.2 31.2 336.4 786.0
05DV18_13-2 0.2484 0.0495 0.0350 0.0038 0.27 225.2 80.6 221.6 47.3 263.6 768.3
05DV18_17 0.2605 0.0165 0.0361 0.0019 0.42 235.0 26.6 228.7 23.9 298.6 158.2
05DV18_20 0.2719 0.0246 0.0371 0.0014 0.21 244.2 39.2 235.1 17.4 332.7 372.5
05DV18_21 0.2500 0.0216 0.0355 0.0023 0.38 226.5 35.1 224.7 28.7 245.3 262.9
05DV18_14 0.3800 0.0688 0.0362 0.0010 0.08 327.0 50.6 229.0 6.4 1100.3 357.7
05DV18_23 0.3075 0.0449 0.0382 0.0025 0.22 272.2 34.8 242.0 15.2 541.4 286.5
05DV18_24-2 0.3110 0.0524 0.0383 0.0028 0.22 275.0 40.6 242.3 17.4 563.0 330.6
05DV18_9 0.3057 0.0556 0.0345 0.0013 0.10 270.8 43.3 218.4 7.9 753.1 376.3

48
Appendix 4. (continued)
DV19

Grain
Isotopic ratios Ages
207 235 206 238 207 235 206 238 207 206
Pb/ U ± 2σ Pb/ U ± 2σ Rho Pb/ U ± 2σ Pb/ U ± 2σ Pb/ Pb ± 2σ

05DV19_1 0.2794 0.0324 0.0385 0.0036 0.41 250.2 51.5 243.4 44.9 313.8 309.6
05DV19_2 0.2793 0.0678 0.0366 0.0077 0.43 250.1 107.6 231.6 95.4 427.2 545.7
05DV19_3 0.8381 0.1256 0.1037 0.0141 0.45 618.1 138.8 636.0 164.1 553.1 279.2
05DV19_4 0.8021 0.0768 0.0946 0.0055 0.30 598.0 86.6 582.9 64.5 655.9 327.6
05DV19_5 0.2852 0.0374 0.0375 0.0039 0.40 254.7 59.0 237.3 48.8 418.6 351.3
05DV19_6 1.9202 0.1783 0.1828 0.0145 0.43 1088.1 124.0 1082.5 158.2 1099.5 192.8
05DV19_7 1.7798 0.1236 0.1756 0.0063 0.26 1038.1 90.3 1042.9 69.4 1028.0 240.2
05DV19_8 0.4088 0.0270 0.0552 0.0022 0.30 348.0 39.0 346.6 27.1 357.3 237.4
05DV19_10 0.2604 0.0412 0.0374 0.0050 0.42 235.0 66.4 236.6 61.9 219.4 395.5
05DV19_11 1.2858 0.1501 0.1277 0.0140 0.47 839.4 133.4 774.5 160.4 1015.3 159.8
05DV19_12 0.2610 0.0295 0.0374 0.0032 0.38 235.5 47.5 236.4 39.8 225.8 340.2
05DV19_13 1.1902 0.1426 0.1277 0.0086 0.28 796.1 132.2 774.8 97.8 856.1 412.3
05DV19_14 0.3507 0.0128 0.0488 0.0014 0.39 305.2 19.3 307.3 17.3 289.5 103.3
05DV19_15 0.2758 0.0199 0.0376 0.0019 0.36 247.3 31.7 237.9 24.0 337.4 230.6
05DV19_16 1.7695 0.1503 0.1708 0.0111 0.38 1034.4 110.2 1016.3 122.7 1072.8 218.4
05DV19_17 0.6485 0.0339 0.0785 0.0030 0.37 507.5 41.7 487.1 36.0 600.8 153.7
05DV19_18 0.3199 0.0343 0.0444 0.0024 0.25 281.8 52.8 279.9 29.0 297.9 425.6
05DV19_19 0.3485 0.0347 0.0487 0.0019 0.19 303.6 52.2 306.4 22.9 282.1 420.0
05DV19_20 0.2553 0.0299 0.0364 0.0031 0.36 230.8 48.4 230.7 38.3 231.9 375.5
05DV19_23 0.2626 0.0301 0.0367 0.0037 0.44 236.8 48.4 232.3 45.7 280.8 254.8
05DV19_25 0.2377 0.0535 0.0372 0.0058 0.34 216.6 87.7 235.2 71.5 18.2 783.6
05DV19_26 0.3296 0.0438 0.0432 0.0045 0.39 289.2 66.9 272.5 55.5 427.1 369.2
05DV19_28 0.3643 0.0738 0.0422 0.0032 0.19 315.4 109.8 266.2 39.4 697.4 800.5
05DV19_29 2.1658 0.0334 0.1976 0.0021 0.35 1170.1 21.4 1162.5 22.8 1184.3 43.8
05DV19_30 0.7195 0.0913 0.0881 0.0090 0.40 550.4 107.8 544.3 106.9 575.7 325.6
05DV19_31 0.2704 0.0308 0.0370 0.0032 0.37 243.0 49.2 234.5 39.2 325.8 343.4
05DV19_32 0.7714 0.0927 0.0897 0.0084 0.39 580.6 106.3 553.9 99.9 686.3 318.7
05DV19_33 0.2644 0.0558 0.0380 0.0068 0.42 238.2 89.7 240.2 84.2 218.0 521.7
05DV19_34 0.2507 0.0241 0.0366 0.0026 0.37 227.2 39.1 231.5 32.4 182.9 299.8
05DV19_35 1.7350 0.1061 0.1744 0.0091 0.42 1021.6 78.8 1036.2 99.4 990.4 131.5

DV26

Grain
Isotopic ratios Ages
207 235 206 238 207 235 206 238 207 206
Pb/ U ± 2σ Pb/ U ± 2σ Rho Pb/ U ± 2σ Pb/ U ± 2σ Pb/ Pb ± 2σ

05DV26_1 0.0846 0.0149 0.0127 0.0004 0.09 82.4 27.9 81.5 5.4 110.8 816.2
05DV26_1-2 0.0785 0.0149 0.0119 0.0005 0.11 76.7 28.1 76.5 6.5 83.4 879.0
05DV26_2 0.0869 0.0148 0.0127 0.0005 0.12 84.6 27.6 81.5 6.8 172.2 768.5
05DV26_4-2 0.0806 0.0110 0.0120 0.0005 0.15 78.7 20.7 76.9 6.5 134.0 612.2
05DV26_4 0.0905 0.0124 0.0124 0.0010 0.28 88.0 23.1 79.6 12.2 320.1 516.4
05DV26_3 0.0866 0.0402 0.0128 0.0012 0.10 84.3 75.1 82.1 14.7 147.8 2133.7
05DV26_6 0.0829 0.0297 0.0129 0.0007 0.07 80.9 55.7 82.4 8.8 37.8 1694.0
05DV26_5 0.0893 0.0323 0.0125 0.0008 0.09 86.8 60.2 80.0 10.7 278.3 1627.6
05DV26_8 0.0864 0.0534 0.0122 0.0017 0.11 84.1 99.8 78.0 21.6 260.9 2767.7
05DV26_14 0.0929 0.0255 0.0120 0.0011 0.16 90.2 47.5 77.1 13.5 452.0 1156.7
05DV26_20 0.0884 0.0420 0.0124 0.0012 0.11 86.0 78.4 79.4 15.8 273.8 2129.8
05DV26_21 0.0851 0.0419 0.0122 0.0016 0.13 82.9 78.4 78.1 20.2 224.8 2194.6
05DV26_11 0.1062 0.0412 0.0129 0.0013 0.13 102.5 75.7 82.4 16.6 600.4 1622.7

DV30

Grain
Isotopic ratios Ages
207 235 206 238 207 235 206 238 207 206
Pb/ U ± 2σ Pb/ U ± 2σ Rho Pb/ U ± 2σ Pb/ U ± 2σ Pb/ Pb ± 2σ

05DV30_11-2 0.08910 0.01691 0.01354 0.00100 0.19 86.7 15.8 86.7 6.3 86.2 414.9
05DV30_19 0.09341 0.02184 0.01362 0.00132 0.21 90.7 20.3 87.2 8.4 182.2 496.0
05DV30_1 0.11511 0.02065 0.01391 0.00110 0.22 110.6 18.8 89.1 7.0 603.6 348.6
05DV30_25-2 0.11504 0.01953 0.01396 0.00088 0.19 110.6 17.8 89.4 5.6 594.5 341.6
05DV30_15-2 0.10613 0.01502 0.01399 0.00054 0.14 102.4 13.8 89.6 3.4 412.5 304.3
05DV30_16 0.11463 0.01560 0.01399 0.00087 0.23 110.2 14.2 89.6 5.5 582.1 263.3
05DV30_8 0.09595 0.02557 0.01402 0.00121 0.16 93.0 23.7 89.7 7.7 178.3 587.6
05DV30_17-2 0.12107 0.01812 0.01406 0.00082 0.20 116.0 16.4 90.0 5.2 689.4 293.9
05DV30_2-2 0.09277 0.01958 0.01416 0.00181 0.30 90.1 18.2 90.6 11.5 76.0 398.8
05DV30_1-2 0.09362 0.01679 0.01420 0.00086 0.17 90.9 15.6 90.9 5.5 91.0 400.2
05DV30_18-2 0.11208 0.01352 0.01420 0.00064 0.19 107.9 12.3 90.9 4.0 501.0 246.6
05DV30_14-2 0.09328 0.01453 0.01422 0.00052 0.12 90.6 13.5 91.0 3.3 77.8 359.9
05DV30_13 0.09486 0.02220 0.01425 0.00102 0.15 92.0 20.6 91.2 6.5 113.0 525.7
05DV30_23 0.09924 0.02443 0.01425 0.00185 0.26 96.1 22.6 91.2 11.8 217.7 483.7
05DV30_6 0.17906 0.02968 0.01426 0.00122 0.26 167.3 25.6 91.3 7.7 1448.6 270.5
05DV30_2 0.09265 0.01281 0.01427 0.00066 0.17 90.0 11.9 91.3 4.2 54.2 310.9
05DV30_25 0.10963 0.01643 0.01428 0.00088 0.21 105.6 15.0 91.4 5.6 439.9 303.9
05DV30_16-2 0.09439 0.01976 0.01428 0.00135 0.23 91.6 18.3 91.4 8.6 95.6 442.2
05DV30_3-2 0.09215 0.01770 0.01430 0.00097 0.18 89.5 16.5 91.5 6.2 35.4 430.2
05DV30_13-2 0.13176 0.01734 0.01431 0.00071 0.19 125.7 15.6 91.6 4.5 830.3 254.3
05DV30_22-2 0.13140 0.01806 0.01432 0.00066 0.17 125.4 16.2 91.6 4.2 824.4 270.4
05DV30_10 0.11396 0.01526 0.01432 0.00091 0.24 109.6 13.9 91.7 5.8 518.5 258.4
05DV30_17 0.09378 0.01856 0.01435 0.00060 0.11 91.0 17.2 91.9 3.8 68.9 460.1
05DV30_6-2 0.10258 0.01761 0.01437 0.00078 0.16 99.2 16.2 92.0 5.0 276.0 372.8
05DV30_5 0.09330 0.01329 0.01439 0.00070 0.17 90.6 12.3 92.1 4.4 50.2 319.9
05DV30_19-2 0.11993 0.01775 0.01441 0.00069 0.16 115.0 16.1 92.3 4.4 616.0 302.3
05DV30_9-2 0.11002 0.01969 0.01444 0.00107 0.21 106.0 18.0 92.4 6.8 423.2 363.6
05DV30_15 0.12747 0.02257 0.01444 0.00074 0.15 121.8 20.3 92.4 4.7 743.0 358.2
05DV30_22 0.12831 0.03204 0.01444 0.00108 0.15 122.6 28.8 92.4 6.9 756.8 502.6
05DV30_20 0.12826 0.01988 0.01445 0.00104 0.23 122.5 17.9 92.5 6.6 754.8 289.5
05DV30_24 0.09507 0.01586 0.01445 0.00107 0.22 92.2 14.7 92.5 6.8 84.8 354.7
05DV30_4-2 0.09484 0.02304 0.01447 0.00131 0.19 92.0 21.4 92.6 8.3 76.0 535.4
05DV30_11 0.09860 0.01538 0.01452 0.00092 0.20 95.5 14.2 92.9 5.8 159.3 333.5
05DV30_12 0.11970 0.01894 0.01457 0.00074 0.16 114.8 17.2 93.2 4.7 588.9 325.1
05DV30_18 0.10015 0.01660 0.01457 0.00071 0.15 96.9 15.3 93.3 4.5 188.0 368.6
05DV30_7 0.11322 0.01578 0.01465 0.00068 0.17 108.9 14.4 93.7 4.3 455.0 291.4
05DV30_14 0.11804 0.02077 0.01467 0.00080 0.15 113.3 18.9 93.9 5.1 542.9 365.7
05DV30_9 0.14122 0.06442 0.01468 0.00130 0.10 134.1 57.3 93.9 8.2 921.8 919.8
05DV30_21-2 0.09726 0.02181 0.01494 0.00135 0.20 94.2 20.2 95.6 8.6 60.3 489.0
05DV30_4 0.12891 0.03133 0.01500 0.00081 0.11 123.1 28.2 96.0 5.2 685.6 505.7
05DV30_21 0.14756 0.02017 0.01505 0.00078 0.19 139.8 17.8 96.3 5.0 960.7 258.5
05DV30_12-2 0.15409 0.02181 0.01506 0.00071 0.17 145.5 19.2 96.3 4.5 1047.4 269.3
05DV30_3 0.11968 0.02126 0.01508 0.00062 0.12 114.8 19.3 96.5 3.9 512.9 379.9

49
Appendix 4. (continued)
DV42

Grain
Isotopic ratios Ages
207 235 206 238 207 235 206 238 207 206
Pb/ U ± 2σ Pb/ U ± 2σ Rho Pb/ U ± 2σ Pb/ U ± 2σ Pb/ Pb ± 2σ

05DV42_1 0.2302 0.0345 0.0162 0.0007 0.15 210.3 57.0 103.8 9.5 1675.2 528.1
05DV42_2 0.1175 0.0032 0.0154 0.0002 0.20 112.8 5.9 98.6 2.2 423.6 112.2
05DV42_3 0.1362 0.0253 0.0150 0.0008 0.15 129.6 45.2 95.7 10.5 808.1 741.9
05DV42_4 0.1048 0.0089 0.0153 0.0011 0.44 101.2 16.4 97.9 14.4 179.4 195.6
05DV42_5 0.1088 0.0236 0.0157 0.0010 0.14 104.9 43.3 100.4 12.6 207.3 964.6
05DV42_6 0.1032 0.0183 0.0153 0.0012 0.23 99.7 33.8 97.6 15.5 150.5 744.3
05DV42_7 0.1406 0.0243 0.0173 0.0012 0.20 133.5 43.3 110.3 15.3 570.5 688.8
05DV42_8 0.1034 0.0254 0.0150 0.0010 0.14 99.9 46.7 95.7 12.8 202.3 1094.6
05DV42_10 0.0997 0.0124 0.0150 0.0010 0.27 96.5 23.0 96.1 13.0 104.6 493.9
05DV42_12 0.1380 0.0433 0.0159 0.0010 0.10 131.3 77.3 101.9 12.1 703.1 1311.7
05DV42_13 0.1317 0.0247 0.0168 0.0008 0.13 125.6 44.3 107.5 10.0 483.4 802.0
05DV42_14 0.1022 0.0033 0.0157 0.0002 0.15 98.8 6.0 100.4 2.0 61.1 145.7
05DV42_15 0.0854 0.0532 0.0157 0.0014 0.07 83.2 99.5 100.3 17.8 -382.5 3202.1
05DV42_16 0.1277 0.0246 0.0156 0.0009 0.15 122.0 44.3 99.6 11.1 584.3 800.3
05DV42_17 0.1125 0.0141 0.0149 0.0009 0.25 108.2 25.8 95.1 11.9 408.6 486.2
05DV42_18 0.1461 0.0630 0.0146 0.0013 0.11 138.5 111.5 93.3 16.9 1005.0 1709.1

DV50

Grain
Isotopic ratios Ages
207 235 206 238 207 235 206 238 207 206
Pb/ U ± 2σ Pb/ U ± 2σ Rho Pb/ U ± 2σ Pb/ U ± 2σ Pb/ Pb ± 2σ

05DV50_1 2.5793 0.3409 0.2116 0.0170 0.30 1294.8 193.4 1237.4 181.1 1391.2 402.4
05DV50_2 1.7404 0.0962 0.1731 0.0081 0.42 1023.6 71.3 1029.2 89.2 1011.8 118.5
05DV50_3 0.5959 0.0543 0.0772 0.0057 0.41 474.6 69.1 479.6 68.5 450.4 235.3
05DV50_4 0.5946 0.0991 0.0727 0.0110 0.46 473.8 126.2 452.3 132.7 579.0 298.7
05DV50_5 1.9507 0.1392 0.1861 0.0067 0.25 1098.7 95.8 1100.0 72.3 1096.1 247.3
05DV50_6 1.9180 0.2682 0.1828 0.0226 0.44 1087.4 186.7 1082.2 246.3 1097.7 261.8
05DV50_7 2.1051 0.3146 0.1793 0.0159 0.30 1150.5 205.8 1063.2 173.7 1319.0 466.6
05DV50_8 1.9077 0.1006 0.1848 0.0056 0.29 1083.8 70.3 1093.3 61.4 1064.7 173.1
05DV50_9 2.0184 0.0341 0.1915 0.0021 0.33 1121.7 22.9 1129.6 23.2 1106.6 50.5
05DV50_10 1.8451 0.2506 0.1656 0.0216 0.48 1061.7 178.9 988.0 239.3 1216.4 146.2
05DV50_11 2.0412 0.1301 0.1916 0.0105 0.43 1129.3 86.9 1129.8 114.1 1128.5 128.1
05DV50_12 2.0957 0.0299 0.1964 0.0019 0.33 1147.4 19.6 1155.8 20.0 1131.6 42.5
05DV50_13 1.1590 0.2164 0.1248 0.0065 0.14 781.5 203.5 758.1 74.3 848.7 745.7
05DV50_14 1.8594 0.2020 0.1669 0.0145 0.40 1066.8 143.5 995.1 160.1 1216.4 257.1
05DV50_15 1.9270 0.0848 0.1853 0.0033 0.20 1090.5 58.8 1096.1 35.8 1079.4 161.5
05DV50_16 1.7462 0.1142 0.1715 0.0058 0.26 1025.7 84.4 1020.2 64.2 1037.6 225.5
05DV50_17 2.1357 0.0826 0.1822 0.0036 0.25 1160.4 53.5 1079.3 38.8 1315.3 129.4
05DV50_17-2 2.0756 0.1100 0.1882 0.0088 0.44 1140.8 72.6 1111.4 95.8 1197.1 96.9
05DV50_18 1.9293 0.1238 0.1833 0.0071 0.30 1091.3 85.8 1084.8 77.5 1104.3 204.4
05DV50_19 1.7167 0.1323 0.1763 0.0068 0.25 1014.8 98.9 1047.0 74.9 946.0 272.9
05DV50_19-2 1.6761 0.1031 0.1672 0.0087 0.42 999.5 78.2 996.8 95.9 1005.6 134.0
05DV50_20 2.2945 0.2357 0.1953 0.0170 0.42 1210.6 145.3 1150.0 183.3 1320.3 211.6
05DV50_21 2.3289 0.0291 0.2146 0.0017 0.32 1221.1 17.8 1253.1 18.1 1165.1 38.3
05DV50_22 2.9104 0.2604 0.2294 0.0145 0.35 1384.6 135.2 1331.5 152.4 1467.4 240.1
05DV50_23 1.6617 0.1580 0.1679 0.0146 0.46 994.0 120.6 1000.4 161.6 980.1 154.7
05DV50_24 2.0481 0.1698 0.2016 0.0069 0.21 1131.7 113.1 1184.0 73.9 1032.7 305.2
05DV50_25 2.4542 0.1177 0.2149 0.0073 0.35 1258.7 69.2 1254.7 77.1 1265.5 132.9
05DV50_26 2.2561 0.2419 0.2044 0.0187 0.43 1198.7 150.9 1198.7 200.2 1198.6 220.4
05DV50_26-2 2.1926 0.2052 0.1905 0.0150 0.42 1178.7 130.6 1124.1 162.3 1280.3 197.6
05DV50_27 1.8071 0.2673 0.1825 0.0095 0.18 1048.0 193.4 1080.7 104.1 980.6 563.6
05DV50_28 2.0681 0.0683 0.1904 0.0051 0.40 1138.3 45.2 1123.6 54.8 1166.4 77.6
05DV50_29 2.3979 0.0384 0.2191 0.0021 0.30 1242.0 23.0 1277.1 22.3 1181.5 50.6
05DV50_30 1.6858 0.0769 0.1673 0.0064 0.42 1003.2 58.1 997.0 70.6 1016.8 100.8
05DV50_31 1.6656 0.1064 0.1654 0.0056 0.27 995.5 81.1 986.5 62.0 1015.5 219.5
05DV50_32 2.0511 0.0809 0.1935 0.0060 0.39 1132.7 53.9 1140.2 64.6 1118.2 98.0
05DV50_33 4.6437 0.3294 0.3043 0.0144 0.33 1757.2 118.5 1712.4 142.3 1810.8 192.1
05DV50_34 2.1560 0.1665 0.1935 0.0104 0.35 1167.0 107.1 1140.6 112.0 1216.4 218.9
05DV50_35 1.4448 0.1142 0.1518 0.0063 0.26 907.7 94.9 910.9 70.6 899.9 277.5
05DV50_36 2.0731 0.1424 0.1973 0.0073 0.27 1140.0 94.1 1161.0 78.5 1100.0 231.7
05DV50_37 2.4076 0.1935 0.2098 0.0104 0.31 1244.9 115.3 1227.6 110.5 1274.8 247.1

DV56

Grain
Isotopic ratios Ages
207
Pb/235U ± 2σ
206
Pb/238U ± 2σ Rho
207
Pb/235U ± 2σ
206
Pb/238U ± 2σ
207
Pb/206Pb ± 2σ

05DV56_2-2 0.1032 0.1470 0.0125 0.0027 0.07 99.8 135.3 80.2 17.0 597.7 3048.8
05DV56_13-2 0.0818 0.0235 0.0129 0.0028 0.38 79.9 22.0 82.6 18.0 0.8 446.2
05DV56_20-2 0.0913 0.0137 0.0131 0.0014 0.37 88.7 12.8 83.7 9.2 223.6 235.8
05DV56_23 0.1039 0.0463 0.0131 0.0009 0.08 100.3 42.6 84.2 5.9 503.5 969.1
05DV56_21 0.0865 0.0452 0.0132 0.0016 0.11 84.2 42.3 84.3 9.9 82.9 1208.7
05DV56_8-2 0.0796 0.0767 0.0132 0.0018 0.07 77.7 72.1 84.6 11.1 -127.9 2358.9
05DV56_6 0.0889 0.0177 0.0132 0.0015 0.28 86.4 16.5 84.7 9.4 135.2 386.1
05DV56_10-2 0.0857 0.0201 0.0133 0.0011 0.17 83.5 18.8 85.1 6.9 38.5 525.9
05DV56_15 0.0909 0.0060 0.0133 0.0006 0.31 88.4 5.6 85.3 3.5 173.1 119.8
05DV56_16 0.0981 0.0074 0.0136 0.0008 0.40 95.1 6.8 87.3 5.2 293.2 104.1
05DV56_14 0.1156 0.0135 0.0138 0.0005 0.15 111.1 12.3 88.6 3.2 624.3 239.2
05DV56_12 0.1091 0.0342 0.0140 0.0017 0.20 105.1 31.3 89.7 11.1 469.6 636.3
05DV56_5 0.0943 0.0526 0.0142 0.0012 0.08 91.5 48.8 90.9 7.6 105.4 1304.3
05DV56_1 0.0971 0.0432 0.0142 0.0024 0.19 94.1 40.0 91.0 15.6 173.8 957.8
05DV56_9 0.1749 0.0531 0.0146 0.0021 0.24 163.7 45.8 93.3 13.4 1361.2 513.0
05DV56_10-3 0.0914 0.0189 0.0146 0.0010 0.16 88.8 17.6 93.5 6.2 -34.2 474.9

50
Appendix 4. (continued)
DV58

Grain
Isotopic ratios Ages
207
Pb/235U ± 2σ
206
Pb/238U ± 2σ Rho
207
Pb/235U ± 2σ
206
Pb/238U ± 2σ
207
Pb/206Pb ± 2σ

05DV58_3 0.0851 0.0098 0.0133 0.0004 0.14 83.0 18.3 85.4 5.7 13.8 529.5
05DV58_13-2 0.0975 0.0049 0.0137 0.0003 0.24 94.5 9.0 88.0 4.3 262.2 199.8
05DV58_11 0.1307 0.0119 0.0139 0.0004 0.16 124.7 21.4 88.8 5.2 878.8 356.4
05DV58_19 0.0972 0.0095 0.0141 0.0007 0.25 94.2 17.6 90.2 8.8 196.6 393.2
05DV58_8 0.1130 0.0149 0.0142 0.0005 0.12 108.7 27.3 90.8 5.8 520.8 562.8
05DV58_12 0.1054 0.0245 0.0142 0.0011 0.17 101.8 45.0 91.0 14.3 362.7 985.9
05DV58_13 0.1273 0.0276 0.0145 0.0010 0.15 121.6 49.8 92.7 12.2 733.6 875.5
05DV58_15 0.1077 0.0165 0.0145 0.0010 0.22 103.8 30.3 92.7 12.5 367.0 621.4
05DV58_9 0.1058 0.0218 0.0146 0.0012 0.20 102.1 40.0 93.5 15.2 308.7 860.3
05DV58_7 0.1023 0.0170 0.0146 0.0012 0.25 98.9 31.3 93.7 15.7 226.7 660.1
05DV58_14 0.1014 0.0119 0.0147 0.0007 0.20 98.1 21.9 93.9 8.6 202.5 500.5
05DV58_4 0.1011 0.0245 0.0147 0.0011 0.16 97.8 45.1 94.3 14.3 185.4 1068.1
05DV58_5 0.1029 0.0196 0.0148 0.0011 0.20 99.5 36.1 94.7 14.2 214.5 811.3
05DV58_20 0.1230 0.0112 0.0148 0.0004 0.15 117.8 20.3 94.8 5.1 612.1 377.2
05DV58_18 0.0997 0.0042 0.0150 0.0002 0.13 96.5 7.7 95.8 2.0 113.5 192.1
05DV58_17 0.1299 0.0194 0.0154 0.0008 0.17 124.0 34.8 98.6 10.0 643.2 602.3
05DV58_2 0.1054 0.0030 0.0154 0.0002 0.26 101.8 5.5 98.8 2.9 173.3 112.7
05DV58_16 0.1375 0.0123 0.0158 0.0005 0.17 130.8 21.9 101.3 5.9 707.4 357.7
05DV58_10 0.4919 0.0855 0.0176 0.0013 0.21 406.2 116.4 112.4 16.1 2849.8 515.2

DV82

Grain
Isotopic ratios Ages
207
Pb/235U ± 2σ
206
Pb/238U ± 2σ Rho
207
Pb/235U ± 2σ
206
Pb/238U ± 2σ
207
Pb/206Pb ± 2σ

05DV82_4-2 0.2457 0.0585 0.0333 0.0074 0.47 223.0 47.7 211.0 46.2 351.6 192.3
05DV82_15-2 0.2589 0.0650 0.0367 0.0083 0.45 233.8 52.5 232.1 51.5 250.4 252.7
05DV82_23 0.3063 0.0630 0.0399 0.0080 0.49 271.3 49.0 252.0 49.4 441.3 109.4
05DV82_18-2 0.2935 0.0336 0.0405 0.0039 0.42 261.3 26.4 256.1 24.1 308.3 142.1
05DV82_2-2 0.3007 0.0307 0.0415 0.0036 0.43 267.0 24.0 261.9 22.3 311.9 121.6
05DV82_20 0.3398 0.0258 0.0415 0.0026 0.41 297.0 19.5 262.0 15.8 581.8 96.6
05DV82_6-2 0.4076 0.1187 0.0415 0.0057 0.24 347.2 85.6 262.2 35.4 963.5 523.9
05DV82_15 0.2980 0.0512 0.0417 0.0057 0.40 264.8 40.0 263.5 35.4 276.9 236.8
05DV82_8-2 0.2848 0.0910 0.0418 0.0088 0.33 254.4 71.9 264.1 54.2 166.2 563.3
05DV82_4 0.3486 0.0353 0.0419 0.0030 0.35 303.7 26.6 264.3 18.6 618.0 154.5
05DV82_11-2 0.2996 0.0295 0.0419 0.0032 0.38 266.1 23.1 264.6 19.6 279.0 145.2
05DV82_3-2 0.3013 0.0560 0.0419 0.0024 0.16 267.4 43.7 264.8 15.1 290.8 403.4
05DV82_7-2 0.3031 0.0293 0.0420 0.0031 0.38 268.8 22.9 265.0 19.2 301.9 143.0
05DV82_18 0.3231 0.0289 0.0422 0.0030 0.40 284.3 22.2 266.7 18.8 431.9 118.5
05DV82_10-2 0.3088 0.0223 0.0425 0.0022 0.35 273.3 17.3 268.6 13.5 313.6 115.6
05DV82_13 0.3075 0.0498 0.0428 0.0027 0.19 272.2 38.7 270.2 16.7 289.8 340.9
05DV82_21 0.3202 0.0138 0.0431 0.0012 0.34 282.1 10.6 272.1 7.7 365.5 71.8
05DV82_17-2 0.3060 0.0263 0.0432 0.0031 0.42 271.1 20.4 272.6 19.3 258.1 106.8
05DV82_11 0.3423 0.0363 0.0434 0.0029 0.32 298.9 27.5 273.6 18.0 501.6 180.9
05DV82_10 0.3180 0.0285 0.0437 0.0028 0.36 280.3 22.0 275.7 17.3 318.8 143.1
05DV82_21-2 0.3264 0.0364 0.0437 0.0044 0.45 286.8 27.8 275.9 27.3 376.7 106.0
05DV82_19-2 0.3110 0.0336 0.0440 0.0043 0.45 275.0 26.0 277.5 26.4 253.9 108.5
05DV82_12 0.3588 0.0240 0.0458 0.0019 0.32 311.3 17.9 288.9 11.9 482.8 114.1
05DV82_3 0.3316 0.0536 0.0464 0.0064 0.42 290.8 40.9 292.6 39.3 275.9 195.2
05DV82_8 0.3486 0.0493 0.0469 0.0042 0.32 303.7 37.1 295.6 26.0 366.4 245.9
05DV82_22 0.3664 0.0378 0.0471 0.0035 0.36 317.0 28.1 296.9 21.7 467.9 156.8
05DV82_24 0.4483 0.0514 0.0476 0.0022 0.20 376.1 36.1 299.8 13.5 877.7 217.4
05DV82_16 0.3754 0.0301 0.0477 0.0014 0.18 323.7 22.2 300.6 8.5 493.2 164.9
05DV82_12-2 0.3508 0.0191 0.0479 0.0015 0.29 305.3 14.4 301.7 9.3 332.8 100.9
05DV82_19 0.3435 0.0214 0.0482 0.0019 0.32 299.8 16.2 303.3 11.6 273.4 110.9
05DV82_25 0.3411 0.0253 0.0485 0.0019 0.26 298.0 19.1 305.2 11.5 242.1 145.8
05DV82_17 0.3606 0.0254 0.0492 0.0019 0.27 312.6 19.0 309.3 11.7 337.6 133.5

DV91

Grain
Isotopic ratios Ages
207
Pb/235U ± 2σ
206
Pb/238U ± 2σ Rho
207
Pb/235U ± 2σ
206
Pb/238U ± 2σ
207
Pb/206Pb ± 2σ

05DV91_2 0.0930 0.0080 0.0132 0.0004 0.19 90.3 7.4 84.4 2.7 249.8 183.2
05DV91_8-3 0.0911 0.0168 0.0132 0.0020 0.41 88.5 15.6 84.8 12.8 191.1 243.3
05DV91_18 0.0891 0.0063 0.0134 0.0008 0.44 86.7 5.9 85.8 5.3 110.4 80.9
05DV91_22 0.0910 0.0277 0.0135 0.0034 0.42 88.4 25.8 86.1 21.7 151.2 394.7
05DV91_25 0.0921 0.0071 0.0139 0.0009 0.44 89.5 6.6 89.0 6.0 103.1 88.1
05DV91_8-2 0.0952 0.0084 0.0140 0.0008 0.33 92.3 7.8 89.5 5.2 166.4 153.2
05DV91_9 0.0877 0.0248 0.0140 0.0017 0.21 85.4 23.1 89.7 10.6 -35.1 620.8
05DV91_7 0.0909 0.0315 0.0141 0.0009 0.09 88.4 29.3 89.9 5.5 46.6 813.9
05DV91_8 0.0938 0.0084 0.0141 0.0009 0.37 91.0 7.8 90.3 6.0 110.6 140.2
05DV91_12 0.1019 0.0297 0.0141 0.0037 0.45 98.5 27.4 90.3 23.3 301.9 300.5
05DV91_17 0.0953 0.0052 0.0142 0.0006 0.38 92.5 4.8 90.6 3.7 140.8 82.6
05DV91_3-2 0.0950 0.0078 0.0142 0.0004 0.19 92.1 7.3 91.0 2.8 122.5 180.3
05DV91_4 0.0967 0.0132 0.0142 0.0010 0.26 93.8 12.2 91.1 6.4 161.4 273.5
05DV91_5-2 0.0939 0.0098 0.0142 0.0007 0.24 91.1 9.1 91.1 4.5 91.2 216.3
05DV91_11 0.0993 0.0117 0.0143 0.0013 0.37 96.1 10.8 91.4 8.0 215.0 181.7
05DV91_6-2 0.0947 0.0083 0.0144 0.0008 0.30 91.9 7.7 92.2 4.8 84.3 167.9
05DV91_20-2 0.0936 0.0086 0.0144 0.0010 0.39 90.8 8.0 92.2 6.6 54.8 136.8
05DV91_15 0.0937 0.0201 0.0144 0.0023 0.38 90.9 18.7 92.2 14.9 56.3 333.0
05DV91_24 0.0929 0.0232 0.0144 0.0034 0.47 90.2 21.6 92.3 21.7 35.2 189.3
05DV91_10 0.0922 0.0083 0.0146 0.0010 0.37 89.6 7.7 93.5 6.2 -13.7 144.6
05DV91_21 0.0964 0.0162 0.0147 0.0013 0.27 93.4 15.0 94.0 8.4 77.6 337.4
05DV91_23 0.0938 0.0084 0.0155 0.0006 0.22 91.0 7.8 99.3 3.9 -119.5 197.0

51
Appendix 4. (continued)
DV94

Grain
Isotopic ratios Ages
207
Pb/235U ± 2σ
206
Pb/238U ± 2σ Rho
207
Pb/235U ± 2σ
206
Pb/238U ± 2σ
207
Pb/206Pb ± 2σ

05DV94_17 0.0955 0.0610 0.0141 0.0008 0.04 92.6 113.2 90.0 9.8 160.1 2980.7
05DV94_3 0.1048 0.0236 0.0142 0.0010 0.15 101.2 43.4 91.0 12.4 349.4 971.1
05DV94_8 0.0930 0.0124 0.0142 0.0008 0.21 90.3 23.1 91.2 10.1 67.5 577.5
05DV94_20 0.1094 0.0172 0.0144 0.0007 0.16 105.4 31.4 92.0 9.2 419.0 663.0
05DV94_9 0.1229 0.0163 0.0146 0.0008 0.20 117.7 29.4 93.6 9.9 637.7 521.9
05DV94_5 0.1286 0.0172 0.0146 0.0007 0.18 122.9 31.0 93.6 8.9 734.6 529.6
05DV94_12 0.1074 0.0543 0.0147 0.0014 0.09 103.5 99.6 93.9 17.6 331.9 2253.1
05DV94_6 0.1075 0.0221 0.0147 0.0010 0.16 103.7 40.5 93.9 12.4 334.7 880.2
05DV94_4 0.0973 0.0205 0.0147 0.0008 0.13 94.3 38.0 94.0 10.2 101.5 963.6
05DV94_11 0.0906 0.0216 0.0147 0.0013 0.18 88.1 40.2 94.3 16.2 -79.2 1086.9
05DV94_7 0.1714 0.0335 0.0147 0.0011 0.18 160.6 58.1 94.4 13.4 1299.2 707.6
05DV94_16 0.1125 0.0141 0.0148 0.0007 0.19 108.3 25.7 94.8 9.0 416.4 516.9
05DV94_15 0.1178 0.0303 0.0148 0.0012 0.15 113.1 55.0 94.8 14.7 517.3 1075.6
05DV94_14 0.1160 0.0068 0.0149 0.0002 0.10 111.5 12.3 95.1 2.2 477.8 252.4
05DV94_19 0.1008 0.0337 0.0149 0.0011 0.11 97.5 62.1 95.1 13.7 155.9 1527.2
05DV94_1 0.1201 0.0265 0.0149 0.0013 0.19 115.1 48.0 95.4 16.1 544.3 888.9
05DV94_10 0.1130 0.0166 0.0150 0.0006 0.14 108.7 30.3 95.7 7.9 403.0 631.5
05DV94_23 0.0989 0.0073 0.0150 0.0002 0.11 95.8 13.4 95.7 3.1 97.2 338.4
05DV94_22 0.1145 0.0065 0.0150 0.0002 0.11 110.1 11.9 96.1 2.5 424.0 247.9
05DV94_13 0.1163 0.0053 0.0150 0.0002 0.12 111.7 9.7 96.3 2.0 454.9 197.2
05DV94_21 0.1424 0.0632 0.0153 0.0011 0.08 135.2 112.3 97.7 14.6 858.2 1815.8
05DV94_18 0.1082 0.0298 0.0155 0.0007 0.09 104.3 54.7 99.4 9.3 217.5 1258.3

DV95

Grain
Isotopic ratios Ages
207
Pb/235U
206
Pb/238U
207
Pb/235U
206
Pb/238U
207
± 2σ ± 2σ Rho ± 2σ ± 2σ Pb/206Pb ± 2σ

05DV95_1 0.1361 0.0340 0.0138 0.0010 0.14 129.6 60.8 88.5 12.1 968.9 980.8
05DV95_6 0.1482 0.0324 0.0140 0.0009 0.14 140.4 57.3 89.8 11.2 1112.2 836.4
05DV95_10 0.0905 0.0616 0.0141 0.0013 0.07 88.0 114.7 90.1 16.9 32.6 3228.3
05DV95_18 0.1790 0.0493 0.0141 0.0009 0.12 167.2 84.9 90.3 11.5 1467.5 1017.1
05DV95_21 0.0925 0.0323 0.0142 0.0007 0.07 89.9 60.0 90.6 9.1 69.0 1642.5
05DV95_20 0.1448 0.0990 0.0145 0.0009 0.05 137.3 175.7 92.7 11.4 1000.0 2765.7
05DV95_19 0.1274 0.0440 0.0146 0.0008 0.08 121.8 79.2 93.4 9.9 719.3 1447.9
05DV95_16 0.1562 0.0331 0.0146 0.0006 0.10 147.4 58.1 93.7 7.5 1131.7 827.8
05DV95_3 0.1108 0.0176 0.0147 0.0010 0.22 106.7 32.2 93.9 13.0 403.8 639.9
05DV95_5 0.1377 0.0370 0.0147 0.0007 0.09 131.0 66.0 94.2 8.9 864.3 1095.8
05DV95_14 0.2444 0.0658 0.0148 0.0010 0.13 222.0 107.3 94.6 12.8 1955.4 929.6
05DV95_23 0.1996 0.0650 0.0151 0.0008 0.08 184.7 110.0 96.6 10.0 1544.4 1208.4
05DV95_2 0.1988 0.0258 0.0151 0.0004 0.10 184.1 43.8 96.7 4.9 1537.2 479.6
05DV95_7 0.0877 0.1007 0.0151 0.0013 0.04 85.3 188.0 96.7 16.0 -223.5 5766.1
05DV95_22 0.2654 0.1022 0.0157 0.0010 0.08 239.0 164.0 100.5 12.8 1993.0 1349.7
05DV95_11 0.0898 0.0299 0.0158 0.0004 0.04 87.3 55.6 101.3 5.6 -278.8 1685.9
05DV95_15 0.0913 0.0394 0.0161 0.0004 0.03 88.7 73.4 102.8 5.4 -276.5 2192.9
05DV95_12 0.1938 0.0403 0.0161 0.0005 0.08 179.9 68.5 102.9 6.5 1367.8 790.3

DV108

Grain
Isotopic ratios Ages
207
Pb/235U ± 2σ
206
Pb/238U ± 2σ Rho
207
Pb/235U ± 2σ
206
Pb/238U ± 2σ
207
Pb/206Pb ± 2σ

05DV108_13 0.0709 0.0101 0.0104 0.0011 0.36 69.5 19.2 66.7 13.7 169.3 462.0
05DV108_24 0.0710 0.0123 0.0111 0.0011 0.28 69.6 23.4 70.9 13.7 26.8 691.1
05DV108_14-2 0.0622 0.0144 0.0112 0.0008 0.15 61.3 27.6 71.7 10.2 -329.8 1135.5
05DV108_2-2 0.0768 0.0119 0.0112 0.0009 0.26 75.1 22.5 71.9 11.7 178.7 613.8
05DV108_11-2 0.0770 0.0111 0.0113 0.0004 0.12 75.3 20.9 72.3 5.0 170.6 652.5
05DV108_25-2 0.0870 0.0119 0.0113 0.0008 0.25 84.7 22.1 72.5 9.6 443.0 528.0
05DV108_21 0.0790 0.0110 0.0114 0.0009 0.28 77.2 20.7 73.0 11.1 210.1 537.9
05DV108_9 0.0736 0.0132 0.0114 0.0010 0.25 72.1 25.0 73.0 13.0 41.0 743.2
05DV108_3-2 0.0752 0.0108 0.0114 0.0007 0.20 73.6 20.4 73.4 8.5 81.8 622.8
05DV108_7-2 0.0732 0.0095 0.0115 0.0007 0.23 71.8 18.0 73.5 8.6 15.1 556.3
05DV108_25 0.0898 0.0110 0.0115 0.0006 0.20 87.3 20.4 73.6 7.3 481.6 492.4
05DV108_3 0.0756 0.0097 0.0115 0.0006 0.21 74.0 18.3 73.7 7.9 85.4 550.0
05DV108_10 0.0852 0.0110 0.0115 0.0007 0.24 83.0 20.6 73.7 9.2 359.9 509.0
05DV108_22 0.0744 0.0100 0.0115 0.0007 0.23 72.9 19.0 73.9 9.0 39.6 575.9
05DV108_19 0.0796 0.0118 0.0116 0.0006 0.18 77.7 22.2 74.6 8.0 174.9 643.4
05DV108_14 0.0766 0.0109 0.0117 0.0006 0.19 74.9 20.5 74.8 8.0 79.1 623.3
05DV108_5 0.0926 0.0126 0.0117 0.0009 0.27 89.9 23.5 75.0 11.1 507.1 503.9
05DV108_16-2 0.0865 0.0138 0.0117 0.0007 0.19 84.2 25.8 75.2 9.2 349.2 665.4
05DV108_8 0.0805 0.0112 0.0118 0.0008 0.24 78.6 21.0 75.9 10.2 160.4 565.2
05DV108_23 0.0757 0.0120 0.0119 0.0009 0.25 74.1 22.6 76.1 12.1 6.9 657.7
05DV108_16 0.0776 0.0147 0.0120 0.0010 0.22 75.9 27.7 76.7 13.0 51.1 806.3
05DV108_12 0.0749 0.0166 0.0120 0.0006 0.12 73.4 31.3 76.9 8.0 -40.2 1042.4
05DV108_6 0.0784 0.0108 0.0121 0.0006 0.18 76.6 20.3 77.3 7.6 54.9 612.8
05DV108_8-2 0.0780 0.0117 0.0121 0.0009 0.25 76.3 22.1 77.5 11.7 36.4 622.9
05DV108_20 0.0817 0.0127 0.0121 0.0007 0.19 79.8 23.8 77.8 9.3 138.2 671.4
05DV108_15 0.0801 0.0097 0.0122 0.0005 0.17 78.2 18.2 78.3 6.3 76.1 541.6
05DV108_17-2 0.0832 0.0113 0.0123 0.0004 0.13 81.2 21.1 78.7 5.4 154.3 613.2
05DV108_18 0.0817 0.0131 0.0125 0.0006 0.15 79.7 24.6 80.2 7.9 67.5 726.8
05DV108_20-2 0.0844 0.0140 0.0129 0.0005 0.13 82.3 26.2 82.9 6.9 66.0 764.4

52
Appendix 5. 40
Ar/39Ar incremental step-heating results
DV02-hornblende
J = 0.0074520 ± 0.0000075
40
Step Ar/39Ar ±2σ
37
Ar/39Ar ±2σ
36
Ar/39Ar ±2σ 40
Ar (R)/39Ar(K) ±2σ
40
Ar (moles) 40
Ar (R) % 39
Ar (K) % K/Ca ±2σ Age (Ma) ±2σ
1 172.88883 9.66254 29.03107 12.66551 0.48899 0.03936 31.26625 8.78389 3.09E-16 17.73 0.53 0.01 0.01 377.9 191.6
2 147.99866 3.49379 22.03907 4.35126 0.38832 0.01773 35.49630 4.64659 5.51E-16 23.63 1.12 0.02 0.01 423.4 98.8
3 80.03354 0.78578 10.76330 1.93811 0.23480 0.00707 11.57223 1.99882 7.13E-16 14.35 2.69 0.04 0.01 149.2 49.5
4 22.67999 0.05863 14.65103 0.89195 0.04222 0.00171 11.45814 0.51554 7.27E-16 50.02 9.65 0.03 0.00 147.8 12.8
5 23.17654 0.11852 8.11924 0.76989 0.04488 0.00211 10.60469 0.62922 5.99E-16 45.51 7.81 0.05 0.01 137.2 15.7
6 19.48310 0.05636 12.13480 0.74049 0.02784 0.00097 12.30348 0.29718 8.43E-16 62.63 13.04 0.04 0.00 158.3 7.3
7 14.33940 0.04688 11.39328 0.78452 0.00977 0.00170 12.43415 0.51125 4.41E-16 86.05 9.27 0.04 0.01 159.9 12.6
8 15.97559 0.03673 12.18796 0.72639 0.01609 0.00094 12.26997 0.28698 9.11E-16 76.17 17.20 0.03 0.00 157.8 7.1
9 16.80469 0.04527 10.38345 0.61863 0.02743 0.00104 9.57614 0.31237 8.48E-16 56.59 15.23 0.04 0.00 124.4 7.8
10 19.08478 0.05261 10.33329 0.64751 0.02887 0.00086 11.43981 0.26282 7.72E-16 59.53 12.21 0.04 0.01 147.6 6.5
11 18.82274 0.06589 10.64235 0.72569 0.03058 0.00115 10.69283 0.34758 7.01E-16 56.40 11.24 0.04 0.01 138.3 8.7
Weighted plateau: Steps 4-8 56.98 155.6 6.2
4.0%

DV04-hornblende
J = 0.0076566 ± 0.0000077
40
Step Ar/39Ar ±2σ
37
Ar/39Ar ±2σ
36
Ar/39Ar ±2σ 40
Ar (R)/39Ar(K) ±2σ
40
Ar (moles) 40
Ar (R) % 39
Ar (K) % K/Ca ±2σ Age (Ma) ±2σ
1 27.32945 0.33127 7.07110 2.04139 0.05551 0.00520 11.53074 1.54636 2.93E-16 41.99 3.64 0.06 0.03 152.6 39.3
2 27.61495 0.43904 8.85321 2.32232 0.06163 0.00610 10.15279 1.80526 2.26E-16 36.55 2.78 0.05 0.03 135.1 46.3
3 28.01447 0.26914 4.66279 2.23381 0.05141 0.00433 13.22673 1.29357 2.75E-16 47.07 3.34 0.09 0.09 174.0 32.5
4 21.20459 0.17804 7.43679 1.88725 0.03921 0.00576 10.24708 1.71550 2.60E-16 48.08 4.17 0.06 0.03 136.3 43.9
5 26.73056 0.36918 6.34925 3.13231 0.05422 0.00782 11.25182 2.32880 2.08E-16 41.91 2.64 0.07 0.07 149.1 59.2
6 22.61103 0.23058 11.44108 1.55900 0.03325 0.00392 13.78458 1.17682 2.66E-16 60.49 3.98 0.04 0.01 181.0 29.4
7 17.85079 0.09851 10.95602 1.21553 0.02680 0.00258 10.86480 0.77520 3.58E-16 60.42 6.79 0.04 0.01 144.2 19.8
8 16.87733 0.06139 11.44887 0.84254 0.01858 0.00165 12.37533 0.49849 4.97E-16 72.76 9.98 0.04 0.01 163.3 12.6
9 13.80570 0.03053 10.38477 0.63896 0.01043 0.00093 11.61429 0.28309 9.27E-16 83.54 22.76 0.04 0.01 153.7 7.2
10 14.17663 0.02899 9.91102 0.62768 0.01035 0.00073 11.97061 0.22283 8.98E-16 83.88 21.48 0.04 0.01 158.2 5.6
11 15.17326 0.03545 10.82366 0.66471 0.01208 0.00082 12.53701 0.25061 8.26E-16 82.02 18.44 0.04 0.00 165.4 6.3
Weighted plateau: Steps 7-11 79.44 159.2 5.2
3.2%

DV05-hornblende
J = 0.0073211 ± 0.0000073
40
Step Ar/39Ar ±2σ
37
Ar/39Ar ±2σ
36
Ar/39Ar ±2σ 40
Ar (R)/39Ar(K) ±2σ
40
Ar (moles) 40
Ar (R) % 39
Ar (K) % K/Ca ±2σ Age (Ma) ±2σ
1 37.24920 1.43179 14.37473 6.55626 0.08560 0.01355 13.20394 3.98865 1.11E-16 35.10 0.63 0.03 0.03 166.5 96.1
2 25.16287 0.25787 4.44496 2.25553 0.05952 0.00388 7.94457 1.15355 2.58E-16 31.48 2.17 0.10 0.10 102.0 28.8
3 24.90937 0.22033 7.72622 2.09569 0.05436 0.00356 9.49669 1.06372 2.70E-16 37.93 2.29 0.06 0.03 121.3 26.3
4 21.58938 0.21430 8.88053 1.55548 0.03299 0.00573 12.60696 1.70864 2.35E-16 58.05 2.29 0.05 0.02 159.3 41.3
5 18.30718 0.15956 7.12571 1.37700 0.03581 0.00450 8.32028 1.33849 2.28E-16 45.23 2.63 0.06 0.02 106.7 33.3
6 17.56405 0.13903 8.54324 1.26031 0.02445 0.00381 11.06904 1.13891 2.78E-16 62.66 3.34 0.05 0.01 140.6 27.8
7 16.71243 0.09363 10.40551 1.35708 0.01990 0.00298 11.72401 0.89615 3.02E-16 69.66 3.82 0.04 0.01 148.6 21.8
8 14.85316 0.04243 10.63331 0.77226 0.01381 0.00144 11.68583 0.43383 5.72E-16 78.11 8.12 0.04 0.01 148.1 10.6
9 13.80728 0.01133 9.90744 0.58312 0.00857 0.00037 12.12894 0.12089 1.79E-15 87.26 27.38 0.04 0.01 153.5 2.9
10 13.38750 0.01592 9.30883 0.55036 0.00685 0.00043 12.16467 0.13530 1.64E-15 90.30 25.83 0.05 0.01 153.9 3.3
11 13.36335 0.01946 8.73094 0.52515 0.00734 0.00068 11.94384 0.20718 1.36E-15 88.85 21.51 0.05 0.01 151.2 5.0
Weighted plateau: Steps 7-11 86.66 153.1 2.0
1.3%

DV06-hornblende
J = 0.0076890 ± 0.0000077
40
Step Ar/39Ar ±2σ
37
Ar/39Ar ±2σ
36
Ar/39Ar ±2σ 40
Ar (R)/39Ar(K) ±2σ
40
Ar (moles) 40
Ar (R) % 39
Ar (K) % K/Ca ±2σ Age (Ma) ±2σ
1 20.84088 0.07629 3.07844 0.66514 0.03573 0.00145 10.54270 0.43190 5.21E-16 50.48 2.16 0.14 0.06 140.6 11.1
2 14.24854 0.01809 5.44993 0.37188 0.01055 0.00056 11.59879 0.16937 1.38E-15 81.10 8.35 0.08 0.01 154.1 4.3
3 14.16416 0.01467 4.52503 0.27437 0.00842 0.00034 12.06353 0.10325 1.98E-15 84.91 12.02 0.09 0.01 160.0 2.6
4 14.25971 0.01282 4.57604 0.29878 0.00711 0.00043 12.55259 0.13007 1.59E-15 87.76 9.60 0.09 0.01 166.2 3.3
5 14.41430 0.02049 5.25556 0.33457 0.00884 0.00049 12.25505 0.14848 1.17E-15 84.72 6.97 0.08 0.01 162.5 3.8
6 14.43717 0.01661 4.59103 0.33746 0.00850 0.00066 12.32072 0.19716 1.17E-15 85.08 6.99 0.09 0.01 163.3 5.0
7 14.72367 0.02138 4.76416 0.38055 0.00786 0.00048 12.81215 0.14769 1.44E-15 86.74 8.44 0.09 0.01 169.5 3.7
8 16.01281 0.01383 3.55304 0.22552 0.00871 0.00032 13.74657 0.09840 2.61E-15 85.64 14.06 0.12 0.02 181.3 2.5
9 15.33439 0.01341 2.41367 0.15648 0.00512 0.00025 14.03219 0.07587 2.51E-15 91.36 14.12 0.18 0.02 184.8 1.9
10 15.21787 0.01207 3.71251 0.21154 0.00601 0.00022 13.76429 0.06927 3.05E-15 90.22 17.29 0.12 0.01 181.5 1.7
Disturbed plateau: Steps 8-10 45.48 182.6 2.4
1.3%

DV07-hornblende
J = 0.0075266 ± 0.0000075
40
Step Ar/39Ar ±2σ
37
Ar/39Ar ±2σ
36
Ar/39Ar ±2σ 40
Ar (R)/39Ar(K) ±2σ
40
Ar (moles) 40
Ar (R) % 39
Ar (K) % K/Ca ±2σ Age (Ma) ±2σ
1 32.38395 2.97871 36.98247 15.95916 0.06042 0.06833 17.85943 20.74594 3.61E-17 53.78 0.20 0.01 0.01 227.5 496.6
2 180.99221 20.14551 31.01041 25.84500 0.44681 0.09294 48.95805 23.93175 1.45E-16 27.05 0.15 0.03 0.06 566.0 474.9
3 28.06513 0.18261 6.64622 1.01621 0.06922 0.00361 7.60901 1.06350 4.16E-16 27.11 2.70 0.00 0.00 100.5 27.3
4 75.35201 1.61089 3.80504 5.49718 0.21302 0.01651 12.73279 4.72967 2.99E-16 16.85 0.72 0.11 0.33 165.1 117.2
5 24.42875 0.23716 3.58809 1.74478 0.04591 0.00482 11.16815 1.43368 2.89E-16 45.61 2.15 0.12 0.12 145.6 35.9
6 18.44142 0.13218 0.75507 1.17898 0.02585 0.00333 10.80064 0.99098 3.37E-16 58.57 3.33 0.00 0.00 141.0 24.9
7 16.80187 0.07991 5.98183 0.80212 0.02390 0.00194 10.24497 0.57953 4.16E-16 60.73 4.48 0.07 0.02 134.0 14.6
8 14.43208 0.03447 6.28388 0.46070 0.00988 0.00109 12.05404 0.32532 7.23E-16 83.17 9.08 0.07 0.01 156.7 8.1
9 13.82448 0.02839 5.93357 0.60388 0.01202 0.00129 10.77819 0.38593 6.49E-16 77.65 8.51 0.07 0.01 140.7 9.7
10 13.16948 0.02086 5.98858 0.38550 0.00846 0.00085 11.18196 0.25448 1.08E-15 84.57 14.84 0.07 0.01 145.8 6.4
11 17.41873 0.11612 4.67651 1.13134 0.02213 0.00187 11.27872 0.56598 3.24E-16 64.55 3.38 0.09 0.04 147.0 14.2
12 14.38146 0.04487 6.03161 0.53215 0.01062 0.00100 11.76069 0.30227 6.63E-16 81.44 8.36 0.07 0.01 153.0 7.5
13 13.41062 0.01930 6.11683 0.40502 0.00806 0.00049 11.55129 0.15036 1.11E-15 85.78 15.04 0.07 0.01 150.4 3.8
14 19.54474 0.02297 6.14437 0.35448 0.03044 0.00032 11.07446 0.09937 2.92E-15 56.43 27.07 0.07 0.01 144.4 2.5
Weighted plateau: Steps 9-13 50.13 148.9 3.3
2.2%

53
Appendix 5. (continued)
DV07-biotite
J = 0.0073566 ± 0.0000074
40
Step Ar/39Ar ±2σ
37
Ar/39Ar ±2σ
36
Ar/39Ar ±2σ 40
Ar (R)/39Ar(K) ±2σ
40
Ar (moles) 40
Ar (R) % 39
Ar (K) % K/Ca ±2σ Age (Ma) ±2σ
1 8.78767 0.02339 0.06612 0.33292 0.01874 0.00098 3.25561 0.29169 3.59E-16 37.05 0.71 6.50 65.48 42.7 7.6
2 8.55346 0.00663 0.01094 0.08889 0.01126 0.00027 5.22473 0.07905 1.80E-15 61.08 3.65 0.00 0.00 68.0 2.0
3 10.93782 0.00761 0.05674 0.05593 0.00736 0.00014 8.76048 0.04336 3.50E-15 80.09 5.54 0.00 0.00 112.7 1.1
4 11.91279 0.00663 0.10726 0.04066 0.00469 0.00012 10.52545 0.03672 5.35E-15 88.35 7.77 0.00 0.00 134.5 0.9
5 12.11216 0.00676 0.09263 0.02497 0.00259 0.00007 11.34468 0.02142 6.48E-15 93.66 9.26 0.00 0.00 144.6 0.5
6 12.24408 0.00683 0.08429 0.02899 0.00249 0.00007 11.50591 0.02054 7.20E-15 93.97 10.18 0.00 0.00 146.6 0.5
7 12.31002 0.00736 0.09076 0.03437 0.00261 0.00009 11.53630 0.02901 5.97E-15 93.71 8.39 0.00 0.00 147.0 0.7
8 12.36605 0.00665 0.09002 0.03025 0.00265 0.00009 11.58340 0.02618 7.94E-15 93.67 11.11 0.00 0.00 147.5 0.6
9 12.24158 0.00686 0.10919 0.03111 0.00247 0.00010 11.51116 0.03038 6.48E-15 94.03 9.17 0.00 0.00 146.6 0.7
10 12.19353 0.00663 0.07738 0.02528 0.00212 0.00007 11.56708 0.02080 9.11E-15 94.86 12.94 0.00 0.00 147.3 0.5
11 12.40929 0.00684 0.14552 0.03128 0.00181 0.00008 11.87401 0.02457 7.12E-15 95.69 9.93 0.00 0.00 151.1 0.6
12 12.30409 0.00655 0.13480 0.02904 0.00148 0.00008 11.86497 0.02552 8.06E-15 96.43 11.34 0.00 0.00 151.0 0.6
Weighted plateau: Steps 6-10 51.80 147.0 0.5
0.3%

DV09-biotite
J = 0.0073785 ± 0.0000074
40
Step Ar/39Ar ±2σ
37
Ar/39Ar ±2σ
36
Ar/39Ar ±2σ 40
Ar (R)/39Ar(K) ±2σ
40
Ar (moles) 40
Ar (R) % 39
Ar (K) % K/Ca ±2σ Age (Ma) ±2σ
1 13.58994 0.14821 1.31114 1.15047 0.02834 0.00440 5.32187 1.30297 1.47E-16 39.13 0.17 0.33 0.58 69.5 33.4
2 11.15582 0.01819 0.16433 0.31584 0.02040 0.00082 5.14013 0.24473 6.67E-16 46.07 0.93 2.62 10.06 67.2 6.3
3 11.75874 0.01384 0.37710 0.11343 0.01021 0.00030 8.73959 0.08878 1.37E-15 74.32 1.81 0.00 0.00 112.7 2.2
4 11.96355 0.00856 0.27165 0.07166 0.00458 0.00023 10.60956 0.06823 2.45E-15 88.68 3.18 0.00 0.00 136.0 1.7
5 12.09457 0.00731 0.15171 0.03875 0.00394 0.00011 10.92925 0.03409 4.72E-15 90.36 6.06 0.00 0.00 139.9 0.8
6 12.14513 0.00738 0.14060 0.04147 0.00267 0.00014 11.35633 0.04197 5.06E-15 93.51 6.47 0.00 0.00 145.2 1.0
7 12.09974 0.00770 0.14735 0.04611 0.00175 0.00015 11.58143 0.04391 4.82E-15 95.72 6.18 0.00 0.00 147.9 1.1
8 12.11118 0.00758 0.13446 0.03842 0.00170 0.00014 11.60666 0.04307 5.21E-15 95.83 6.68 0.00 0.00 148.2 1.1
9 12.16956 0.00636 0.07338 0.01683 0.00138 0.00005 11.76101 0.01692 1.09E-14 96.64 13.88 0.00 0.00 150.1 0.4
10 12.12979 0.00649 0.08501 0.01660 0.00091 0.00006 11.86019 0.01903 9.36E-15 97.78 11.99 0.00 0.00 151.3 0.5
11 12.11995 0.00654 0.12865 0.01826 0.00083 0.00010 11.87253 0.02954 7.57E-15 97.96 9.70 0.00 0.00 151.5 0.7
12 12.11105 0.00633 0.07542 0.01922 0.00081 0.00007 11.87029 0.02257 9.30E-15 98.01 11.93 0.00 0.00 151.5 0.6
13 12.12624 0.00613 0.04282 0.01219 0.00058 0.00003 11.95360 0.00981 1.64E-14 98.58 21.02 0.00 0.00 152.5 0.2
Weighted plateau: Steps 9-13 68.51 151.8 0.9
0.6%

DV66-biotite
J = 0.0075059 ± 0.0000075
40
Step Ar/39Ar ±2σ
37
Ar/39Ar ±2σ
36
Ar/39Ar ±2σ 40
Ar (R)/39Ar(K) ±2σ
40
Ar (moles) 40
Ar (R) % 39
Ar (K) % K/Ca ±2σ Age (Ma) ±2σ
1 17.52913 0.22181 0.20670 2.44687 0.01313 0.00539 13.64917 1.61180 1.42E-16 77.87 0.21 0.17 0.42 176.0 39.6
2 18.04445 0.01936 0.33900 0.10439 0.00393 0.00026 16.88315 0.07878 2.85E-15 93.56 4.01 0.00 0.00 215.3 1.9
3 18.67966 0.01022 0.10514 0.03316 0.00585 0.00011 16.94896 0.03517 9.53E-15 90.73 12.94 0.00 0.00 216.0 0.8
4 18.91809 0.01159 0.13981 0.04744 0.00723 0.00011 16.77977 0.03427 7.51E-15 88.70 10.07 0.00 0.00 214.0 0.8
5 17.83536 0.00988 0.10547 0.03067 0.00442 0.00009 16.52942 0.02962 9.40E-15 92.68 13.35 0.00 0.00 211.0 0.7
6 17.98693 0.00970 0.10069 0.04131 0.00483 0.00008 16.55871 0.02558 9.93E-15 92.06 13.99 0.00 0.00 211.3 0.6
7 19.91067 0.01113 0.05074 0.03397 0.01249 0.00011 16.21757 0.03346 9.65E-15 81.45 12.29 0.00 0.00 207.2 0.8
8 22.09563 0.01361 0.06009 0.04720 0.02297 0.00014 15.30732 0.04179 9.05E-15 69.28 10.38 0.00 0.00 196.2 1.0
9 18.77262 0.01179 0.06994 0.05092 0.01340 0.00016 14.81144 0.04932 6.61E-15 78.90 8.92 0.00 0.00 190.2 1.2
10 19.25295 0.01125 0.09635 0.06654 0.01888 0.00016 13.67164 0.04692 6.37E-15 71.01 8.39 0.00 0.00 176.2 1.2
11 17.82329 0.01680 0.05763 0.10141 0.01802 0.00020 12.49664 0.06084 3.83E-15 70.11 5.45 0.00 0.00 161.7 1.5
Total fusion age 202.7 0.5
0.2%

DV82-hornblende
J = 0.0074788 ± 0.0000075
40
Step Ar/39Ar ±2σ
37
Ar/39Ar ±2σ
36
Ar/39Ar ±2σ 40
Ar (R)/39Ar(K) ±2σ
40
Ar (moles) 40
Ar (R) % 39
Ar (K) % K/Ca ±2σ Age (Ma) ±2σ
1 277.88512 60.34501 4.07039 15.83806 0.08793 0.08412 252.91197 60.25875 1.73E-16 90.76 0.05 0.11 0.82 1915.5 562.4
2 248.65724 5.15416 2.04682 2.26501 0.34148 0.01211 147.75022 4.23049 1.06E-15 59.42 0.36 0.00 0.00 1342.8 54.2
3 42.67498 0.18194 0.27965 0.34152 0.05571 0.00213 26.23704 0.63728 1.13E-15 61.47 2.21 1.54 3.75 323.2 14.4
4 27.51436 0.07695 1.68920 0.32298 0.04290 0.00094 14.98500 0.27934 1.37E-15 54.40 4.13 0.25 0.10 191.6 6.8
5 18.17140 0.01876 3.30667 0.18847 0.01075 0.00037 15.28705 0.11148 2.41E-15 83.94 11.02 0.13 0.01 195.3 2.7
6 21.58793 0.03164 4.80553 0.27442 0.01138 0.00059 18.65974 0.17922 2.06E-15 86.16 7.92 0.09 0.01 235.7 4.2
7 19.54662 0.01810 4.08185 0.21468 0.00744 0.00026 17.71426 0.08137 4.10E-15 90.38 17.44 0.11 0.01 224.4 1.9
8 19.33673 0.01561 3.96929 0.20411 0.00654 0.00023 17.76169 0.07163 4.60E-15 91.61 19.79 0.11 0.01 225.0 1.7
9 18.95048 0.02243 3.95120 0.21106 0.00731 0.00046 17.14352 0.13855 2.64E-15 90.22 11.60 0.11 0.01 217.6 3.3
10 18.18126 0.01241 3.73569 0.19469 0.00717 0.00014 16.39388 0.04695 5.57E-15 89.94 25.48 0.11 0.01 208.6 1.1
Disturbed plateau: Steps 7-9 48.83 223.8 3.4
1.5%

DV30-hornblende
J = 0.0039687 ± 0.0000040
40
Step Ar/39Ar ±2σ
37
Ar/39Ar ±2σ
36
Ar/39Ar ±2σ 40
Ar (R)/39Ar(K) ±2σ
40
Ar (moles) 40
Ar (R) % 39
Ar (K) % K/Ca ±2σ Age (Ma) ±2σ
1 153.35860 7.94472 0.93727 32.36578 0.46551 0.03605 15.88334 8.36533 2.46E-16 10.35 0.42 0.46 31.66 110.3 112.7
2 95.37899 9.06468 46.65072 36.72433 0.23406 0.04481 26.21405 12.11855 1.25E-16 27.48 0.34 0.05 0.06 178.6 157.2
3 60.85369 2.60290 10.88255 12.30516 0.13538 0.01587 20.84839 4.56197 1.95E-16 34.26 0.85 0.06 0.22 143.4 60.3
4 29.67788 0.35853 2.61441 4.63250 0.05155 0.00537 14.67482 1.62987 2.94E-16 49.36 2.61 0.16 0.58 102.1 22.1
5 20.52969 0.06460 16.44925 1.43716 0.02530 0.00194 14.49546 0.59314 6.38E-16 69.83 8.10 0.03 0.00 100.9 8.0
6 17.70239 0.04867 14.14061 1.23284 0.01836 0.00104 13.50778 0.32620 8.40E-16 75.58 12.37 0.03 0.01 94.2 4.4
7 16.57000 0.04296 13.02145 1.21478 0.01759 0.00104 12.49674 0.32586 8.62E-16 74.76 13.58 0.03 0.01 87.3 4.4
8 15.47397 0.04703 12.24401 1.36210 0.01461 0.00113 12.21104 0.35673 6.71E-16 78.26 11.32 0.03 0.01 85.4 4.9
9 14.30561 0.04502 11.89550 1.14150 0.01495 0.00090 10.90234 0.28385 7.80E-16 75.60 14.24 0.04 0.01 76.4 3.9
10 12.85898 0.02635 11.32063 1.04801 0.01495 0.00065 9.39397 0.21202 8.54E-16 72.50 17.35 0.04 0.01 66.0 2.9
11 11.26957 0.02248 8.26582 0.71722 0.01062 0.00063 8.82462 0.19512 8.10E-16 77.87 18.82 0.05 0.01 62.1 2.7
Disturbed plateau: Steps 4-8 47.97 90.5 5.1
5.7%

DV78-plagioclase
J = 0.0039750 ± 0.0000040
40
Step Ar/39Ar ±2σ
37
Ar/39Ar ±2σ
36
Ar/39Ar ±2σ 40
Ar (R)/39Ar(K) ±2σ
40
Ar (moles) 40
Ar (R) % 39
Ar (K) % K/Ca ±2σ Age (Ma) ±2σ
1 17.63346 0.09967 74.75415 5.71047 0.07020 0.00363 2.86375 1.21765 3.23E-16 15.42 6.00 0.01 0.00 20.4 17.3
2 18.79875 0.08645 50.66465 3.99313 0.07099 0.00185 1.83439 0.64605 4.23E-16 9.43 7.50 0.01 0.00 13.1 9.2
3 20.97741 0.08391 55.62533 4.49885 0.07311 0.00189 3.85601 0.68109 5.02E-16 17.69 7.94 0.01 0.00 27.4 9.6
4 20.64759 0.06522 48.45389 3.52535 0.07453 0.00136 2.48255 0.50028 7.30E-16 11.63 11.80 0.01 0.00 17.7 7.1
5 25.92239 0.12853 54.62434 3.93926 0.09137 0.00119 3.30350 0.46639 8.97E-16 12.28 11.49 0.01 0.00 23.5 6.6
6 27.82345 0.10800 60.64642 4.54394 0.09531 0.00164 4.57771 0.61798 8.36E-16 15.78 9.94 0.01 0.00 32.5 8.7
7 28.88066 0.06772 42.67425 3.11226 0.09976 0.00125 2.81041 0.44898 1.18E-15 9.45 13.69 0.01 0.00 20.0 6.4
8 25.07872 0.09981 39.98446 2.94635 0.08477 0.00149 3.23479 0.50121 1.06E-15 12.55 14.18 0.01 0.00 23.0 7.1
9 28.44439 0.07217 43.17152 3.06438 0.08870 0.00113 5.76658 0.41868 1.48E-15 19.68 17.46 0.01 0.00 40.9 5.9
Total fusion age 25.6 2.6
10.3%
Data are baseline and blank corrected, and are corrected for post-irradiation decay of 37Ar (T ½=35.1 days) and 39Ar (T½=269 years).
Mass discrimination value during analyses was 0.989±0.5%.
Correction factors for interfering isotopes have been calculated from 10 analyses of two Ca-glass samples and 22 analyses of two pure K glass samples, and are:
36
Ar/37Ar(Ca)=2.603E-4±2.373E-9, 39Ar/37Ar(Ca)=6.501E-4±7.433E-9 and 40Ar/39Ar(K)=1.547E-2±7.455E-7

54
55
56
Chapter 3

Thermal and tectonic history of the Central and Western cordilleras of

Colombia, a thermochronological study
Diego Villagómez and Richard Spikings

Section of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Geneva. 13 Rue des Maraîchers, 1205 Geneva,
Switzerland (Diego.Villagomez@gmail.com)

Abstract

New multiphase 40Ar/39Ar data, fission track (zircon and apatite) and (U–Th)/He (zircon and apatite)
ages record a complex cooling history in the Central and Western cordilleras of Colombia that is a function
of Early Cretaceous to late Miocene tectonic events. Alkali-feldspar 40Ar/39Ar cooling ages obtained from
crystalline rocks located to the south of the laterally extensive Ibagué Fault yielded ages of ~138–130 Ma
and are contemporaneous with the cessation of Jurassic arc-magmatism and a major unconformity within
the retro-forearc region of the Northern Andes. We interpret these ages as cooling driven by exhumation
in response to a dynamically supported upper plate and isostatic rebound during and subsequent to
fragmentation of the Jurassic slab. Oceanward, back-stepping of the slab during the earliest Cretaceous
gave rise to the Lower Cretaceous Quebradagrande oceanic arc sequence. Medium-temperature
thermochronometers (biotite and alkali-feldspar 40Ar/39Ar with closure temperatures >230°C) in rocks of
the Central Cordillera (paleocontinental margin) located north of the Ibagué Fault reveal the presence
of a younger cooling event at 107–117 Ma, which was contemporaneous with hornblende 40Ar/39Ar
cooling ages (cooling below 550-500°C) obtained from medium–high P–T metamorphic rocks of the
Arquía Complex, which are probably a relict of the Late Jurassic - Early Cretaceous subduction channel.
This previously unidentified cooling event has been attributed to exhumation driven by the collision and
accretion of the Quebradagrande arc against the continental margin, and the obduction of the subduction
channel onto the forearc. Numerical modelling of low-temperature thermochronometric data (zircon and
apatite fission track and (U–Th)/He), acquired from rocks sampled throughout the Central and Western
Cordillera reveals three periods of rapid cooling since the Late Cretaceous. The earliest phase is recorded
by Jurassic and Cretaceous granitoids (Ibagué and Antioquia Batholith) that were emplaced in the Central
Cordillera in Colombia and cooling rapidly from ~550˚C to ~60˚C during 75–65 Ma. We attribute cooling
to exhumation of the continental margin at an average rate of ~1.6 km/My during ~75-70 Ma, which was
forced by the collision and accretion of the Caribbean-Colombian Oceanic Province in the Campanian.
Contemporaneous clastic sedimentation sourced from rocks of the Central Cordillera fed the retro-foreland
basin and the peripheral basin corroborating observed exhumation. The Central Cordillera exhumed at
moderate rates of ~0.3 km/My during the Eocene (~45–30 Ma), which are also observed over widely
dispersed regions along the Andean chain, and were probably caused by an increase in continent-ocean
plate convergence rates. Elevated exhumation rates in the middle - late Miocene have been identified
from the apatite (U-Th)/He data. The greatest amount of middle - late Miocene exhumation occurred in
southern Colombia, and spatially corresponds with elevated exhumation rates in northern Ecuador. The
spatial pattern suggests that exhumation was a consequence of erosion during and subsequent to rock
uplift, in response to collision and subduction of the buoyant Carnegie Ridge.

57
1 Introduction
Subduction can be summarised as a first
order, steady-state consequence of plate
tectonics. However, steady-state conditions
within a subduction setting can be disturbed
by the introduction of heterogeneous oceanic
crust to the trench via the arrival of island arcs,
seamounts and oceanic plateaus. The Cretaceous
and Tertiary subduction history of the Northern
Andean Segment is unique within the Andean
chain because it was interrupted by the accretion
of arc and oceanic plateau rocks, which are not
recognised south of 5°S. This study aims to quantify
i) the timing of accretion of arc and plateau rocks,
and ii) the thermal and exhumational response of
the buttressing continental and indenting oceanic
rocks to collision, accretion and post-accretion
subduction in Colombia.
Previous studies of the Central Cordillera of
Colombia have shown that it consists of Triassic
and older metamorphic rocks of the Tahami
Terrane (Chapter 2) that were partly melted during
Triassic rifting of Central American basement units
away from the northwestern South American
Plate. Jurassic subduction beneath the Colombian
margin gave rise to a series of well-documented
continental arc rocks, although a younger, Early
Cretaceous arc is less well studied and may
have erupted through either continental [Nivia
et al., 2006] or oceanic basement (Chapter 2),
with accompanying sedimentation within a
marginal basin [e.g. Pindell, 1993], culminating
in compression and basin closure. Subsequent
subduction was interrupted by the collision of the
Late Cretaceous Caribbean-Colombian Oceanic
Province (oceanic plateau and its overlying
arc) with the Northern Andean Segment at an
undetermined time during the Late Cretaceous–
Early Tertiary [McCourt et al., 1984; Aspden et al.,
1987; Kerr et al., 1997]. The ocean-continent suture
zone within the Northern Andean Segment is
relatively well exposed in Colombia, and is located
along the western flank of the Central Cordillera
[Cediel et al., 2003]. Finally, the Chocó–Panamá
block, which probably represents a relict sliver
of the trailing edge of the Caribbean-Colombian
Province, is considered to have collided with
the Colombian margin during either the middle
Miocene at ~13 Ma [Duque-Caro, 1990] or the
latest Miocene–early Pliocene [Mann and Burke,
58
1984; Mann and Corrigan, 1990]. Previous studies
have been unable to precisely constrain the
timing of collision and accretion of the Caribbean-
Colombian Oceanic Province and the Chocó–
Panamá Block with the South American Plate due
to a lack of interpretable geochronological and
thermochronological information.
We have combined hornblende, alkali feldspar
and biotite 40Ar/39Ar, zircon and apatite fission
track (FT) and zircon and apatite (U-Th)/He data to
generate high-resolution Cretaceous and Tertiary
thermal history paths through ~550°C–40°C
[e.g. Spikings et al., in press] for crystalline and
sedimentary rocks exposed along the Central
Cordillera and accreted rocks exposed in the
Western Cordillera. These paths have been used
to construct exhumation histories through a
constant geothermal gradient since ~140 Ma.
Those histories have been combined with i)
the sedimentological history of surrounding
basins, ii) LA-ICP-MS derived U-Pb zircon ages of
plutonic rocks (Chapter 2), iii) LA-ICP-MS derived
U-Pb ages of detrital zircons extracted from
sedimentary and metasedimentary rocks (Chapter
2), and iv) geochemical analyses of intrusive and
volcanic rocks (Chapter 2), to determine precisely
the timing of collision events, quantify the
exhumational response and constrain the post-
accretionary history of the Colombian margin.
Improving our understanding of these processes is
useful because they resulted in net crustal growth
of the South American Plate and can be used to
further constrain reconstructions of the southern
margin of the Caribbean Plate, and hence the
entire Caribbean region.
2 Geological Framework
Previous work in Colombia divided the region
into a continental and an oceanic province, which
are juxtaposed across the regional scale Romeral
Fault System (Figure 1) that consists of three
major fault branches, which are the San Jerónimo,
Silvia–Pijao and Cauca–Almaguer Faults (Figure 2).
The continental province (the Tahami terrane)
is partly composed of a supracrustal sequence
of Paleozoic – early Mesozoic metamorphic and
intrusive rocks that are exposed in the Central
Cordillera [e.g. Restrepo-Pace, 1992; Cediel et
 90°W 80°W 70°W 60°W

North American Plate

20°N

Caribbean Plate

SNSM

10°N
Cocos Plate
CP
MMV Venezuela
e

WC
dg

EC
Ri

LB
os

CC
c
Co

Colombia
UMV
South American Plate
CPV
0°N
Carnegie Ridge
Ecuador 0 Km 400
Nazca Plate
RC

-8 km -6 km -4 km -2 km 0 2km 4km
Bathymetry Land elevation

Subduction zone
Chocó-
Panamá
Terrane Faults

Cretaceous sutures
OPF

Figure 1. Digital elevation model of northwestern South

America and surrounding tectonic plates, showing the
a
PF

5°N main cordilleras, faults and the location of the subducting

IF Carnegie Ridge. The Cretaceous ocean-continent suture is
DF
CF shown as a thick black line. Inset shows the study area in
more detail, and the three sample regions (a, b and c) that
b are presented in Figure 2. AzBF: Amazon Border Fault, CC:
Calima Central Cordillera, CP: Chocó–Panamá Block, CF: Cali-Patía
Tahami
Terrane Terrane Fault, CPV: Cauca–Patía Valley, DF: Dabeiba–Garrapatas
S
RF

Fault, EC: Eastern Cordillera, IF: Ibagué Fault; LB: Llanos

Basin, MMV: Middle Magdalena Valley, OB: Oriente Basin
BF (Ecuador), OPF: Otú-Pericos Fault, PeF: Peltetec Fault
Az (Ecuador), PF: Palestina Fault, RC: Raspas Complex (Amotape
Province in Ecuador), RFS: Romeral Fault System, SNSM:
c Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, UMV: Upper Magdalena
0°
F

Valley, WC: Western Cordillera.

Pe

80°W 75°W

59
al., 2003], west of the Otú–Pericos Fault (Figure
1). Paleozoic gneisses of the Puqui and La Miel
Units [Ordoñez-Carmona and Pimentel, 2002] and
Triassic metasedimentary rocks of the Cajamarca
Complex [this study, Chapter 2] are intruded
by variably foliated, Permo-Triassic ages crustal
anatectites [Vinasco et al., 2006; this study, Chapter
2], which may have formed during the Permian
assembly of Pangea and its subsequent Triassic
fragmentation [Vinasco et al., 2006; Cardona et al.,
2006]. All these lithologies have been traditionally
grouped into the Tahami Terrane [Restrepo and
Toussaint, 1988], which is bordered to the west
by the easternmost branch of the Romeral Fault
System (the San Jerónimo Fault). These Paleozoic
and Triassic rocks are intruded by Jurassic calc-
alkaline (continental arc) granitoids of the Ibagué
Batholith (U-Pb zircon ages of 160–165 Ma,
Chapter 2) and Late Cretaceous intrusive rocks of
the Antioquia Batholith (U-Pb zircon ages of 95–84
Ma see Chapter 2).
The San Jerónimo Fault (SJF; Figure 2) separates
Paleozoic-Triassic metamorphic rocks of the
Tahami Terrane within the Central Cordillera
from an intensively deformed belt of oceanic
volcanic and continental marine sedimentary
rocks of the Quebradagrande Complex, which
are locally unconformably overlain by quartz-
rich sedimentary rocks of the Lower Cretaceous
Abejorral Fm. to the east. Nivia et al. [2006]
propose that the Quebradagrande Complex was
formed within a continental marginal basin during
the Aptian–Albian, although the absence of sialic
crust to the west of San Jerónimo Fault, combined
with a lack of continental-derived detritus to the
west of the basin suggest that it was partly isolated
from continental input [Restrepo et al., 2009a]
and may have formed in an island arc and oceanic
marginal basin setting [Pindell and Kennan, 2009;
this study, Chapter 2].
The Quebradagrande Complex is in faulted
contact with isolated tectonic slices of garnet-
bearing amphibolites, eclogites and lawsonite-
glaucophane schist of the Arquía Complex that
is exposed along the western flank of the Central
Cordillera in Colombia. These medium-high P–T
metamorphic rocks crop-out between the Silvia-
Pijao and the Cauca Almaguer Faults (Figure 2)
and have not yielded reliable geochronological
data. Previous radiometric ages [K/Ar ~113 Ma,
Restrepo and Toussaint, 1976; 40Ar/39Ar total
60
fusion hornblende age of ~107 Ma, Restrepo et
al., 2008; 40Ar/39Ar phengite ages of 120–60 Ma,
Bustamante, 2008] are uninterpretable and the
age of the protolith of the Arquía Complex remains
enigmatic.
The Arquía Complex is bound to the west by
the Cauca–Almaguer Fault (CAF; Figure 2), which
along with the San Jerónimo and Silvia–Pijao
faults represents the regional-scale Romeral Fault
System. The Romeral Fault System trends for ~2000
km along-strike of the western Central Cordillera
and is considered to represent a tectonic suture
that entrains a mélange within a zone that is less
than 30 km wide.
Accreted Late Cretaceous mafic and ultramafic
rocks occur to the west of the Cauca-Almaguer
Fault along the margins of the Cauca–Patía Valley,
the Western Cordillera and the flat forearc region
of the Chocó–Panamá block (Figure 2). Recent
geochemical analyses suggest that discontinuous
lenses of mafic and ultramafic volcanic rocks
along the eastern margin of the Cauca–Patía
Valley (Amaime Fm. and the Ginebra Ultramafic
Complex) were formed in an oceanic hot-spot
setting [Kerr et al., 1997; this study, Chapter 2].
Radiometric analyses of the Amaime Fm. are
restricted to K/Ar ages of 104–78 Ma [De Souza
et al., 1984] and a single whole rock, total fusion
40
Ar/39Ar age of 76.3±1.7 Ma [Sinton et al., 1998],
which are difficult to interprete and hence the
age of the sequence remains undetermined.
The arc-related Buga Batholith intrudes these
sequences and its U-Pb zircon age range of 92-
90 Ma (see Chapter 2) constrains the minimum
age for Amaime Fm. Similarly. Mafic volcanic
rocks and ultramafic cumulates of the Volcanic
Fm. and the Bolívar Ultramafic Complex [Kerr et
al., 2004], respectively, crop out in the Western
Cordillera (Figure 2) and also yield geochemical
signatures that are diagnostic of oceanic hot-spot
derived material. Radiometric ages of isotropic
gabbros and basalts of the Volcanic Fm. yielded
ages of 99.7±1.3 Ma (zircon U-Pb; Chapter 2)
and 91.7±2.7 Ma [whole rock 40Ar/39Ar; Kerr et
al., 1997] respectively, suggesting that mafic and
ultramafic rocks of the Western Cordillera and
the Cauca-Patía Valley probably form part of the
same Late Cretaceous Caribbean–Colombian
Oceanic Province, and are grouped here as the
Calima Terrane [Restrepo and Toussaint, 1988;
Kerr et al., 1997, 2004]. This interpretation is
consistent with that proposed for equivalent rock
sequences located within the Western Cordillera
and flat forearc region of Ecuador, where they are
grouped into the single Piñón-Pallatanga Terrane
[Luzieux et al., 2006; Vallejo et al., 2009], which
is considered to represent a relict sliver of the
Caribbean–Colombian Oceanic Province.
The Dabeiba-Garrapatas Fault separates Early
Tertiary, volcanic arc rocks of the Dabeiba Fm.
[Cediel et al., 2003] from the Calima Terrane of
the Western Cordillera of Colombia (Figure 1).
Kerr et al. [1997] obtained a 40Ar/39Ar plateau age
of 43.1±0.4 Ma (plagioclase) from a basalt, which
is younger than mafic rocks from the Colombian
cordilleras and the Cauca-Patía Valley, but is
similar to ages yielded by arc rocks of the Macuchi
Fm. in Ecuador [Vallejo et al., 2009]. Cretaceous,
plume-derived [Kerr et al., 1997a] volcanic rocks
(basalts, gabbros and dolerites) crop-out along
the Pacific coast (Figure 1) and yield whole
rock and plagioclase 40Ar/39Ar plateau ages
ranging between 78 – 73 Ma [Kerr et al., 1997].
Toussaint and Restrepo [1994] proposed that
these volcanic rocks form the basement of the
extensive Chocó–Panamá Terrane (Figure 1) that
underlies the Dabeiba volcanic arc. On the basis
of paleoceanographic and paleobiogeographic
studies it is believed that the Chocó–Panamá
accreted onto South America during either the
middle Miocene [12 Ma, Duque-Caro, 1990] or
latest Miocene–early Pliocene [Mann and Burke,
1984; Mann and Corrigan, 1990].
Several authors suggest that the oceanic
plateau rocks erupted from the Galápagos hot-spot
[Sinton et al., 1998; Kerr et al., 2003; Luzieux et al.,
2006]. In this context, Spikings et al. [2001] utilised
thermochronological data from the cordilleras of
Ecuador to modify the tectonic model of Ross and
Scotese [1988] and propose a plate reconstruction
for the Caribbean–Colombian Oceanic Province.
Spikings et al. [2001] suggest that the basement
rocks of the western cordilleras of Ecuador and
Colombia originally formed part of the Caribbean–
Colombian Oceanic Province, which fragmented
during its collision with and accretion onto the
South American Plate.
3 Previous work
A paucity of reliable geochronological and
thermochronological data from the Central and
Western cordilleras of Colombia has hampered
previous attempts [Aspden et al., 1987; Vinasco
et al., 2006; Cardona et al., 2006; Restrepo et al.,
2009b] to identify the origins of the rocks and to
temporally constrain the principal tectonic events
that assembled the rocks onto the South American
plate, and caused them to uplift, exhume and cool.
Previously published thermochronological data
can be summarised as:
i) Apatite (U-Th)/He data from the northern
Central Cordillera provide evidence for two
exhumation-related cooling episodes during 45–
40 Ma at rates of ~ 0.1 mm/y and 25–20 Ma at
rates of ~ 0.24 mm/y [Restrepo-Moreno et al.,
2009]. Apatite fission track data in the same region
yielded ages ranging from ~ 50 to ~30 Ma [Saenz,
2003].
ii) K/Ar and Rb/Sr ages of metamorphic and
granitic rocks of the Central Cordillera range
between 343–57 Ma [see compilation in Aspden
et al., 1987; Restrepo et al., 2009b]. Most of these
ages have been interpreted to record thermal
events during the early Mesozoic and during
~65–55 Ma [McCourt et al., 1984; Restrepo et al.,
2009b], although the degree of partial resetting is
undetermined and hence these data can only be
used semi-quantitatively.
iii) Preliminary 40Ar/39Ar data have been obtained
from several basalts in the Western Cordillera and
Chocó Block [Kerr et al., 1997], although a majority
of mafic complexes and rocks from the Cordilleras
are undated.
In contrast, a significant quantity of
thermochronological data has been generated
in the hydrocarbon-rich, Eastern Cordillera of
Colombia. Recent studies by Mora et al. [2008]
and Parra et al. [2009] showed that the Eastern
Cordillera was subject to intense shortening and
erosional exhumation during the periods 40–30
Ma, ~20 Ma and 6–3 Ma, which led to a rapid
eastwards orogenic advance. Earlier apatite fission
track analyses in the southern Eastern Cordillera
of Colombia (Garzón Massif) yielded ages of <10
Ma [Andriessen, 1996], whereas zircon fission
track ages of ~120 Ma from the same region led
the authors [Van der Weil and Andriessen, 1991]
to propose that the region was cooling rapidly
during the Early Cretaceous.
61
 A wide disparity exists in published ages for
the timing of accretion of arc and oceanic plateau
sequences onto the South American Plate margin,
which range from mid-Cretaceous [Toussaint
and Restrepo, 1994; accretion of Calima terrane
onto the Tahami terrane] to the Eocene [Gómez
et al., 2007; accretion of the Caribbean Province
onto South America]. These discrepancies are
clearly related to a lack of agreement on the
tectonic origin of suites of related rock types (e.g.
accurate geochronological data), and quantitative
data concerning the timing of collision (e.g.
the exhumational response of buttressing and
indenting rocks to accretion).
3.1 Analytical techniques and the
recovery of thermal histories
3.1.1 Ar/39Ar analysis
40
Hand-picked, unaltered hornblende, biotite
and alkali feldspar (when present) separates from
Permian–Cretaceous intrusive rocks and Triassic–
Early Cretaceous metamorphic rocks were rinsed
in de-ionized water and 5% HNO3 in an ultrasonic
bath, packed in copper foil and irradiated in the
CLICIT facility of the TRIGA reactor at Oregon State
University for 30 hours (Early Cretaceous and
older samples) and 15 hours (Late Cretaceous and
younger samples). Samples were degassed by CO2-
IR laser step-heating, and the extracted gas was
gettered in a stainless steel UHV line, after passing
through a cold trap chilled to ~150° Kelvin. Argon
isotopes were analyzed using a GV Instruments
Argus mass spectrometer equipped with four
high-gain (1012 Ω) Faraday detectors, and a single
1011 Ω Faraday detector (40Ar). Data reduction was
performed using the ArArCALC software [Koppers,
2002]. Sample descriptions are presented in
Appendix 1. Experimental details are presented in
Appendix 2 and 3 and the data are presented in
Table 1.
3.1.2 Fission track (FT) analysis
Whole rock samples of Permian-Paleogene
intrusive rocks and Pre-Jurassic metamorphic
rocks were crushed and zircon and apatite were
recovered using conventional heavy liquid and
magnetic methods. Apatite grains were mounted
62
in epoxy, polished and etched using 5.5M HNO3(aq)
for 20 seconds at 21.0±0.5°C in a temperature-
calibrated waterbath. Zircon grains were mounted
in Teflon and etched in a eutectic mixture of
NaOH/KOH at 210°C for times between 6 and 40
hours. The majority of the fission track data were
obtained using the external detector method
[Gleadow et al., 1981], although the uranium
content of four samples was determined using
the LA-ICP-MS approach [e.g. Hasebe et al., 2004].
Maximum etch-pit diameters (Dpar) were used
to assess the inter-grain variation of annealing
kinetics in apatites in all of the samples, relative to
a set of standards that yield widely varying Dpar
and Cl wt% [Carlson et al., 1999]. Separate grain
mounts were irradiated with 252Cf fission fragments
to enhance the number of confined track-in-tracks
available for length measurement [Donelick and
Miller, 1991; Donelick et al., 2005]. Further details
are provided in and data are presented in Table 2.
Sample descriptions are presented in Appendix 1.
3.1.3 (U-Th)/He analysis
Euhedral, inclusion free and homogeneous
apatites and zircons that lie within a narrow size
range (44 and 108 µm; measured on a polarizing
stereomicroscope at 156.25x in transmitted light)
were extracted for (U-Th)/He dating from samples
that had been previously analysed by the fission
track method. Individual grains were packed in
platinum microcrucibles. Helium was degassed
from the apatites and zircons using a CO2–IR laser
at ~950–1000°C and ~1000–1250°C, respectively
and the exact volume was determined using a
quantitatively calibrated 3He spike on a Balzers
quadrupole mass spectrometer at the University
of Arizona, USA. A second degassing step was
performed to determine if the apatites and
zircons enclosed any remaining He due to high U
inclusions [Farley and Stockli, 2002]. The apatites
were subsequently dissolved in HNO3(aq) whereas
the zircons were unwrapped and dissolved in a
spiked HCl-HF solution in high pressure digestion
vessels (bombs). The solution was spiked with
known amounts of 235U and 230Th, and U and Th
and Sm concentrations were measured on a
high-resolution (single-collector) Element2 ICP-
MS. The consistency of the analytical equipment
was regularly monitored by analysing crystals
of Durango fluorapatite, with a known age of
31.4 ±0.5 Ma [Solé and Pi, 2005]. Analytical error
is estimated to be no higher than 5% (2σ) and
lower than the scatter caused by fluid inclusions
or variable diffusivity of individual grains [e.g.,
Fitzgerald et al., 2006]. Sample descriptions are
presented in Appendix 1. The data are presented
in Table 3.
3.1.4 Recovery of thermal histories
550-200°C
Thermal history information has been
extracted from the 40Ar/39Ar data by estimating
the closure temperatures (Tc) of each mineral
phase to the K/Ar system using experimentally
derived diffusion parameters [see review in
McDougall and Harrison, 1999]. Bulk Tc values
for hydrous hornblende (spherical diffusion; Do/
r2=375) and biotite (plane sheet diffusion; Do/
r2=342) phases range between ~545–511˚C and
360–325˚C respectively for cooling rates of 100–
10˚C/My. Natural Ar concentration profiles within
alkali feldspars are preserved during in vacuo
heating up to ~1100˚C [Lovera et al., 1991], and
we have utilised a broad closure temperature of
290±60°C for the plateau and flattest regions of
age spectra, assuming the gas has been derived
from the largest lattice domains [e.g. Monié et al.,
1994; Spikings et al., 2001b]. We assume a bulk
closure temperature of 300–250°C for plagioclase
[Harrison and McDougal, 1982; Boven, 2001].
Those samples which yielded both 40Ar/39Ar
feldspar and zircon FT ages (Tc 290°C–210°C)
[Brandon et al., 1998; Bernet and Garver, 2005]
gave consistently older 40Ar/39Ar ages, confirming
our alkalic and calcic feldspar 40Ar/39Ar closure
temperatures. Raman spectroscopy was routinely
performed to determine the type of feldspar that
was dated. The time of each coordinate (in Ma) is
determined after evaluation of the age spectrum,
and is used to constrain part of a transient time-
Temperature path.
200-40°C
The FT and (U-Th)/He methods have been
applied to zircon and apatite, for the purpose of
generating integrated thermal histories between
~≥200–40°C [e.g. Gleadow et al., 1986; Farley,
2002]. Potential thermal history solutions have
been derived by simultaneously modeling He
diffusion [Farley, 2000; Reiners et al. 2002; 2004;
Flowers et al., 2009] and fission track annealing
[Ketcham et al., 2007] in any given sample, using
the HeFTy software [v 1.6.7; Ketcham et al., 2009].
The modelling procedure predicts fission track and
(U-Th)/He parameters for various thermal history
paths and compares them with the observed data.
A controlled random search procedure identifies
those thermal histories that most closely match
the analytical data.
The temperature range where partial fission
track annealing occurs in apatite is known to be
a function of the phase composition [Green et
al., 1986; Carlson et al., 1999; Barbarand et al.,
2003], cooling rate and possibly the symmetry
group of the mineral [Carlson et al., 1999; Kohn
and Foster, 1996]. Unannealed track lengths in
apatite group mineral phases range between
~14.5 and 16.0 µm [e.g. Gleadow et al., 1986;
Carlson et al, 1999], and hence samples that have
mean track lengths in this range, combined with
narrow track length distributions, experienced
rapid cooling from temperatures of ≥120 –100˚C
to temperatures of ~≤ 60˚C at the time indicated
by the apatite FT age [e.g. Ketcham et al., 1999,
2007]. Broad track length distributions with
shorter mean lengths suggest the sample has
experienced a more complex thermal history,
spending a significant amount of time, relative to
their apatite FT age within the partial annealing
zone [Gleadow et al., 1986]. Similar principles
apply to the interpretation of zircon FT data.
However, the lack of a suitable description of the
annealing kinetics of tracks within zircon inhibits
the determination of a thermal history from the
track length distributions. Additionally, wide-
ranging values for the temperature bounds of the
zircon partial annealing zone have been published
[see Tagami and O’Sullivan, 2005]. Yamada et al.
[1995] suggested temperature limits of ~390˚–
170˚C whereas Tagami and Dumitru [1996] and
Tagami et al. [1998] suggested temperature
limits of ~310˚C–230˚C. More recently, Bernet
and Garver [2005] proposed that a useful working
approximation of the zircon partial annealing zone
is 290–210°C. For the purpose of this study, the
average value of 250˚C has been plotted against
the zircon FT age to produce a single time–
temperature point on a thermal history path.
The generation of He from U, Th and Sm
isotopes via alpha decay forms the basis of (U-
Th)/He thermochronology [e.g. Zeitler et al.,
1987; Lippolt et al., 1994; Farley, 2000, 2002]. The
63
64
70: 39.1±1.3
a 54.8±5.8 b 08: 106.6±16.0
148: 53.0±4.8 58.1±5.2 153: 69.7±8.6
76°22’ 55.4±5.2 68.9±0.6 66.6±8.0 74°37’ 09: 43.0±1.2 07: 6.1±0.2 06: 46.3±1.2
7°10’ 30.6±5.8 64.9±10.2 35.8±4.6
74.6±13.4 88.3±12.4 81.3±10.6 4°55’
76°48’ 114.1±0.9 109.8±2.9 109.7±1.3 04:10.6±0.8
54: 74.4±10.6 Yarumal OPF 95: 62.8±6.8

F
70.4±6.3 62.5±5.2 59.2±20.2
PF

OP
53: 13.4±1.4 Altiplano 94: 61.5±9.4 02: 32.1±7.2
72.9±18.8 CPF Venadillo 63.6±9.4
Antioqueño 63: 20.9±1.2 67.9±7.4
81.8±10.0 Armenia La 03: 37.1±7.2
64.1±9.6 línea
74.8±7.4 Roldanillo IF
56: 40.1±1.0 26: 6.1±0.2 CP 01: 116.4±0.9
65.5±6.0 13.9±2.4 Ibagué
64: 59.8±10.2 BUC 86: 9.3±0.8
PF 62.6±0.7 45.6±7.6 IF 35.0±8.2
58: 31.0±1.4 67.9±1.6
45.2±1.2 Medellín 65: 43.5±4.8 85: 30.5±5.8

F
58.5±8.0 80.8±0.3 28: 64.4±3.6

F
SJ
62.6±1.1 San Luis 89: 117.2±9.4 05: 7.5±0.4
67: 113.4±22.8

CA
72.3±0.3 112.0±3.7 59.8±16.8

SJF
80: 41.0±6.6 85.3±18.2
179: 51.8±7.4 90: 128.1±6.0
81: 103.6±13.0

F
154: 56.6±7.4 BB
165: 37.8±5.2 102: 46.9±8.1 130.2±2.8¨

SP
41.6±5.4 53.1±5.6 136.4±0.5
Sonsón 155: 44.3±6.2 91: 41.3±4.2 82: 11.2±0.3
166:3.9±0.2 71.4±9.8

SPF
32.8±0.7 30: 44.8±8.4 68.3±8.2
156: 30.8±0.7 Cali 77.6±10.8
167: 38.1±5.4 MB 48.2±4.8 42: 77.6±5.7 0 km 50 137.3±0.9
46.4±5.8 PF OPF
47.9±5.2 3°15’ 84: 134.3±0.7
19: 56.2±9.0 14: 65.1±10.2 74°37’
176: 64.5±14.6 HP

CAF
0 km 50 163: 39.6±7.0 18: 19.6±4.2 17: 58.1±6.6
Manizales Fresno 54.2±6.0
55.3±5.4

Falla d
5°00’
160: 69.4±17.2 161: 43.9±4.2
177: 78.6±19.8 Central and Eastern Cordillera
Quaternary - Neogene
Cretaceous oceanic arc Late Cretaceous arc intrusives
Paleogene - Eocene (Antioquia Batholith and
c (Quebradagrande
Complex) Córdoba pluton)
129: 4.5±0.1 Western Cordillera and
1°43’ 9.3±0.2 Cauca-Patia Valley Upper Cretaceous
Medium-high pressure
8.2±1.2 sedimentary rocks
metamorphic rocks
139: 18.7±7.4 Late Cretaceous oceanic (Arquía Complex)
112.0±16.6 plateau (Volcanic and Amaime Lower Cretaceous

F
121: 12.3±0.4 AF Fms) sedimentary rocks

CP
25.8±4.8 133: 3.6±0.2
Pasto F Jurassic granitoids (Ibagué
PP SJ Mocoa 134: 15.9±4.4 Upper Cretaceous sedimentary
109.2±10.8 rocks (Cisneros and Espinal Fms) Batholith) and volcanic rocks
Ricaurte (Saldaña Fm.)
136: 13.7±2.2 Late Cretaceous intrusives Permo-Triassic Granitoids
106.8±13.6
(Buga batholith)
BF Triassic metasedimentary
Az sample number (DV#)
and meta-igneous rocks
(e.g. Cajamarca Complex)
Apatite (U-Th)/He
and older metamorphic units
Zircon (U-Th)/He
Apatite Fission track
ECUADOR 0 km 50
Zircon Fission track
Feldspar 40Ar/39Ar
0°10’ Biotite 40Ar/39Ar
78°04’ 76°07’ Hornblende 40Ar/39Ar
Figure 2 (previous page) Geological maps of the three study regions (see Figure 1) within the Central and Western Cordilleras of
Colombia, and the Cauca-Patía Valley [after Gómez et al., 2007b], showing sample locations and the thermochronological ages
acquired in this study. a) Northern Colombia (7°10’N–5°00’N) with an approx. N–S trend. b) Central Colombia (4°55’N–3°15’N)
with an approx. NNE trend, and c) Southern Colombia (1°40N–0°10’N) where the Cordilleras and main faults strike NE. Labels
are apatite (U-Th)/He ages (black), zircon (U-Th)/He ages (black bold), apatite FT ages (green), zircon FT ages (red), feldspar
40
Ar/39Ar (purple), biotite 40Ar/39Ar (yellow), hornblende 40Ar/39Ar (brown). All ages are in Ma and ±2σ error, with sample codes
shown in blue (DV##). The Cauca–Almaguer Fault (CAF), San Jerónimo Fault (SJF) and the Silvia–Pijao Fault (SPF) collectively
define the Romeral Fault System, which is a set of Cretaceous ocean-continent sutures. Other abbreviations, AzBF: Amazonian
Border Fault, AF: Acevedo–Afiladeros Fault, BB: Buga Batholith (Figure 2b), BUC: Bolívar Ultramafic Complex (Figure 2b); CP:
Córdoba Pluton (Figure 2b), CPF: Cali–Patía Fault, HP: Hatillo Pluton (Figure 2a), IF: Ibagué Fault; MB: Mande Batholith (Figure
2a), OPF: Otú-Pericos Fault; PF: Palestina Fault, PP: Piedrancha Pluton (Figure 2c).

concentration of He in apatite and zircon at any 4 Results: 40Ar/39Ar

given time is a function of He diffusivity (apatite,
1.5±0.6 cm2/s; zircon, 0.46+0.87-0.3 cm2/s), activation
energy of diffusion of He (apatite, 33±0.5 kcal/
mol; zircon 40±0.9 kcal/mol), thermal history,
grain size [e.g. Farley, 2000; Reiners, 2005],
alpha-ejection at domain boundaries, alpha-
implantation [Farley, 2002] and radiation damage
[particularly in zircons; Flowers et al., 2009]. The
quoted values, in combination with grain size,
corrections for grain geometry related alpha-
loss (FT correction; Table 3) and corrections for
radiation damage accumulation and annealing in
zircons [Flowers et al., 2009] were used to model
He diffusion. Modelling of the (U-Th)/He data
followed the approach of Farley [2000] for apatite
and Reiners et al. [2004] for zircons. Wolf et al.
[1996] and House et al. [2002] suggest that apatite
composition does not influence helium diffusivity.
Experimental data and field studies [e.g. Wolf et
al., 1998; Farley, 2002] suggest that all He can be
thermally degassed from apatite at temperatures
of ~90°C and totally retained at temperatures
lower than ~40°C over geological time scales. The
temperature range spanning between 90–40°C is
referred to as the Apatite Helium Partial Retention
Zone (Apatite HePRZ), where a fraction of the He
contained in the apatite is lost by diffusion. He
diffusion in zircon has been studied considerably
less [see Reiners et al., 2002; Reiners, 2005] and
is highly dependent on the degree of radiation
damage [Flowers et al., 2009], crystallographic
anisotropic diffusion and heterogeneous
distribution of the parent isotopes [Reiners, 2005].
The zircon He partial retention zone is considered
to span between either ~220–140°C [Reiners et
al., 2002, 2004], or ~200–130°C [Stockli and Wolfe,
2009].
Ar/39Ar data has been acquired from several
40
traverses in the Colombian Western and Central
cordilleras (Table 1), and can be placed into
three age groups: i) ~140–130 Ma obtained from
alkali feldspars extracted from Jurassic and older
granitoids located south of the Ibagué Fault within
the Central Cordillera (Figure 2), ii) ~115–105 Ma,
yielded mostly by alkali feldspars from the Ibagué
Batholith located north of the Ibagué Fault and by
hornblendes from rocks of the high-medium P–T
metamorphic rocks of the Arquía Complex (Figure
2), and iii) ~80–60 Ma from the Late Cretaceous
Antioquia and Córdoba batholiths, hornblende
from the Arquía Complex near the Silvia–Pijao
Fault and from Late Cretaceous mafic igneous
rocks of the Western Cordillera (Figure 2). All ages
are reported at ±2σ.
Consideration of the feldspar 40Ar/39Ar age
spectra
All feldspar (alkali and plagioclase) 40Ar/39Ar
analyses obtained here yielded high-precision
ages for individual heating steps (better than 0.5%
at 2σ) step, and contiguous steps within the age
spectra rarely yield plateau regions according to
the definition of Dalrymple and Lanphere [1978;
minimum of three contiguous steps spanning
more than 50% of 39Ar released], because they do
not overlap within error. However, in a majority
of cases (e.g. Figures 3b and 3c), ages of individual
step ages differ by less than 3%, and the weighted
mean ages overlap with ages obtained from
isotope correlation plots, and hence we have
interpreted them as being meaningful with respect
to interpreting the thermal histories of the rocks.

65
 40
Weighted Inverse

66
40
elevation Latitude N Longitude W mean age ± Total Fusion Isochron Ar/36Ar
1
Sample Unit Lithology Stratigraphic Age (m) d°m's'' d°m's'' Phase 2σ (Ma) obs. MSWD Age±2σ (Ma) Age±2σ (Ma) intercept MSWD2

Table 1
Autochthonous terranes - Northern Colombia (7°N-5°N)

DV54 Antioquia Batholith diorite Late Cretaceous 1958 6°19'41.1'' 75°28'49.6'' Hbl 70.4±6.3 DS 25.64 71.0±1.9 64.1±5.4 348.6±38.0 4.33
DV58 Antioquia Batholith granite Late Cretaceous 1143 6°01'06.3'' 75°08'10.8'' Bt 72.3±0.3 P 2.62 71.4±0.2 73.2±0.8 185.0±98.2 2.22

Ar/39Ar age results

DV58 Antioquia Batholith granite Late Cretaceous 1143 6°01'06.3'' 75°08'10.8'' Or 62.6±1.1 P 2.36 63.4±0.5 56.5±8.6 439.2±223.0 1.26
DV70 Antioquia Batholith granodiorite Late Cretaceous 2317 6°58'14.8'' 75°25'33.1'' Bt 68.9±0.6 P 9.34 69.1±0.2 68.6±1.5 329.3±235.3 9.63
DV64 Antioquia batholith granodiorite Late Cretaceous 782 5°58'56.5'' 74°57'19.3'' Pl 62.6±0.7 DS 7.97 63.2±0.3 58.9±9.6 332.3±100.3 8.79
DV65 Cajamarca Complex gneiss Triassic 602 5°59'16.1'' 74°55'34.5'' Bt 80.8±0.3 P 2.03 80.2±0.2 81.9±0.6 182.9±52.8 0.18

Autochtonous terranes - Central Colombia (4°45'N-3°30'N)

South of the Ibagué Fault
DV81 Ibagué Batholith granite Jurassic 919 4°20'16.5'' 75°11'47.6'' Bt 130.2±2.8 P 2.2 127.7±1.6 136.8±10.2 280.7±22.7 2.02
DV81 Ibagué Batholith granite Jurassic 919 4°20'16.5'' 75°11'47.6'' Or 136.4±0.5 P 4.27 134.7±0.3 136.0±16.2 299.6±16.6 5.33
DV82 Permian intrusives granite Permo-Triassic 1051 4°17'15.5'' 75°13'59.2'' Or 137.3±0.9 DS 37.98 137.1±0.3 137.9±7.1 291.6±49.8 44.2
DV84 Permian intrusives granite Permo-Triassic 816 4°13'54.1'' 75°13'01.8'' Or 134.3±0.7 DS 28.06 133.6±0.3 133.0±10.4 319.0±23.4 28.37
North of the Ibagué Fault
DV01 Ibagué Batholith granite Jurassic 1195 4°29'60.1'' 75°08'22.7'' Bt n/a TF n/a 105.3±1.1 n/a n/a n/a
DV01 Ibagué Batholith granite Jurassic 1195 4°29'60.1'' 75°08'22.7'' Or 116.4±0.9 P 7.78 123.2±0.3 112.2±6.3 371.0±108.0 7.78
DV06 Ibagué Batholith granite Jurassic 1277 4°24'08.9'' 75°17'40.3'' Or 109.7±1.3 DS 511 109.4±0.2 91.6±12.9 1244±1200 >100
DV07 Ibagué Batholith granite Jurassic 1363 4°24'25.4'' 75°18'04.5'' Or 109.8±2.9 DS 1050 125.4±0.3 86.4±14.2 725.0±343.0 >100
DV09 Ibagué Batholith granite Jurassic 1354 4°24'29.7'' 75°18'11.8'' Or 114.1±0.9 DS 82 115.1±0.3 108.2±4.1 747.0±349 13.21
DV26 Córdoba Pluton granodiorite Late Cretaceous 1389 4°24'30.9'' 75°41'24.2'' Hbl 67.9±1.6 P 1.76 70.6±1.3 65.9±5.1 319.5±60.2 1.51

Allochthonous terranes

garnet
DV28 Arquía Complex amphibolite Early Cretaceous 1321 4°22'47.1'' 75°43'09.0'' Hbl 64.4±3.6 P 0.65 51.6±3.3 94.8±32.8 205.0±101.9 0.21
Volcanic Fm (Palmar hornblende-
DV42 gabbro) gabbro Late Cretaceous 1102 3°37'05.0'' 76°39'15.1'' Hbl 77.6±5.7 P 0.51 72.4±6.0 80.4±18.1 292.7±17.8 0.59
amphibolitic
DV89A Arquía Complex schist Early Cretaceous 1374 4°16'24.7'' 75°47'22.2'' Hbl 117.2±9.4 P 1.45 100.1±7.0 109.3±20.0 335.0±100.0 1.5
amphibolitic
DV89B Arquía Complex schist Early Cretaceous 1374 4°16'24.7'' 75°47'22.2'' Hbl 112.0±3.7 P 0.6 97.5±3.7 114.1±16.5 287.0±6.70 0.74
DV90 Arquía Complex amphibolite Early Cretaceous 1421 4°15'51.4'' 75°47'23.9'' Hbl 128.1±6.0 P 4.17 121.7±2.9 123.9±16.0 325.5±116.9 3.94
DV91 Buga Batholith diorite Late Cretaceous 1117 3°55'31.0'' 76°14'42.4'' Pl n/a TF n/a 79.2±2.6 n/a n/a n/a
Volcanic Fm. (Bolívar
DV94 complex) pegmatite Late Cretaceous 1032 4°20'25.7'' 76°11'44.0'' Hbl 81.8±10.0 DS 4.16 69.3±4.8 67.6±15.3 340.5±43.7 1.94
Volcanic Fm. (Zabaletas
DV102 stock) gabbro-diorite Late Cretaceous 1379 3°49'10.6'' 76°36'00.7'' Hbl n/a TF n/a 46.9±8.1 n/a n/a n/a

39
P: plateau, >3 contiguous heating steps that span >50% Ar released (the age is the weighted mean age of the plateau),
39
DS: Disturbed Spectrum over a region that contains >3 contiguous heating steps that span > 50% Ar released, and individual step ages differ by less than 3%;
TF: Total fusion age
n/a: Not Applicable
1
Mean Square of Weighted Deviates of the weighted mean age
2
Mean Square of Weighted Deviates of the inverse isochron linear regression
Mineral abbreviations: Hbl: hornblende, Bt: botite, Pl: plagioclase, Or: orthoclase
 Minor discordance within the Ar isotope
systematics acquired from some feldspars could
be partially due to an underestimation of analytical
errors caused by variations in un-measured
blanks, minor excess 40Ar trapped in different
crystal domains and 39Ar recoil effects caused by
the presence of micro-crystalline features with
varying K-content, such as perthitic lamellae [e.g.
McDougall and Harrison, 1999]. However, for
the purposes of this thermochronological study,
the small age-differences between contiguous
steps, combined with similar ages obtained from
different samples the weighted mean ages of
the selected steps (see below) are geologically
meaningful.
4.1 40Ar/39Ar data from the Central
Cordillera (Tahami Terrane and Arquía
Complex)
4.1.1 Northern Colombia: 7°N-5°N
The oldest 40Ar/39Ar plateau age obtained in
the northern Central Cordillera is 80.8±0.3 Ma,
which was obtained from biotite extracted from a
Triassic gneiss (DV65, Figure 3a) located proximal
to the Late Cretaceous Antioquia Batholith.
A diorite of the Antioquia Batholith (zircon U-Pb
age span 94-87 Ma; Chapter 2) located proximal to
the Romeral Fault System yielded a hornblende,
weighted mean 40Ar/39Ar age of 70.4±6.3 Ma
(sample DV54; Figure 3a) from the flattest part of a
slightly discordant region of the age spectrum. We
consider the weighted mean age to be geologically
meaningful at a semi-quantitatively level because
contiguous step-ages differ by less than 5%
over ~90% of 39Ar released. Biotites from two
granodiorites of the Antioquia Batholith yielded
plateau 40Ar/39Ar ages of 72.3±0.3 Ma (DV58) and
68.9±0.6 Ma (DV70; Figure 3a). Feldspars extracted
from granodiorites located at the southernmost
exposure of the batholith yielded discordant age
spectra, albeit with indistinguishable weighted
mean ages of 62.6±1.1 Ma (orthoclase; DV58) and
62.6±0.7 Ma (plagioclase; DV64; Figure 3a). Similar
to our argument for diorite DV54, we consider
these ages to be useful at a semi-quantitative
level because the contiguous step ages differ by
less than 3%, over 42% and 60% of the total 39Ar
released, respectively.
4.1.2 Central Colombia: 4°55’N–3°15’N
Eastern flank of the Central Cordillera, north of
the Ibagué Fault
Jurassic granitoids of the Ibagué Batholith
(zircon U-Pb ages span 165-160 Ma; Chapter 2)
located north of the Ibagué Fault consistently
yield Early Cretaceous 40Ar/39Ar ages. Orthoclase
extracted from four coarse-grained, intermediate
to felsic intrusive rocks of the Ibagué Batholith
(DV01, DV06, DV07 and DV09; Figure 3b) yielded
discordant 40Ar/39Ar age spectra with weighted
mean ages of ~115 Ma (DV01 and DV09) and ~109
Ma (DV06 and DV07) over the flattest regions of the
age spectra, where contiguous step ages differ by
less than 5%, over >60% of the total 39Ar released.
The weighted mean ages of samples DV01 and
DV09 overlap with their inverse isochron ages,
which are defined by the same heating steps used
to determine the weighted mean ages (Figure 3b),
and thus they are consider useful for constraining
the thermal histories of the samples. These ages
are younger than 40Ar/39Ar ages from samples
located south of the Ibagué Fault (see below).
All age spectra reveal evidence for the presence
of excess 40Ar in the first ≤20% of the total 39Ar
released. Additional discordance over the flatter
parts of the age spectra is probably due to a
combination of i) 39Ar recoil from micro-crystalline
features such as perthitic lamellae, and ii) chemical
alteration of the crystals, although this was not
observed under a petrographic microscope. The
age spectrum yielded by orthoclase DV09 (Figure
3b) may represent a classic 40Ar loss profile from
a weighted mean age of 114.1±0.9 Ma towards a
younger age of ~100–105 Ma.
Eastern flank of the Central Cordillera, south of
the Ibagué Fault
Permian and Jurassic granites located south
of the Ibagué Fault consistently also yield Early
Cretaceous 40Ar/39Ar ages, similar to samples
located north of the fault. Biotite and orthoclase
extracted from granite (DV81) of the Jurassic
Ibagué Batholith yielded plateau ages of 130.2±2.8
Ma and 136.4±0.5 Ma, respectively (Figure 3c).
Orthoclase from Permian granites (zircon U-Pb age
of 271.9±3.7 Ma; Chapter 2) of samples DV82 and
DV84 yielded weighted mean ages of 137.3±0.9
Ma and 134.3±0.7 Ma, respectively, that do not
strictly meet the plateau criteria of Dalrymple and
67
 DV65-Bt: Gneiss, Triassic Cajamarca Fm.
100 4
Weighted Plateau Inverse Isochron: 81.9±0.6 Ma

36Ar / 40Ar (10-3)

90 Total Fusion: 80.2 ± 0.2 Ma 40Ar/36Ar intercept: 182.9±52.8
3 MSWD: 0.18
Age (Ma)

80
70 2
80.8±0.3 Ma
60
1
50
40
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0.00 0.04 0.08 0.12 0.16
DV54-Hbl: Diorite, Late Cretaceous Antioquia Batholith
400
350 Disturbed spectra Age: 64.1±5.4 Ma
4
Total Fusion: 71.0±1.9 Ma

36Ar / 40Ar (10-3)

40Ar/36Ar intercept: 348.6±38.0
300
3 MSWD: 4.33
Age (Ma)

250
200
2
150
100 70.4±6.3 Ma
1
50
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12

DV58-Bt: Granite, Late Cretaceous Antioquia Batholith

80
4 Inverse Isochron: 73.2±0.8 Ma
70 40Ar/36Ar intercept: 185.0±98.2
36Ar / 40Ar (10-3)

MSWD: 2.22
60 3
Age (Ma)

72.3±0.3 Ma
50
2
40
Weighted Plateau 1
30
Total Fusion: 71.4±0.2 Ma
20
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12

DV58-Or: Granite, Late Cretaceous Antioquia Batholith

Weighted Plateau Inverse Isochron: 56.5±8.6 Ma

100
36Ar / 40Ar (10-3)

40Ar/36Ar intercept: 439.2±223.0

Total Fusion: 63.4±0.5 Ma 3
Age (Ma)

MSWD: 1.26
80 62.6±1.1 Ma
2
60
1
40

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14

DV64-Pl: Granodiorite, Late Cretaceous Antioquia Batholith

4
100 Disturbed spectra Age: 58.9±9.6 Ma
36Ar / 40Ar (10-3)

Total Fusion: 63.2±0.3 Ma 40Ar/36Ar intercept: 332.3±100.3

90 3
Age (Ma)

80 MSWD: 8.79
62.6±0.7 Ma
2
70
60
1
50
40
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14
Figure 3a. 40Ar/39Ar age
spectra and associated
DV70-Bt: Granodiorite, Late Cretaceous Antioquia Batholith
isotope correlation
160 Weighted Plateau Age: 68.6±1.5 Ma diagrams (inverse isochrons)
36Ar / 40Ar (10-3)

3 40Ar/36Ar intercept: 329.3±235.3

Total Fusion: 69.1±0.2 Ma
120 MSWD: 9.63 for various mineral phases
Age (Ma)

68.9±0.6 Ma 2 (abbreviations: Hbl:

80 hornblende, Bt: botite, Pl:
40 1 plagioclase, Or: orthoclase)
extracted rocks located
0 in the northern Central
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12
Cordillera. All errors are ±2σ.
Cumulative 39Ar Released (%) 39Ar / 40Ar

68
 DV01-Bt: Granite - Jurassic Ibagué Batholith
140
120
Age (Ma)

100
80
60
40
20 Disturbed spectra
Total Fusion: 105.3±1.1 Ma
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
DV01-Or: Granite - Jurassic Ibagué Batholith
300 Weighted Plateau

36Ar / 40Ar (10-3)

Total Fusion: 123.2±0.3 Ma Age: 112.2±6.3 Ma
3 40Ar/36Ar intercept: 371±108
260
Age (Ma)

MSWD: 7.78
220 2
180 116.4±0.9 Ma
140 1

100
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14
DV06-Or: Granite - Jurassic Ibagué Batholith
160 Disturbed spectra Age: 91.6±12.9 Ma
36Ar / 40Ar (10-3)

40Ar/36Ar intercept: 1244±1200

140 Total Fusion: 109.4 ± 0.2 Ma 3
109.7±1.3 Ma MSWD: >100
Age (Ma)

120 2
100
1
80
60 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0.00 0.04 0.08 0.12 0.16

DV07-Or: Granite - Jurassic Ibagué Batholith

240
Disturbed spectra Age: 86.4±14.2 Ma
36Ar / 40Ar (10-3)

Total Fusion: 125.41±0.26 Ma 3 40Ar/36Ar intercept: 725±343

200
Age (Ma)

MSWD: >100
160 109.8±2.9 Ma 2

120 1

80 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0.00 0.04 0.08 0.12 0.16

DV09-Or: Granite - Jurassic Ibagué Batholith

Age: 108.2±4.1 Ma
36Ar / 40Ar (10-3)

140 Disturbed spectra 3 40Ar/36Ar intercept: 747±349

Total Fusion: 115.1 ± 0.3 Ma
MSWD: 13.21
Age (Ma)

120 2
100 114.1±0.9 Ma 1
80
0 20 40 60 80 100 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14
Cumulative 39Ar Released (%) 39Ar / 40Ar

Figure 3b. idem 3a; central latitudes of the Central Cordillera, north of the Ibagué Fault.

69
 DV84-Or: Granite, Permo-Triassic Batholith
200 4
Disturbed spectra Age: 133.0±10.4 Ma

36Ar / 40Ar (10-3)

40Ar/36Ar intercept: 319.0±23.4
180 Total Fusion: 133.6±0.3 Ma 3
MSWD: 28.37
Age (Ma)

160 2
134.3±0.7 Ma

140 1

120
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12

DV82-Or: Granite, Permo-Triassic Batholith

240 4
Disturbed spectra
220 Age: 137.9±7.1 Ma

36Ar / 40Ar (10-3)

Total Fusion: 137.1±0.3 Ma 40Ar/36Ar intercept: 291.6±49.8
200 3
Age (Ma)

MSWD: 44.20
180
160 2
140
1
120
137.3±0.9 Ma
100
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12

DV81-Bt: Granite, Jurassic Ibagué Batholith 4

220 Inverse Isochron: 136.8±10.2 Ma
36Ar / 40Ar (10-3)

Weighted Plateau 40Ar/36Ar intercept: 280.7±22.7

200 Total Fusion: 127.7±1.6 Ma 3
MSWD: 2.02
180
Age (Ma)

160 2
130.2±2.8 Ma
140
1
120
100 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12

DV81-Or: Granite, Jurassic Ibagué Batholith

180 4
Weighted Plateau Age: 136.0±16.2 Ma
36Ar / 40Ar (10-3)

160 Total Fusion: 134.7±0.3 Ma 3

40Ar/36Ar intercept: 299.6±16.6
Age (Ma)

MSWD: 5.33
140
2
120 136.4±0.5 Ma
1
100
0 20 40 60 80 100 0
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12

Cumulative 39Ar Released (%) 39Ar / 40Ar

Figure 3c. idem 3a; central latitudes of the Central Cordillera, south of the Ibagué Fault.

70
 DV26-Hbl: Granodiorite, Late Cretaceous Córdoba Pluton
4
120 Weighted Plateau Inverse Isochron: 65.9±5.1 Ma

36Ar / 40Ar (10-3)

40Ar/36Ar intercept: 319.5±60.2
Total Fusion: 70.6±1.3 Ma 3
100 MSWD: 1.51
Age (Ma)

67.9±1.6 Ma
80
2
60
40 1
20
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12

DV28-Hbl: Amphibolite, Arquía Complex

100
Weighted Plateau 4 Age: 94.8±32.8 Ma
40Ar/36Ar intercept: 205.0±102
80 Total Fusion: 51.6±3.3 Ma
36Ar / 40Ar (10-3)
MSWD: 0.21
3
Age (Ma)

60

64.4±3.6 Ma 2
40

20 1

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0.00 0.04 0.08 0.12 0.16 0.20 0.24

DV89A-Hbl : Garnet Amphibolite, Arquía Complex

300 Weighted Plateau 4 Inverse Isochron: 109.3±20.0 Ma

40Ar/36Ar intercept: 335±100
Total Fusion: 100.1 ± 7.0 Ma
36Ar / 40Ar (10-3)

240 MSWD: 1.50

3
Age (Ma)

180 117.2±9.4 Ma
2
120

60 1

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14

DV89B-Hbl : Garnet Amphibolite, Arquía Complex

4
Weighted Plateau Inverse Isochron: 114.1±16.5 Ma
36Ar / 40Ar (10-3)

300 MSWD: 0.60 40Ar/36Ar intercept: 287±6.70

Total Fusion: 97.5±3.7 Ma 3 MSWD: 0.74

Age (Ma)

200 112.0±3.7 Ma 2

100 1

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14

Cumulative 39Ar Released (%) 39Ar / 40Ar

Figure 3d. idem 3a; para-authochthonous rocks located along the western flank of the Central Cordillera.

71
 DV42-Hbl: Hbl-gabbro, Late Cretaceous Palmar Stock

120 Weighted Plateau 4

Inverse Isochron: 80.4±18.1 Ma
Total Fusion: 72.4±6.0 Ma

36Ar / 40Ar (10-3)

100 40Ar/36Ar intercept: 292.7±17.8
3
Age (Ma)

MSWD: 0.59
80
60 2
40 77.6±5.7 Ma 1
20
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10

DV91-Pl: Diorite, Late Cretaceous Buga Batholith

120 Total Fusion age: 79.2±2.6 Ma

36Ar / 40Ar (10-3)

3
Age (Ma)

100
80 2

60 1
40
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0.000 0.010 0.020 0.030 0.040

DV94-Hbl: Pegmatite, Late Cretaceous Bolívar Ultramafic Complex

4
240 Disturbed spectra Inverse Isochron: 67.6±15.3 Ma
36Ar / 40Ar (10-3)

Total Fusion: 69.3±4.8 Ma 40Ar/36Ar intercept: 340.5±43.7

3
180 MSWD: 1.94
Age (Ma)

81.8±10.0 Ma

120 2

60 1

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10

Cumulative 39Ar Released (%) 39Ar / 40Ar

Figure 3e. idem 3a; the Cauca-Patía Valley and the Western Cordillera. See text for further discussion on the robustness of
the data.

Lanphere [1978]. However, we consider those ages
to be meaningful because contiguous age steps
differ by less than 0.8% over >70% 39Ar released,
and the weighted mean ages are indistinguishable
from the inverse isochron ages that also yield
atmospheric 40Ar/36Ar intercepts [295.5; Steiger
and Jager, 1977].
Western flank of the Central Cordillera
Garnet amphibolites of the high-medium P–T
metamorphic rocks of the Arquía Complex, exposed
on the western border of the Central Cordillera,
within the Romeral Fault System yielded similar
40
Ar/39Ar ages (Figures 2 and 3d) to those found in
the Jurassic Ibagué Batholith located further east.
Hornblende extracted from amphibolites (DV89A
and DV89B) sampled from the same outcrop
yielded indistinguishable plateau ages of 117.2±

72
9.4 Ma and 112.0±3.7 Ma (both representing 60%
of the total 39Ar released). Hornblende DV89A
yielded a humped age spectrum that may be
diagnostic of 39Ar recoil, and hence we consider
the plateau age of DV89B (112.0±3.7 Ma) to be
the most accurate hornblende age for this region.
Hornblende from garnet amphibolite (DV28) was
sampled closer to the Silvia–Pijao Fault (Figures
2 and 3d) than amphibolite DV89B, and yielded
a younger plateau 40Ar/39Ar age of 64.4±3.6 Ma,
which is similar to 40Ar/39Ar ages obtained from
continental basement exposed in the northern
Central Cordillera (e.g. Antioquia Batholith).
A single diorite (DV26) of the Late Cretaceous
Córdoba pluton (zircon U-Pb age of 79.7±2.5
Ma; Chapter 2), located ~ 4 km to the NW of
sample DV28, yielded a hornblende plateau
40
Ar/39Ar age (Figure 3d) of 67.9±1.6 Ma, with an
indistinguishable inverse isochron age of 65.9±5.1
Ma. Initial steps with older apparent ages of ~75
Ma host excess 40Ar, and hence are inaccurate.
4.2 40Ar/39Ar data from Late Cretaceous
accreted mafic rocks of the Western
Cordillera and the Cauca-Patía Valley
(Calima Terrane)
The Calima Terrane is commonly used to
describe the Colombian component of a series of
oceanic plateau rocks and an overlying arc, which
collided and accreted to the NW South American
margin at some point in the Late Cretaceous
[Spikings et al., 2001; Villagómez et al., 2008],
against the Cauca–Almaguer Fault. Consequently,
the Calima terrane is one component of the larger,
allochthonous Caribbean-Colombian Oceanic
Province, which is also exposed in Ecuador
[Pallatanga terrane; Spikings et al., 2001].
4.2.1 Central Colombia (4°55’N–3°15’N)
With the exception of a single sample (gabbro
DV42), mafic crystalline rocks of the allochthonous
Calima Terrane yield discordant 40Ar/39Ar age
spectra (Figure 3e), primarily because of the
prevalence of low-K and high-Ca minerals, which
inhibit the generation of concordant data. A coarse
hornblende gabbro of the Volcanic Fm. (Palmar
gabbro; sample DV42; zircon U-Pb age of 99.7±1.3
Ma; see Chapter 2) yielded a plateau 40Ar/39Ar
age of 77.6±5.7 Ma with an indistinguishable
inverse isochron age of 80.4±18.1 Ma. Hornblende
from a pegmatite of the Late Cretaceous Bolívar
Ultramafic Complex (DV94; zircon U-Pb of 95.5±1.1
Ma; see Chapter 2), located along the eastern flank
of the Western Cordillera, yielded a discordant age
spectrum with a total fusion age of 69.3±4.8 Ma,
which is indistinguishable from its inverse isochron
age of 67.6±15.3 Ma. The progressive reduction in
age from low to high temperature heating steps
suggests the discordance may be a consequence
of excess 40Ar, although this is un-resolvable from
the inverse isochron.
Plagioclase from a diorite (DV91) of the Buga
Batholith (zircon U-Pb ages span 92–90 Ma; see
Chapter 2), located within the Cauca–Patía Valley,
yields a highly discordant age spectra with a total
fusion age of 79.2±2.6 Ma.
5 Results: Fission track (FT) data
Forty-one apatite and thirty one zircon FT ages
(Table 2) have been obtained from several regions
distributed throughout the Central and Western
cordilleras of Colombia from approximately 1°N­ to
7°N, spanning an elevation range of 431 to 3292
m. Apatite FT ages range from 113.4 Ma to 8.2
Ma, and young towards the south, proximal to the
Ecuadorian border. All apatite FT ages pass the
P(χ2) test with values >5%, indicating that single
grain ages from any individual sample define a
single FT age population [Galbraith, 1981; Green,
1981], and hence their pooled ages are reported.
Mean track lengths [c-axis projected; Donelick et
al., 1999; Ketcham et al., 2007b] vary from 15.05
to 13.31 μm. With the exception of two pegmatites
exposed in the Western Cordillera (DV94 and DV95,
with Dpar values of 3.4 and 2.5 μm, respectively),
all Dpar values vary from 2.2 to 1.2 μm without
any particular trend relative to their apatite FT
ages, suggesting that any compositional influence
on annealing is insignificant (Figure 4).
Zircon FT ages range from 112.0 Ma to 41.6 Ma,
with P(χ2) values >5% except for three samples
of the metasedimentary rocks of the Cajamarca
Complex, which probably host multiple fission
track populations [e.g. Green, 1981]. Individual
age populations (Table 2) have been resolved
using the software BINOMFIT [Brandon, 1996]. All
73
age errors are presented at 2σ-level.
16

Mean track length (µm)

No attempt was made to acquire relationships
between age and sample elevation due to a
15
combination of a high spatial density of faulting
and a lack of detailed geological maps within the 14
cordilleras, which would render any age variation
with elevation uninterpretable. 13

12
2.5
5.1 Fission track data from the
Central Cordillera (Tahami Terrane and 2.0

deviation (µm)
Standard
Quebradagrande Complex) 1.5

1.0

0.5
5.1.1 Northern Colombia: 7°N -5°N
0.0
Apatite FT ages show a general decrease with 4.0
increasing distance towards the east, across the
Central Cordillera in northern Colombia, away 3.0
diameter (µm)
Long etch pit

from the Romeral Fault System (Cauca–Almaguer

Fault; Figures 2 and 5). The northern section of the
Central Cordillera is less structurally dissected than
more southerly regions, and such a trend provides
clues as to the tectonic evolution of the cordillera.
Western flank of the Central Cordillera,
Manizales–Medellín traverse
Apatite FT analyses of rocks sampled from a
traverse between Manizales and Medellín, located
between 8-35km from the Cauca-Almaguer Fault
(Figure 2a) yielded ages of 69.4±17.2 Ma (DV160),
78.6±19.8 Ma (DV177), 64.5±14.6 Ma (DV176) and
51.8±7.4 Ma (DV179) from diorites and sandstones
of the Early Cretaceous Quebradagrande
Complex, and 74.4±10.4 Ma (DV54) and 72.9±18.8
Ma (DV53) from two diorites of the Antioquia
Batholith (zircon U-Pb age span 94–87 Ma;
Chapter 2). These are amongst the oldest apatite
FT ages obtained in the Colombian Andes (Figure
6). Mean apatite FT lengths range between
15.05±0.64 and 13.43±1.13μm, with diorite DV54
yielding the longest mean track length. Granite
from the Paleocene–Eocene Manizales pluton (K/
Ar biotite age 59–55 Ma; Figure 2a) [Brook, 1984]
yielded a zircon FT age of 43.9±4.2 Ma (DV161),
which is probably a close approximation of its
crystallization age.
Central altiplano, Yarumal–Sonsón traverse
Samples were collected along a traverse
between Yarumal and Sonsón, which intersects
2.0
1.0
0.0
0 20 40 60 80 100
AFT age ± 2σ (Ma)
Central Cordillera: 7°10’N-5°00’N
Central Cordillera: 4°45’N-3°15’N
Western Cordillera
Figure 4. Relationship between a) Apatite FT age and mean
track length, b) Apatite FT age and standard deviation of
track length measurements, and c) Apatite FT age and etch
pit diameter (Dpar). The lack of a clear relationship (i.e.
increasing age with increasing Dpar) suggests the inter-
sample variation in apatite FT age is controlled by variations
in thermal histories, and not by variations in track annealing
kinetics.
a prominent, high, broad and flat region of the
Altiplano Antioqueño (mean elevation of 2500 m).
The Late Cretaceous Antioquia and the Paleocene
Sonsón Batholith (65–55 Ma; U-Pb zircon)
[Ordoñez-Carmona et al., 2001] intrude Paleozoic
orthogneisses of La Miel and Triassic rocks of the
Cajamarca Complex (Figure 2a) in this region,
which is 40-75km east of the Cauca–Almaguer
Fault. North of 6°N, the Antioquia Batholith yielded
apatite FT ages of 69.7±8.6 Ma (DV153), 58.5±8.0
Ma (DV58), 54.8±5.8 Ma (DV70) and 53.0±4.8
Ma (DV148), with mean lengths ranging between

74
 140
western flank
120 spine
AFT age ± 2σ (Ma)
eastern flank
100
80
60
40
20
0 20 40 60 80 100
Distance eastwards from the
Cauca-Almaguer Fault (km)
Figure 5. Relationship between apatite FT age (Ma±2σ)
and distance from the Late Cretaceous ocean-continent
suture (the Cauca–Almaguer Fault) in the northern Central
Cordillera. The data reveal a general eastward younging
trend, implying that the timing of Tertiary cooling become
progressively younger towards the east.
14.54±0.92 μm and 14.42±0.75 μm, suggesting
they are slightly annealed. South of 6°N, a single
mica schist of the Cajamarca Complex yielded
apatite FT ages of 56.6±7.4 Ma whereas granites
of the Sonsón Batholith (DV154), 48.2±4.8 Ma
(DV156) and 44.3±6.2 Ma (DV155), and a single
sample yielded a mean length of 14.95±0.71 μm.
Zircon FT ages show no spatial trend along the
traverse and are 66.6±8.0 Ma (DV153), 65.5±6.0
Ma (DV56), 58.1±5.2 Ma (DV70) and 55.4±5.2 Ma
(DV148) in the northern section of the traverse.
Samples located farther south (Sonsón area)
yielded zircon FT ages of 71.4±9.8 Ma (DV155),
53.1±5.6 Ma (DV154) and 47.9±5.2 Ma (DV156).
These ages are either indistinguishable, or slightly
older than the apatite FT ages yielded by the same
samples.
Eastern flank of the Central Cordillera, San Luis–
Fresno traverse
Samples from this traverse are located between
75-100 km from the Cauca–Almaguer Fault (Figure
2a). A Triassic schist of the Cajamarca Complex
(DV67) yielded the oldest (albeit imprecise) apatite
FT age of 113.4±22.8 Ma from the cordilleras.
Granitoids of the Antioquia Batholith (zircon
U-Pb age span 94-87 Ma; Chapter 2) and Triassic
metasedimentary rocks yielded Tertiary apatite FT
ages of 64.1±9.6 Ma (DV63), 59.8±10.2 Ma (DV64),
43.5±4.8 Ma (DV65) and 41.0±6.6 Ma (DV80). One
single sample yielded a mean apatite FT length of
13.69±1.20 μm. These ages are generally younger
than those obtained from the same rock units that
are located closer to the Cauca–Almaguer Fault.
The Tertiary Hatillo pluton (53.0±1.8; biotite K/Ar;
Figure 2a) [Vesga and Barrero, 1978] yielded an
apatite FT age of 39.6±7.0 Ma (DV163).
Zircon FT ages yielded by the Antioquia Batholith
and the Hatillo pluton along the eastern flank of
120
the Central Cordillera are 74.8±7.4 Ma (DV63)
and 55.3±5.4 Ma (DV163), respectively, which are
consistently older than their apatite FT ages.
5.1.2 Central Colombia: 4°45’N–3°30’N
Eastern flank of the Central Cordillera, La Línea-
Ibagué-Venadillo region
Apatite FT ages from metasedimentary rocks
of the Cajamarca Complex and granitoids of the
Jurassic Ibagué Batholith exposed along the
eastern flank of the Central Cordillera show
significant variation (Table 2; Figure 2b), and
range between 68.3±8.2 Ma and 19.6±4.2 Ma.
No geographic trends can be identified within
the ages, and the large age variation is probably
a consequence of dense faulting along dextral
Palestina fault, the high angle reverse Otú–Pericos
Fault and the dextral Ibagué Fault and their splays
[e.g. Restrepo-Pace, 1992; Vargas et al., 2005].
Indistinguishable apatite FT ages of 30.5±5.8 Ma
(DV85), 30.6±5.8 Ma (DV09), 32.1±7.2 Ma (DV02),
35.0±8.2 Ma (DV86), 35.8±4.6 Ma (DV06) and
37.1±5.8 Ma (DV03) have been obtained from
samples located within the Ibagué and Otú–Pericos
fault zones (Figure 2b). The youngest apatite FT
age of 19.6±2.1 (DV18) Ma was obtained from a
granodioritic gneiss (zircon U-Pb age of 237.5±5.5
Ma, Chapter 2) part of the Cajamarca Complex,
located on the crest of the Central Cordillera (La
Línea), close to the Palestina Fault. Older AFT ages
of 59.8±16.8 Ma (DV05), 59.2±20.2 Ma (DV04),
64.9±10.2 Ma (DV07), 68.3±8.2 Ma (DV82) were
obtained from less deformed rocks, which less
intense brittle fracturing and faulting. Five of these
samples yielded long to intermediate mean track
lengths between 14.95 and 13.31 μm (Table 2),
suggesting they are partially annealed to varying
degrees.
Twelve zircon FT ages obtained from the same
75
 Table 2

76
Fission track age results
a) External Detector Method
Pooled MTL±2s (μm)
elevation Latitude N Longitude W RhoS x105 RhoI x105 RhoD x105 FissionTrack c-axis Std. Dev.
2 2
Sample Unit Lithology Stratigraphic Age (m) d°m's'' d°m's'' Grains track/cm track/cm 2 track/cm 2 U (ppm) P(χ ) Age±2σ (Ma) corrected (μm) Dpar±2σ (μm)

Central Cordillera

Northern Colombia (7°N-5°N)

Manizales-Medellín

Apatite

DV53 Antioquia Batholith diorite Late Cretaceous 1958 6°18'39.7'' 75°30'16.3'' 21 1.104 (99) 3.423 (307) 14.591 (15215) 3.3 98 72.9±18.8 13.43±0.32 1.13 1.73±0.06

DV54 Antioquia Batholith diorite Late Cretaceous 1958 6°19'41.1'' 75°28'49.6'' 20 7.593 (325) 24.346 (1042) 14.489 (15215) 19.5 99 74.4±10.6 15.05±0.12 0.64 1.62±0.03

DV160 Quebradagrande Complex diorite Early Cretaceous 1426 5°03'09.2'' 75°34'19.0'' 21 1.838 (86) 6.667 (312) 14.853 (18044) 4.8 78 69.4±17.2

DV176 Quebradagrande Complex diorite Early Cretaceous 1381 5°27'16.0'' 75°28'28.2'' 24 1.501 (106) 5.354 (378) 13.568 (18044) 4.5 100 64.5±14.6

DV177 Quebradagrande Complex (Abejorral Fm.) sandstone Early Cretaceous 2127 5°07'06.5'' 75°27'46.5'' 24 0.875 (88) 2.455 (247) 13.018 (18044) 2.2 100 78.6±19.8

DV179 Quebradagrande Complex (Abejorral Fm.) sandstone Early Cretaceous 1067 5°50'07.1'' 75°35'20.0'' 20 6.446 (283) 27.107 (1990) 12.834 (18044) 30.2 30 51.8±7.4

Zircon

DV161 Manizales pluton granite Paleocene 2735 5°01'34.7'' 75°23'32.8'' 15 78.058 (1608) 53.981 (112) 5.141 (7728) 333.7 60 43.9±4.2
Yarumal-Cisneros-Sonsón

Apatite

DV58 Antioquia Batholith granite Late Cretaceous 1143 6°01'06.3'' 75°08'10.8'' 14 13.973 (306) 61.598 (1349) 15.198 (15215) 46.3 77 58.5±8.0

DV70 Antioquia Batholith granodiorite Late Cretaceous 2317 6°58'14.8'' 75°25'33.1'' 20 12.446 (575) 58.290 (2693) 15.113 (13800) 45.9 84 54.8±5.8 14.54±0.13 0.92 1.89±0.04

DV148 Antioquia Batholith granodiorite Late Cretaceous 1473 6°25'16.3'' 75°23'05.7'' 19 6.403 (849) 32.323 (4286) 15.771 (18044) 24.3 78 53.0±4.8

DV153 Antioquia Batholith granodiorite Late Cretaceous 1360 6°32'24.8'' 75°07'19.0'' 20 4.070 (396) 15.437 (1502) 15.587 (18044) 11.6 39 69.7±8.6 14.42±0.16 0.75 1.31±0.04

DV154 Cajamarca Complex schist Triassic 2276 5°46'42.8'' 75°18'32.0'' 19 11.579 (330) 53.439 (1523) 15.404 (18044) 40.5 36 56.6±7.4

DV155 Sonsón batholith granite Paleocene 2199 5°46'18.2'' 75°17'33.1'' 19 5.564 (281) 32.099 (1621) 15.037 (18044) 25.2 80 44.3±6.2

DV156 Sonsón batholith granite Paleocene 2486 5°45'14.3'' 75°18'00.5'' see below 5 48.2±4.8 14.95±0.17 0.71 1.38±0.03

Zircon

DV56 Antioquia Batholith granite Late Cretaceous 2192 6°03'19.8'' 75°12'42.7'' 20 91.351 (4193) 27.146 (1246) 3.303 (2480) 256.4 5 65.5±6.0

DV70 Antioquia Batholith granodiorite Late Cretaceous 2317 6°58'14.8'' 75°25'33.1'' 15 47.385 (2156) 28.110 (1279) 5.839 (7728) 161.2 58 58.1±5.2

DV148 Antioquia Batholith granodiorite Late Cretaceous 1473 6°25'16.3'' 75°23'05.7'' 14 68.327 (1920) 38.292 (1076) 5.261 (7728) 244.4 9 55.4±5.2

DV153 Antioquia Batholith granodiorite Late Cretaceous 1360 6°32'24.8'' 75°07'19.0'' 15 39.725 (11556) 18.351 (534) 5.221 (7728) 111.8 11 66.6±8.0

DV154 Cajamarca Complex schist Triassic 2276 5°46'42.8'' 75°18'32.0'' 18 61.378 (1381) 35.467 (798) 5.201 (7728) 228.9 47 53.1±5.6

DV155 Sonsón batholith granite Paleocene 2199 5°46'18.2'' 75°17'33.1'' 15 51.111 (1886) 21.545 (795) 5.181 (7728) 136.4 5 71.4±9.8

DV156 Sonsón batholith granite Paleocene 2486 5°45'14.3'' 75°18'00.5'' 13 65.500 (1179) 41.667 (750) 5.161 (7728) 275.4 14 47.9±5.2

San Luis-Pto. Triunfo-Fresno

Apatite

DV63 Antioquia Batholith Qz-rich aplite Late Cretaceous 777 5°58'42.0'' 74°57'31.5'' 18 7.811 (264) 26.331 (890) 12.753 (13800) 22.5 9 64.1±9.6

DV64 Antioquia batholith granodiorite Late Cretaceous 782 5°58'56.5'' 74°57'19.3'' 20 6.982 (192) 25.818 (710) 13.048 (13800) 22.8 98 59.8±10.2

DV65 Cajamarca Complex gneiss Triassic 602 5°59'16.1'' 74°55'34.5'' 19 15.097 (468) 79.548 (2466) 13.490 (13800) 69.2 50 43.5±4.8 13.69±0.29 1.20 1.74±0.06

DV67 Cajamarca Complex mica schist Triassic 610 5°56'14.7'' 74°51'39.0'' 20 4.048 (153) 8.757 (331) 14.523 (13800) 6.8 87 113.4±22.8

DV80 Cajamarca Complex white mica schist Triassic 431 5°55'17.5'' 74°50'08.7'' 20 2.095 (194) 13.251 (1227) 15.260 (13800) 10.8 63 41.0±6.6

DV163 Hatillo pluton granite Paleocene 1100 5°10'43.6'' 74°58'41.6'' 20 1.337 (164) 8.199 (1006) 14.302 (18044) 7.6 97 39.6±7.0

Zircon

DV63 Antioquia Batholith granite Late Cretaceous 777 5°58'42.0'' 74°57'31.5'' 18 79.622 (1895) 36.975 (890) 5.899 (7728) 202.1 83 74.8±7.4

DV163 Hatillo pluton granite Paleocene 1100 5°10'43.6'' 74°58'41.6'' 19 43.69 (1717) 23.893 (939) 5.121 (7728) 157.7 23 55.3±5.4
 Table 2 (continued)
Pooled MTL±2s (μm)
elevation Latitude N Longitude W RhoS x105 RhoI x105 RhoD x105 FissionTrack c-axis Std. Dev.
2 2 2
Sample Unit Lithology Stratigraphic Age (m) d°m's'' d°m's'' Grains track/cm 2 track/cm track/cm U (ppm) P(χ ) Age±2σ (Ma) corrected (μm) Dpar±2σ (μm)

Central Cordillera

Central Colombia (4°45'N-3°30'N)

La Línea-Ibagué-Venadillo

Apatite

DV02 Cajamarca Complex gneiss Triassic 685 4°46'41.8'' 74°57'54.2'' 7 6.012 (101) 34.881 (586) 11.593 (6034) 31.0 44 32.1±7.2

DV03 Cajamarca Complex gneiss Triassic 685 4°46'41.8'' 74°57'54.2'' 11 13.209 (247) 59.947 (1121) 10.495 (7215) 29.0 6 37.1±5.8 14.95±0.20 0.76 1.91±0.07

DV04 Ibagué Batholith gabbro-diorite Jurassic 933 4°47'00.2'' 74°58'31.4'' 20 1.149 (47) 3.667 (150) 11.792 (7215) 3.5 100 59.2±20.2

DV05 Ibagué Batholith granodiorite Jurassic 1064 4°24'27.7'' 75°16'05.3'' 21 2.681 (74) 6.957 (192) 9.678 (6474) 8.3 100 59.8±16.8 13.42±0.31 1.15 1.58±0.05

DV06 Ibagué Batholith granite Jurassic 1277 4°24'08.9'' 75°17'40.3'' 19 5.515 (439) 25.98 (2068) 10.641 (6034) 28.3 12 35.8±4.6 13.81±0.43 1.41 1.59±0.16

DV07 Ibagué Batholith granite Jurassic 1363 4°24'25.4'' 75°18'04.5'' 21 7.463 (456) 18.494 (1130) 12.120 (6474) 16.9 13 64.9±10.2 13.82±0.19 0.92 1.59±0.03

DV09 Ibagué Batholith granite Jurassic 1354 4°24'29.7'' 75°18'11.8'' 20 4.884 (147) 28.206 (849) 11.110 (6034) 27.6 60 30.6±5.8 14.07±0.23 0.93 1.53±0.04
WM granodioritic
DV18 Permotriassic magmatic units gneiss Triassic 3292 4°28'19.0'' 75°33'18.1'' 20 1.730 (105) 15.288 (928) 10.754 (7215) 17.0 27 19.6±4.2

DV82 Permian intrusives granite Permo-Triassic 1051 4°17'15.5'' 75°13'59.2'' 20 15.668 (575) 46.567 (1709) 12.831 (7215) 44.5 45 68.3±8.2 13.31±0.28 1.16 2.22±0.06

DV85 Cajamarca Complex schist Triassic 1403 4°27'52.6'' 75°16'23.1'' 20 2.800 (133) 24.947 (1185) 15.998 (13800) 19.2 85 30.5±5.8

DV86 Cajamarca Complex graphitic schist Triassic 1420 4°28'18.0'' 75°16'31.7'' 20 2.274 (88) 17.494 (677) 15.850 (13800) 12.7 79 35.0±8.2

Zircon

DV02 Cajamarca Complex gneiss Triassic 685 4°46'41.8'' 74°57'54.2'' 15 75.636 (832) 27.909 (307) 3.979 (2480) 229.3 6 63.6±9.4

DV05 Ibagué Batholith granodiorite Jurassic 1064 4°24'27.7'' 75°16'05.3'' 8 138.321 (654) 25.169 (119) 2.649 (2480) 310.8 37 85.3±18.2

DV06 Ibagué Batholith granite Jurassic 1277 4°24'08.9'' 75°17'40.3'' 20 176.658 (2101) 37.753 (449) 2.965 (2480) 423.2 78 81.3±10.6

DV07 Ibagué Batholith granite Jurassic 1363 4°24'25.4'' 75°18'04.5'' 20 129.504 (1556) 30.878 (371) 3.597 (2480) 273.5 98 88.3±12.4

DV08 Cajamarca Complex phyllite Triassic 1479 4°24'49.6'' 75°18'46.9'' 30 105.775 (3108) 14.507 (463) 2.723 (2480) 168.0 92 106.6±16.0

DV09 Ibagué Batholith granite Jurassic 1354 4°24'29.7'' 75°18'11.8'' 15 53.305 (629) 15.339 (181) 3.641 (2480) 143.4 67 74.6±13.4

DV14* Cajamarca Complex quartzite Triassic 2185 4°26'18.5'' 75°28'37.5'' 28 102.453 (2078) 32.736 (658) 3.448 (2480) 268.9 0 65.1±10.2 *

DV17* Cajamarca Complex greenschist Triassic 2943 4°27'44.1'' 75°32'15.4'' 44 72.333 (2747) 27.407 (1080) 3.931 (2480) 229.4 2 58.1±6.6 *
WM granodioritic
DV18 Permotriassic magmatic units gneiss Triassic 3292 4°28'19.0'' 75°33'18.1'' 18 94.192 (2444) 34.532 (896) 3.386 (2480) 315.3 9 54.2±6.0

DV19* Cajamarca Complex quartzite Triassic 3292 4°28'19.0'' 75°33'18.1'' 17 92.472 (1646) 36.91 (657) 3.738 (2480) 330.5 0 56.2±9.0 *

DV81 Ibagué Batholith granite Jurassic 919 4°20'16.5'' 75°11'47.6'' 17 128.114 (2242) 23.657 (414) 3.255 (2480) 240.0 26 103.6±13.0

DV82 Permian intrusives granite Permo-Triassic 1051 4°17'15.5'' 75°13'59.2'' 20 129.678 (1740) 27.65 (371) 2.825 (2480) 313.7 98 77.6±10.8

Armenia-Pijao

Apatite

DV26 Córdoba Pluton granodiorite Late Cretaceous 1389 4°24'30.9'' 75°41'24.2'' 20 2.766 (190) 29.229 (2008) 9.214 (6034) 37.7 79 13.9±2.4

Zircon

DV26 Córdoba Pluton granodiorite Late Cretaceous 1389 4°24'30.9'' 75°41'24.2'' 20 94.407 (2152) 33.823 (771) 2.860 (2480) 376.0 5 45.6±7.6

Southern Colombia (1°30'N-1°00'N)

Pasto-Mocoa

Apatite

DV129 Not determ gneissic granodiorite Paleozoic ? 2350 1°10'02.5'' 76°51'32.7'' see below 16 8.21±1.2

DV134 Ibagué Batholith granodiorite Jurassic 1638 1°04'32.5'' 76°43'50.4'' 19 0.694 (56) 12.838 (1036) 17.239 (18044) 8.9 93 15.9±4.4

DV136 Ibagué Batholith granite Jurassic 2260 1°04'21.7'' 76°44'53.5'' see below 58 13.7 ±2.2

DV139 Ibagué Batholith dacitic porphyry Jurassic 1874 1°05'01.8'' 76°47'58.2'' 15 0.705 (28) 10.932 (434) 17.056 (18044) 7.1 94 18.7±7.4

Zircon

77
DV134 Ibagué Batholith granodiorite Jurassic 1638 1°04'32.5'' 76°43'50.4'' 15 129.461 (2641) 38.039 (776) 5.460 (7728) 226.5 9 109.2±10.8

DV136 Ibagué Batholith granite Jurassic 2260 1°04'21.7'' 76°44'53.5'' 15 90.137 (1316) 26.986 (394) 5.440 (7728) 159.3 39 106.8±13.6

DV139 Ibagué Batholith dacitic porphyry Jurassic 1874 1°05'01.8'' 76°47'58.2'' 11 126.104 (971) 35.584 (274) 5.380 (7728) 208.0 11 112±16.6
 Table 2 (continued)

78
Pooled MTL±2s (μm)
elevation Latitude N Longitude W RhoS x105 RhoI x105 RhoD x105 FissionTrack c-axis Std. Dev.
Sample Unit Lithology Stratigraphic Age (m) d°m's'' d°m's'' Grains track/cm 2 track/cm 2 track/cm 2 U (ppm) P(χ2) Age±2σ (Ma) corrected (μm) Dpar±2σ (μm)

Western Cordillera and the Cauca-Patía Valley

Northern Colombia (7°N-5°N)

Ciudad Bolívar

Apatite

DV165 Mande Batholith diorite Eocene 799 5°46'04.7'' 76°14'56.3'' 19 3.557 (270) 22.266 (1690) 13.935 (18044) 18.7 18 37.8±5.2 14.46±0.29 1.06 1.36±0.04

DV167 Mande Batholith granodiorite Eocene 782 5°46'15.1'' 76°14'51.1'' 22 3.066 (256) 18.79 (1569) 13.752 (18044) 17.0 100 38.1±5.4 13.47±0.15 0.81 1.17±0.03

Zircon

DV165 Mande Batholith diorite Eocene 799 5°46'04.7'' 76°14'56.3'' 12 15.916 (686) 11.485 (495) 5.081 (7728) 75.8 31.22 41.6±5.4

DV167 Mande Batholith granodiorite Eocene 782 5°46'15.1'' 76°14'51.1'' 15 13.306 (809) 8.536 (519) 5.041 (7728) 54.8 93.25 46.4±5.8

Central Colombia (4°45'N-3°30'N)

Cauca-Patía Valley

Apatite

DV26 Córdoba Pluton granodiorite Late Cretaceous 1389 4°24'30.9'' 75°41'24.2'' 20 2.766 (190) 29.229 (2008) 9.214 (6034) 37.7 79 13.9±2.4

DV30 Buga Batholith tonalite Late Cretaceous 1664 3°54'10.6'' 76°10'50.4'' 19 2.623 (149) 13.891 (789) 13.984 (15215) 11.8 66 44.8±8.4

Zircon

DV26 Córdoba Pluton granodiorite Late Cretaceous 1389 4°24'30.9'' 75°41'24.2'' 20 94.407 (2152) 33.823 (771) 2.860 (2480) 376.0 5 45.6±7.6

DV91 Buga Batholith diorite Late Cretaceous 1117 3°55'31.0'' 76°14'42.4'' 13 192.32 (2404) 80.24 (1003) 2.917 (2480) 901.4 44.98 41.3±4.2

Cali-Restrepo-Roldanillo

Apatite

DV94 Volcanic Fm. (Bolívar complex) pegmatite Late Cretaceous 1032 4°20'25.7'' 76°11'44.0'' 20 4.841 (243) 17.669 (887) 13.073 (15215) 16.1 96 61.5±9.4 13.35±0.41 1.15 3.38±0.20

DV95 Volcanic Fm. (Bolívar complex) pegmatite Late Cretaceous 1198 4°20'02.1'' 76°11'52.0'' 15 28.457 (535) 102.075 (1919) 13.275 (15215) 90.4 11 62.8±6.8 13.82±0.39 1.27 2.49±0.07

Zircon

DV94 Volcanic Fm. (Bolívar complex) pegmatite Late Cretaceous 1032 4°20'25.7'' 76°11'44.0'' 17 18.198 (1414) 9.099 (707) 5.760 (7728) 56.5 49 67.9±7.4

DV95 Volcanic Fm. (Bolívar complex) pegmatite Late Cretaceous 1198 4°20'02.1'' 76°11'52.0'' 20 32.124 (2994) 17.393 (1621) 5.739 (7728) 119.0 40 62.5±5.2

Southern Colombia (1°30'N-1°00'N)

Ricaurte, Pasto-Mocoa

Apatite

DV121 Piedrancha pluton granodiorite Oligocene 1840 1°08'22.5'' 77°51'43.3'' see below 9 35.8±5.8

* Zircon populations

DV14 Cajamarca Complex quartzite Triassic 2185 4°26'18.5'' 75°28'37.5'' 47.0±9.0

DV14 84.3±17.0

DV17 Cajamarca Complex greenschist Triassic 2943 4°27'44.1'' 75°32'15.4'' 39.3±12.0

DV17 63.4±7.4

DV19 Cajamarca Complex quartzite Triassic 3292 4°28'19.0'' 75°33'18.1'' 38.7±18.0

DV19 62.6±9.0

b) LA-ICP-MS method Pooled

Σ(PΩ)±2s 43 238
Elevation Latitude N Longitude W Ca U Fission
Sample Lithology Stratigraphic age (m) d°m's'' d°m's'' Grains Ns Area (cm 2) (10-5 cm 2) bkg:sig bkg:sig U (ppm) P(χ2) Track MTL±2s (μm)

DV156 Sonsón batholith granite Paleocene 2486 5°45'14.3'' 75°18'00.5'' 22 718 1.32E-03 9.24 7.96E-02 4.69E-03 22.80 5 48.2±4.8 14.95±0.17

DV121 Piedrancha pluton granodiorite Oligocene 1840 1°08'22.5'' 77°51'43.3'' 33 175 1.83E-03 4.47 2.27E-02 3.10E-03 7.44 24.7 25.8±4.8

DV129 Not determined gneissic granodiorite Paleozoic ? 2350 1°10'02.5'' 76°51'32.7'' 33 329 1.21E-03 26.53 2.00E-02 1.40E-03 74.16 19.5 8.21±1.2

DV136 Ibagué Batholith granite Jurassic 2260 1°04'21.7'' 76°44'53.5'' 30 179 9.65E-04 8.11 7.02E-02 4.38E-03 27.29 63 13.7 ±2.2

Table 2a) Values in parentheses indicate the number of tracks counted. Samples counted by D. Villagómez (zeta: 340.83±8.02, CN5 glass, apatite; 118.52±3.08, CN1 glass, zircon).
Table 2b) Zeta MS: 12.476±0.368 (DV156 and DV136), 13.201±0.672 (DV121), 13.256±0.689 (DV129)
Fossil tracks were revealed in apatites by etching in 5.5 N HNO 3 (aq) at 21°C for 20 sec. Fossil tracks were revealed in zircons by etching in the eutectic mixture NaOH/KOH at 210°C for periods between 6 and 26 hours.
Induced tracks were reveled in muscovite external detectors by etching in 40% HF (aq) at 20°C for 45 min.
Fission tracks were counted at a magnification of x 1000 (apatite and zircon, dry objective) using computer-controlled Zeiss-Axio-Imager.z1m and motorized Sony stage
Lengths of horizontal confined tracks were measured in apatite grains lying in the plane of crystallographic c axis directly on a LCD screen connected to an high resolution digital camera. System used for counting and measuring length data provided by Autoscan System Pty. Ltd.
* P(χ2)<5% the zircon fission track is the central age. Age of different populations are listed under "zircon populations" and have been resolved using the software BINOMFIT (Brandon, 1996).
samples range between 107 and 54 Ma, with most
of the samples yielding Late Cretaceous ages that
display a subtle eastward younging trend (Figure
2b). Traversing eastwards from La Línea, the
zircon FT ages are 56.2±9 Ma (DV19), 54.2±6.0 Ma
(DV18), 58.1±6.6 Ma (DV17), 65.1±10.2 Ma (DV14),
74.6 ±13.4 Ma (DV09), 88.3±12.4 Ma (DV07),
106.6±16.0 Ma (DV08), 81.3±10.6 Ma (DV06),
85.3±18.2 Ma (DV05), 77.6±10.8 Ma (DV82),
103.6±13.0 Ma (DV81) and 63.6±9.4 Ma (DV02).
With the exception of the metasedimentary rocks
(Cajamarca Complex) DV14, DV17 and DV19, all
zircon FT ages yield P(χ2) values >5%.
Western Flank of the Central Cordillera,
Armenia–Pijao region
Apatite and zircon FT ages of 13.9±2.4 Ma and
45.6±7.6 Ma, respectively were obtained from a
granite of the Late Cretaceous Córdoba pluton
(DV26; zircon U-Pb age of 79.7±2.5 Ma; Chapter 2)
located within the Romeral Fault System (Figure
2b). No useful FT length data were obtained from
this sample, such that it cannot be modelled.
5.1.3 Southern Colombia: 1°30’N-1°00’N
Traverse across the Central Cordillera between
the towns of Pasto and Mocoa
Four samples of granitoids of the Ibagué
batholith located along a traverse between the
towns of Pasto and Mocoa in southern Colombia
yielded apatite FT data. Three samples from a
single coherent fault block bound by the Acevedo-
Afiladeros Fault and the Amazonian Border Fault
(Figure 2c) were collected over an elevation range
of 1630 to 2260 m, and yield a linear relationship
between sample elevation and their apatite FT ages
of 15.9±4.4 Ma (DV134), 13.7±2.2 Ma (DV136), and
18.7±7.4 Ma (DV139). The same samples yielded
significantly older zircon FT ages of 109.2±10.8 Ma
(DV134), 106.8±13.6Ma (DV136) and 112±16.6
(DV139), which are similar to some of the zircon
FT ages obtained for the same batholith in central
Colombia (e.g. DV08, DV81). A sample of the same
batholith located west of the Acevedo-Afiladeros
Fault (Figure 2c) yielded a younger apatite FT age
of 8.2±1.2 Ma (DV129). No useful FT track length
could be obtained from this traverse.
5.2 Fission track data from Late
Cretaceous and younger accreted mafic
rocks of the Western Cordillera and the
Cauca–Patía Valley (Calima and Chocó–
Panamá terranes)
5.2.1 Northern Colombia: 7°N-5°N
Eastern flank of the Western Cordillera, Ciudad
Bolívar region
Two granodiorites (DV167 and DV165) of the
Eocene Mande Batholith (U-Pb zircon 43–42 Ma;
Cardona, pers. comm. to DV), located in northern
Colombia, yielded indistinguishable apatite
FT ages of 38.1±5.4 Ma and 37.8±5.2 Ma and
indistinguishable zircon FT ages of 46.4±5.8 Ma
and 41.6±5.4 Ma, respectively.
5.2.2 Central Colombia: 4°45’N–3°30’N
Eastern flank of the Western Cordillera, Cali–
Roldanillo region
Two pegmatite dykes (DV94, DV95) of the
Bolívar Ultramafic Complex (zircon U-Pb 95.5±1.1
and 97.1±2.1 Ma; see Chapter 2), which are
considered to represent fractionated melts of the
Volcanic Fm. [Kerr et al., 2004], yielded apatite
FT ages of 61.5±9.4 Ma and 62.8±6.8 Ma, and
zircon FT ages of 67.9±7.4 and 62.5±5.2 Ma. These
samples yielded partially annealed mean apatite
FT lengths of 13.35±1.15 μm and 13.82±1.27 μm
and large Dpar values of 3.4 μm (DV94) and 2.5
μm (DV95).
Cauca-Patía Valley
Fission track data have been obtained from
the Buga Batholith (U-Pb zircon span 90-92 Ma;
Chapter 2), located west of the Cauca–Almaguer
Fault within the Cauca–Patía Valley in central
Colombia (Figure 2b). Two different intrusive
rocks yielded indistinguishable apatite FT ages
of 44.8±8.4 Ma (tonalite, DV30) and a zircon FT
age of 41.3±4.2 Ma (diorite, DV91). A statistically
useful quantity of apatite FT lengths could not be
measured.
5.2.3 Southern Colombia: 1°N-0°
Eastern flank of the Western Cordillera, Ricaurte
region
79
 A single apatite FT age of 25.8±4.8 Ma (DV121)
was obtained from granodiorite of the Miocene
Piedrancha pluton (K/Ar biotite 23±3 Ma) [Alvarez
and Linares, 1979], which is located in southern
Colombia, along the eastern flank of the Western
Cordillera (Figure 2c).
6 Results: (U-Th)/He
Apatite and zircon (U-Th)/He data have been
obtained from samples dispersed along the Central
Cordillera, and from two samples of the Western
Cordillera. All apatites and zircons were inclusion
free (at a magnification of 156.25x in transmitted
light), with spatially unzoned parent isotopes,
as confirmed by a homogeneous distribution of
induced fission tracks. Three aliquots (1 grain per
aliquot) were analysed per sample, and only those
samples which yielded indistinguishable aliquot
ages (±2σ) are presented as weighted mean ages.
6.1 Northern Colombia: 7°N–5°N
6.1.1 Central Cordillera
Western Flank
The youngest apatite (U-Th)/He age obtained in
the northern Central Cordillera was 13.4±1.4 Ma
from a diorite of the Antioquia Batholith (DV53)
that crops out along the western flank, proximal to
the Romeral Fault System (Figure 2a).
Altiplano Antioqueño
Three samples of the Antioquia and Sonsón
batholiths located between 1140 m and 2490m
(Table 3) within the Altiplano Antioqueño region
of the northern Central Cordillera, yielded apatite
(U-Th)/He ages of 39.1±1.3 Ma (DV70), 31.0±1.4
Ma (DV58) and 30.8±0.7 Ma (DV156), which are
the oldest obtained in the cordilleras of Colombia.
Zircon (U-Th)/He ages of 45.2±1.2 Ma (DV58) and
40.1±1.0 Ma (DV56) have been obtained from
samples located at 1140 and 2190 m, respectively.
Eastern Flank
A quartz-rich aplite (DV63) of the Antioquia
80
Batholith, located along the eastern flank of
the northern Central Cordillera, proximal to the
Palestina Fault (Figure 2a) yielded an apatite (U-
Th)/He age of 20.9±1.2 Ma, which is younger than
other apatites (U-Th)/He ages obtained from the
Altiplano Antioqueño.
6.1.2 Western Cordillera
Granite (DV166) of the Eocene Mande Batholith
(zircon U-Pb ages of 43–42 Ma) [Cardona, 2010,
pers. comm.], which crops out in the northern
Western Cordillera (Figure 2a), yielded an apatite
(U-Th)/He age of 3.9±0.2 Ma, which is the youngest
in northern Colombia. The same sample gave
a zircon (U-Th)/He age of 32.8±0.7 Ma, which is
significantly older than the apatite age.
6.2 Central Colombia: 4°45’N–3°30’N
6.2.1 Central Cordillera
Apatite (U-Th)/He ages obtained from the
central region of the Central Cordillera (Figure 2b)
are younger than those acquired from the north
(Figure 2a). Apatite (U-Th)/He ages obtained
from various intrusive bodies (Table 3) yielded,
from west to east, ages of 6.1±0.2 Ma (DV26),
6.1±0.2 Ma (DV07), 7.5±0.4 Ma (DV05), 11.2±0.3
Ma (DV82) and 10.6±0.8 Ma (DV04) whereas a
metasedimentary rock of the Cajamarca Complex
yielded an age of 9.3±0.8 Ma (DV86). Zircon (U-
Th)/He ages of 43.0±1.2 (DV09) and 46.3±1.2
Ma (DV06) were also acquired from the Ibagué
Batholith, which are within the same range as
those obtained from northern Colombia.
6.3 Southern Colombia: 1°30’N–1°00’N
6.3.1 Central Cordillera
The youngest apatite and zircon (U-Th)/He ages
in this study have been obtained from the southern,
Central Cordillera, close to the Ecuadorian border
(Figure 2c). An undetermined gneiss and one
granodiorite of the Ibagué Batholith located at
elevations between 1400 m and 2350 m yielded
apatite (U-Th)/He ages of 4.5±0.1 Ma (DV129)
 Altitude Alpha correction Grain size
Sample Unit Lithology Strat. Age (m) Latitude Longitude (FT) (μm) He (ncc) U (ppm) Th (ppm) Sm (ppm) Age±2σ (Ma)

Northern Colombia (7°N-5°N)

Table 3
Central Cordillera
Apatite
Western Flank
DV53 Antioquia Batholith diorite Late Cretaceous 1958 6°18'39.7'' 75°30'16.3'' 0.75 63.06 0.01 2.59 2.77 22.79 13.7±2.1
0.74 59.08 0.01 4.22 2.65 20.25 8.8±1.3
0.72 55.59 0.01 3.76 3.22 21.68 13.1±1.9
Weighted mean: 13.4±1.4 (a,2)
Altiplano Antioqueño
DV58 Antioquia Batholith granite Late Cretaceous 1143 6°01'06.3'' 75°08'10.8'' 0.76 66.21 0.27 25.29 0.89 56.82 29.9±1.6
0.74 58.72 0.03 3.51 2.26 25.00 33.7±2.6
0.69 49.14 0.54 110.60 3.98 163.76 36.4±1.9
Weighted mean: 31.0±1.4 (a,2)

Apatite and zircon (U-Th)/He age results

DV70 Antioquia Batholith granodiorite Late Cretaceous 2317 6°58'14.8'' 75°25'33.1'' 0.82 89.58 2.79 57.79 71.28 191.59 38.8±1.8
0.80 77.25 1.41 44.76 65.80 155.04 39.3±1.8
0.78 70.95 0.01 0.78 0.75 1.90 27.9±6.4
Weighted mean: 39.1±1.3 (a,2)
DV156 Sonsón batholith granite Paleocene 2486 5°45'14.3'' 75°18'00.5'' 0.80 78.54 0.56 18.87 40.64 239.98 31.0±1.3
0.76 64.95 0.38 24.94 57.63 241.14 29.4±1.3
0.76 64.92 0.38 22.50 52.71 312.55 32.1±1.4
Weighted mean: 30.8±0.7 (a,3)
Eastern Flank
DV63 Antioquia Batholith Qz-rich aplite Late Cretaceous 777 5°58'42.0'' 74°57'31.5'' 0.68 47.58 0.04 12.62 13.26 22.56 19.1±1.7
0.71 53.03 0.38 43.70 125.82 74.90 29.8±1.3
0.73 56.66 0.06 7.97 18.12 19.61 22.7±1.7
Weighted mean: 20.9±1.2 (a,2)
Zircon
Altiplano Antioqueño
DV56 Antioquia Batholith granite Late Cretaceous 2192 6°03'19.8'' 75°12'42.7'' 0.75 52.20 16.16 1451.76 417.05 0.00 41.7±1.5
0.76 54.24 29.02 1720.09 273.06 0.00 57.2±2.0
0.80 66.96 13.63 593.25 120.98 0.00 38.8±1.4
Weighted mean: 40.1±1.0 (z,2)
DV58 Antioquia Batholith granite Late Cretaceous 1143 6°01'06.3'' 75°08'10.8'' 0.86 93.74 68.18 890.05 155.75 0.00 44.2±1.6
0.84 82.41 78.95 1462.59 277.73 0.00 46.8±1.9
0.87 103.96 59.65 328.71 144.91 0.00 70.9±2.6
Weighted mean: 45.2±1.2 (z,2)
Western Cordillera
Apatite
DV166 Mande Batholith diorite Eocene 794 5°46'09.4'' 76°14'51.2'' 0.76 64.49 0.04 21.77 31.50 136.59 3.8±0.2
0.81 83.71 0.06 13.12 24.27 107.59 4.0±0.2
0.74 60.42 0.04 18.79 33.61 169.60 5.8±0.3
Weighted mean: 3.9±0.2 (a,2)
DV166 Mande Batholith diorite Eocene 794 5°46'09.4'' 76°14'51.2'' 0.80 69.03 4.06 176.03 73.01 0.00 33.7±1.3
0.82 76.87 4.39 142.79 57.07 0.00 31.8±1.2

81
0.76 55.85 4.60 415.82 125.06 0.00 33.0±1.3
Weighted mean: 32.8±0.7 (z,3)
 Alpha correction Grain size

82
Sample Unit Lithology Strat. Age Latitude Longitude Altitude (FT) (μm) He (ncc) U (ppm) Th (ppm) Sm (ppm) Age±2σ (Ma)

Central Colombia (4°45'N-3°30'N)

Central Cordillera
Apatite
DV04 Ibagué Batholith gabbro-diorite Jurassic 933 4°47'00.2'' 74°58'31.4'' 0.68 47.51 0.01 2.94 11.04 26.87 10.4±1.6
0.70 50.74 0.01 3.00 4.25 20.15 12.2±1.9
0.72 54.16 0.01 5.53 6.03 21.80 10.1±1.1

Table 3 (continued)
Weighted mean: 10.6±0.8 (a,3)
DV05 Ibagué Batholith granodiorite Jurassic 1064 4°24'27.7'' 75°16'05.3'' 0.71 53.96 0.02 10.14 22.67 74.00 7.1±0.6
0.67 46.94 0.15 6.88 6.78 19.76 159.8±8.4
0.67 46.04 0.01 9.80 20.43 62.93 8.0±0.7
Weighted mean: 7.5±0.4 (a,2)
DV07 Ibagué Batholith granite Jurassic 1363 4°24'25.4'' 75°18'04.5'' 0.76 64.78 0.10 28.17 88.56 157.49 6.1±0.3
0.76 64.06 0.10 28.19 91.71 162.33 6.2±0.3
0.76 66.36 0.15 33.02 89.25 133.68 7.8±0.3
Weighted mean: 6.1±0.2 (a,2)
DV26 Córdoba Pluton granodiorite Late Cretaceous 1389 4°24'30.9'' 75°41'24.2'' 0.73 57.02 0.08 37.80 71.49 151.03 6.6±0.3
0.69 48.79 0.05 40.86 76.07 147.42 6.1±0.3
0.69 49.14 0.05 44.29 81.40 156.86 5.6±0.3
Weighted mean: 6.1±0.2 (a,3)
DV82 Permian intrusives granite Permo-triassic 1051 4°17'15.5'' 75°13'59.2'' 0.72 55.63 0.22 56.80 98.87 40.79 13.7±0.6
0.74 59.35 0.43 94.22 243.57 92.81 11.2±0.5
0.78 72.07 0.52 62.94 153.53 76.10 11.1±0.5
Weighted mean: 11.2±0.3 (a,2)
DV86 Cajamarca Complex graphitic schist Triassic 1420 4°28'18.0'' 75°16'31.7'' 0.66 44.67 0.01 11.36 1.44 93.95 9.9±1.7
0.75 62.19 0.00 1.82 0.04 0.53 8.7±1.5
0.65 44.00 0.02 19.63 6.15 120.37 9.4±1.2
Weighted mean: 9.3±0.8 (a,3)
Zircon
DV06 Ibagué Batholith granite Jurassic 1277 4°24'08.9'' 75°17'40.3'' 0.86 98.08 35.74 356.82 228.34 0.00 45.2±1.6
0.86 93.80 22.58 248.13 151.27 0.00 47.7±1.8
0.85 91.55 33.47 379.95 196.02 0.00 50.8±1.9
Weighted mean: 46.3±1.2 (z,2)
DV09 Ibagué Batholith granite Jurassic 1354 4°24'29.7'' 75°18'11.8'' 0.79 63.55 8.64 294.26 196.72 0.00 53.1±2.8
0.77 59.34 2.74 138.77 82.48 0.00 45.3±1.8
0.80 68.51 2.59 91.95 49.81 0.00 41.0±1.6
Weighted mean: 43.0±1.2 (z,2)
 and 3.6±0.2 Ma (DV133) respectively. The same
undetermined gneiss (DV129) also yielded a zircon
(U-Th)/He age of 9.3±0.2 Ma.

6.3.2 Western Cordillera

A granodiorite of the Piedrancha pluton
(DV121; Figure 2c), located in the southern
Western Cordillera yielded an apatite (U-Th)/He
age of 12.3±0.4 Ma, which is distinctly older than
apatite (U-Th)/He ages obtained from the Central
Cordillera at similar latitudes.
(a,2)

(a,2)

(a,2)
(z,3)
Age±2σ (Ma)

13.4±0.6
12.3±0.4
10.0±0.4

11.5±0.5
26.2±1.2
4.3±0.2
6.0±0.2
4.7±0.2
4.5±0.1

3.6±0.2
3.6±0.2

9.2±0.4
9.3±0.2
2.5±0.4
3.4±0.7

8.9±0.3

7 Thermal histories of rocks of

Sm (ppm)

the Colombian Andes

581.47
121.04

144.49
124.40
195.93
92.33

68.35
51.35
43.70

0.00
0.00
0.00
Weighted mean:

Weighted mean:

Weighted mean:

Weighted mean:
Th (ppm)

1004.39
263.67
154.02

15.17
25.24
16.38
15.64

73.80
75.57
47.97

13.78
9.96

Good and acceptable fits (Kuiper’s statistic

test with merit values >0.5 and >0.05) thermal
U (ppm)

272.47

204.75
115.44
90.58
59.73

73.83

12.08
12.04
7.39
5.18
5.14

6.09

history solutions have been generated for twelve

samples from the Central Cordillera (Jurassic
He (ncc)

Ibagué, Cretaceous Antioquia and Paleocene

0.24
0.75
0.34

0.01
0.06

0.86
0.01

1.10
0.95

0.16
0.10
0.33

Sonsón batholiths, and metasedimentary rocks of

Alpha correction Grain size

the Triassic Cajamarca Complex) and four from the

108.84

104.42
72.56
76.41
59.13

82.41
61.98
54.49

66.68
71.87

87.47
71.29
(μm)

Western Cordillera (Oligocene Mande Batholith

(U-Th)/He data, numbers in parenthesis indicate number of aliquots (one grain per aliquot) used to calculate the weighted mean; z, zircon; a, apatite.

and the Late Cretaceous Bolívar Ultramafic

Complex). None of the samples were forced to
0.79
0.74
0.78

0.86

0.84
0.75
0.72

0.80
0.81

0.82
0.78
0.85
(FT)

reach surface temperatures prior to the present

76°51'32.7''

76°43'45.7''

76°51'32.7''

77°51'43.3''

day due to a lack of evidence for unconformably

Altitude

overlying sedimentary rocks.

Longitude

1°10'02.5''

1°04'58.2''

1°10'02.5''

1°08'22.5''

7.1 Central Cordillera between 7°N and

Latitude

2350

1397

2350

1840

5°N
Paleozoic ?

Paleozoic ?

Oligocene
Jurassic
Strat. Age

7.1.1 Antioquia Batholith and the Cajamarca

gneissic granodiorite

gneissic granodiorite

Complex.
granodiorite

granodiorite

The good-fit thermal history envelopes for

Lithology

rocks located in the Antioquia Batholith (zircon

U-Pb ages span 94-87 Ma; Chapter 2) reveal an
initial peri­od of high cooling rates that occurred at
Southern Colombia (1°30'N-1°00'N)

Piedrancha pluton

varied times between 77 Ma and 50 Ma (Figure

Ibagué Batholith
Not determ

Not determ

7a). The earliest period of cooling was detected

Western Cordillera
Unit

Central Cordillera

in diorite DV54, which is located close to the

Romeral Fault System and cooled at rates ≥~50°C/
Sample

Apatite

Apatite
DV129

DV133

DV129

DV121
Zircon

My during ~76-65 Ma. Diorite DV54 yields the

longest mean apatite fission track length in the
Table 3 (continued) region (15.05 μm), and indistinguishable ages of

83
 Central Cordillera Western
Cordillera
7°10’N-5°00’N 4°45’N-3°15’N 1°30’N- and Cauca-
1°00’N Patía Valley

Apatite (U-Th)/He
Apatite Fission track
140 Zircon (U-Th)/He
Zircon Fission track
Feldspar 40Ar/39Ar
120 Biotite 40Ar/39Ar
Hornblende 40Ar/39Ar
Age ± 2σ (Ma)

100

80

60

40

20

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120

Analysis
Figure 6. Compilation of thermochronological ages (±2σ) from three regions dispersed along the Central Cordillera, and
throughout the Western Cordillera and Cauca–Patía Valley in Colombia. 40Ar/39Ar ages in the northern Central Cordillera are
never older than Late Cretaceous, whereas they are mainly Early Cretaceous at central latitudes (4°45’N – 3°15’N). Apatite
fission track and (U-Th)/He ages young towards the south, within the Central Cordillera.

70.4±6.3 Ma (hornblende 40Ar/39Ar) and 74.4±10.6
Ma (apatite FT). Diorite DV53 is also located
close to the Romeral Fault System (Figure 7a)
and cooled rapidly during 75–50 Ma, although no
good-fits were obtained. Both samples remained
at approximately constant temperatures during
50-15 Ma, and diorite DV53 subsequently cooled
during 15–0 Ma. Further east, granodiorite DV153
yielded a good-fit solution with rapid cooling
between 75–70 Ma from ~280°C (total annealing
of zircon FT) to 80°C at rates of ≥40°C/My.
Subsequently, moderate cooling occurred during
65–50 Ma from 80°C to 60°C at rates of ≥2°C/My,
and no reliable constraints exist below 60°C. The
northernmost exposures of the batholith (DV70)
yielded a good-fit solution after integrating four
different thermochronometers (biotite 40Ar/39Ar,
zircon FT, apatite FT, apatite (U-Th)/He). Granite
DV70 cooled rapidly during ~70–50 Ma from
~320°C to ~100°C at ≥10°C/My, followed by slow
cooling from 100°C at 45 Ma until 40°C at 25 Ma
at rates of ~3°C/My and decelerating cooling until
the present.
Gneiss DV65 of the Triassic Cajamarca Complex
sampled along the eastern flank of the Central
Cordillera yields a best-fit envelope with an initial
period of cooling commencing at 70–55 Ma, with
a subsequent drop in cooling rate towards the
present day. Its biotite 40Ar/39Ar age (80.8±0.3
Ma) is distinguishably older than 70 Ma and hence
extrapolation to temperatures >120°C is tentative,
although it supports elevated cooling rates during
the Campanian.
7.1.2 The Sonsón Batholith
No good-fit solutions were obtained from the
Paleocene Sonsón Batholith (zircon U-Pb ages
span 65–55 Ma) [Ordóñez-Carmona et al., 2001]
although granite DV156 yielded an acceptable-
fit solution (Figure 7a) showing rapid cooling
from 240°C to 100°C during 55–45 Ma at rates
of ~ 13°C/My, moderate cooling from ≥100°C to
~ 40°C between 45 Ma–30 Ma at rates of ~4 °C/
My towards the present day. Cooling commencing
at 55 Ma may represent sub-solidus thermal
relaxation of the pluton.

84
 DV54 Antioquia Batholith DV70 Antioquia Batholith
0 0
20 Unconstrained 20
40 40
Mean length
60 60
Temperature (°C)

observed: 15.05±0.64 μm
80 best-fit: 15.15±0.72 μm 80
100 100
0.6 N: 118

Temperature (°C)
120 GOF: 0.84 120
140 AFT 140
Measured: 74.4±10.4 Ma Apatite (U-Th)/He
160 Measured: 38.8±1.8 Ma Mean length
Best-fit: 74.9 Ma 0.3 180 Best-fit: 39.0 Ma observed: 14.54±0.94 μm
500 GOF: 0.92 GOF: 0.80
200 best-fit: 14.66±1.03 μm
520
Ar (hbl): 70.4±6.3 Ma 220 AFT
540 0.0 Measured: 54.8±5.8 Ma N: 191
240 0.4 GOF: 0.68
80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 4 8 12 16 20 Best-fit: 53.8 Ma
Time (Ma) Length (μm) 260 GOF: 0.74
280 ZFT
Measured: 58.1±5.2 Ma
0.2
300
DV153 Antioquia Batholith 320 Ar (bt): 68.9±0.6 Ma
340 0.0
0
Unconstrained 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 4 8 12 16 20
20 Time (Ma) Length (μm)
40
60
80
100
Temperature (°C)

DV65 Cajamarca Fm.

120 Mean length
observed: 14.41±0.76 μm 0
140 Unconstrained
AFT best-fit: 14.60±0.73 μm
160 40
Measured: 69.7±8.6 Ma
180
Best-fit: 68.1 Ma 0.6 N: 86
200 GOF: 0.94 80
GOF: 0.71
220
Temperature (°C)

240 ZFT 0.3 120

Measured: 66.6±8.0 Ma Mean length
260 observed: 13.67±1.22 μm
160
280 AFT best-fit: 14.12±1.07 μm
Measured: 43.5±4.8 Ma
300 0.0 200 Best-fit: 44.3 Ma N: 69
80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 4 8 12 16 20 ?
Time (Ma) Length (μm) GOF: 0.98 0.30 GOF: 0.83
240
Ar (bt): 80.8±0.3 Ma
280 0.15
DV53 Antioquia Batholith
0 320
20 0.00
Temperature (°C)

40 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 4 8 12 16 20
60 Time (Ma) Length (μm)
80
100
120 DV156 Sonsón Batholith
140 Mean length 0
observed: 13.43±1.13 μm 20
160 Apatite (U-Th)/He best-fit: 13.16±1.29 μm
180 40
Measured: 13.7±2.1 Ma
Best-fit: 18.0 Ma N: 50 60
GOF: 0.11
0.30 GOF: 0.11 80
Temperature (°C)

100
AFT Mean length
0.15 120 Apatite (U-Th)/He
Measured: 72.9±18.8 Ma observed: 14.95±0.71 μm
140 Measured: 31.0±1.3 Ma
Best-fit: 56.9 Ma Best-fit: 39.2 Ma best-fit: 14.88±0.91 μm
GOF: 0..09 160 GOF: 0.14
N: 66
0.00 180 0.50 GOF: 0.27
90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 4 8 12 16 20 AFT
200 Measured: 48.2±4.8 Ma
Time (Ma) Length (μm) Best-fit: 44.7 Ma
220
GOF: 0.15
240 0.25
260 ZFT
Measured: 47.9±5.2 Ma
280
300 0.00
60 50 40 30 20 10 0 4 8 12 16 20
Time (Ma) Length (μm)

Figure 7a. Northern Central Cordillera: Time-temperature solutions obtained by numerical modelling, using the kinetic
relationship of Flowers et al. [2009] and Reiners et al. [2004] for diffusion of He in zircon, Farley [2000] for the diffusion of
He in apatite and Ketcham et al. [2007] for fission track annealing in apatite. Dark pink areas are envelopes for “good fits”
and green areas are envelopes for “acceptable fits”. The bold line shows the statistically best–fitting solution. Measured and
predicted data (for the best fit model) are shown for comparison. The solutions were considered to be good fits when track
length histograms and model ages passed the Kuiper’s statistic test with values of >0.5, and acceptable with values of >0.05.
GOF: Goodness-of-fit. Further details can be found in the text and dashed lines highlight paths that have been manually
interpolated. Zircon U-Pb ages (Chapter 2)

85

7.2 Central Cordillera between 4°45’N
and 3°30’N
7.2.1 South of the Ibagué Fault
The good-fit envelope of solutions for a Permo-
Triassic granite (DV82) located south of the Ibagué
fault display rapid cooling from >250°C to ~60°C
from 80–70 Ma at rates of ≥20 °C/My. Isothermal
conditions prevailed until ~15–10 Ma, when
the sample cooled at rates of ≥ 3°C/My until the
present day. DV82 yielded a broad flat region on
its 40Ar/39Ar age spectrum (Figure 7b), suggesting it
cooled rapidly through 290±60°C during ~140–135
Ma. Similarly, plateau and broad, flat regions on the
orthoclase 40Ar/39Ar age spectra of granodiorites
(DV81 and DV84) of the Ibagué batholith, located
south of the Ibagué Fault shows they also cooled
rapidly through 290±60°C during ~140-135 Ma.
7.2.2 North of the Ibagué Fault
Granitoids (DV06 and DV09) of the Ibagué
Batholith and gneiss (DV03) of the Cajamarca
Complex located north of the Ibagué Fault
experienced distinctly different cooling histories
to samples located south of the fault (Figure 7b).
Orthoclase feldspars cooled through 290±60°C
during ~115–110 Ma, and the reduced ages of
individual, low-temperature 40Ar/39Ar heating
steps of orthoclase DV09 (Figure 7b) suggests it
continued to cool until ~100 Ma, albeit at a reduced
rate. Acceptable-fit envelopes for granodiorites
DV07 and DV05 reveal elevated cooling rates
during a poorly constrained period within the
Late Cretaceous, which has not been found in the
good-fit solutions of the remaining samples north
of the Ibagué Fault.
Late Eocene–early Oligocene (45-30 Ma) rapid
cooling of ≥ 9°C/My is shown by all good-fit models
derived from samples located north of the Ibagué
Fault, and is most precisely define by the envelope
for granodiorite DV06, during 45-40 Ma (Figure
7b) at rates ~24°C/My. Several samples located in
this region and also in northern Colombia along
the eastern flank of the Central Cordillera yield
Eocene-Oligocene apatite FT ages (e.g. samples
DV02, DV03, DV06, DV09, DV65, DV80, DV85,
DV86, DV155, DV156), suggesting that cooling
86
may have been a response to displacement of the
Palestina, Ibagué and Otú–Pericos faults (Figure
2b).
Almost all samples taken north of the Ibagué
Fault reveal a period of elevated cooling rates of
≥ 4°C/My during 15-0 Ma, which is more precisely
defined by those samples that yielded apatite (U-
Th)/He data. In contrast, a majority of samples
taken from the Altiplano Antioqueño region of
the northern Central Cordillera did not experience
rapid cooling during the Miocene.
7.3 Central Cordillera between 1°30’N
and 1°00’N
Thermal history solutions have not been
obtained from rocks located in the southern
Central Cordillera because they did not yield
apatite FT length data. However, three samples
of granitoids from the Jurassic intrusives (Ibagué
batholith) located within a single fault block
bound by the Acevedo-Afiladeros Fault and the
Amazonian Border Fault (Figure 2c) yielded apatite
FT ages which i) are the youngest from the Central
Cordillera (Figure 6), ii) yield a weighted mean age
of ~14 Ma, which is comparable in age with apatite
(U-Th)/He ages obtained from central Colombia,
and the timing of the onset of cooling of some
samples in central Colombia. We suggest that
these apatite FT ages, when combined with two
Pliocene apatite (U-Th)/He ages, are diagnostic
of high cooling rates in the southern Central
Cordillera since the middle Miocene. Conversely,
the southern Central Cordillera yields the oldest
zircon FT ages, suggesting it underwent a lower
quantity of exhumation than more northern
regions, prior to the Miocene.
7.4 Western Cordillera
Good-fit solutions for the Bolívar Ultramafic
Complex (DV94 and DV95), located along the
eastern margin of the Western Cordillera reveal
rapid cooling from >250°C to 100-80°C during
75–65 Ma at rates of ~15 km/My, followed by
isothermal conditions until 30 Ma (Figure 7c).
Subsequent, slower cooling (≥2 °C/My) towards the
surface commenced during 30-10 Ma. The timing
 DV03 Cajamarca Complex (N of the Mean length DV07 Ibagué Batholith (N of the Mean length
Ibagué Fault)
observed: 14.95±0.77 μm Ibagué Fault) observed: 13.82±0.91 μm
best-fit: 15.17±0.68 μm 0 best-fit: 13.52±1.00 μm
0 20 0.50 N: 91
N: 60
Temperature (°C)

20 0.50 GOF: 0.94 40 GOF: 0.05

40 AFT 60
Measured: 37.1±5.8 Ma
60 Best-fit: 36.9 Ma 80 0.25
80 GOF: 0.93 0.25 100

Temperature (°C)
100 120
120 140
0.00 0.00
140 160 Apatite (U-Th)/He 4 8 12 16 20
140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 4 8 12 16 20 Measured: 6.1±0.3 Ma
Time (Ma) Length (μm) 180 Best-fit: 10.7 Ma Length (μm)
200 GOF: 0.07
220 AFT
240 Measured: 64.9±10.2 Ma
? Best-fit: 57.2 Ma
260 GOF: 0.14
280
Mean length ZFT
DV05 Ibagué Batholith (N of the observed: 13.42±1.15 μm 300 Measured: 88.3±12.4 Ma
Ibagué Fault) best-fit: 13.05±1.53 μm 320
Ar (ortho): 109.8±2.9 Ma
340
0 N: 57
0.30 100 80 60 40 20 0
GOF: 0.12
20 Time (Ma)
40
60 0.15 DV09 Ibagué Batholith (N of the Ibagué Fault)
80 0 AFT
Measured: 30.6±5.8 Ma
Temperature (°C)

100 20
Best-fit: 29.5 Ma
120 0.00 40 GOF: 0.73 Unconstrained
140 4 8 12 16 20 60
Apatite (U-Th)/He Length (μm)
Measured: 8.0±0.7 Ma Zircon (U-Th)/He
160 80 Measured: 41.0±1.6 Ma
Best-fit: 12.8 Ma
180 GOF: 0.16 100 Best-fit: 40.4 Ma Mean length
GOF: 0.81
200 120 observed: 14.07±0.93 μm
Temperature (°C)

AFT best-fit: 14.19±0.93 μm

220 Measured: 59.8±16.8 Ma 140 ZFT
Best-fit: 46.0 Ma Measured: 74.6±6.7 Ma
240 160 0.4 N: 63
GOF: 0.12 GOF: 0.61
260 180 Ar (ortho): 114.1±0.9 Ma
280 ZFT 200
Measured: 85.3±18.2 Ma
300 220 0.2
100 80 60 40 20 0 240
Time (Ma) U-Pb (zircon): 165.0±15.0 Ma
260
280 ? 0.0
300 4 8 12 16 20
Length (μm)
320
340
DV06 Ibagué Batholith (N of the Ibagué Fault) 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0
0 Time (Ma) U-Pb (zircon): 159.6±2.4 Ma
AFT
20 Measured: 35.8±4.6 Ma
40 Best-fit: 35.4 Ma Unconstrained Mean length
GOF: 0.83 DV82 Permian Batholith (S of the Ibagué observed: 13.31±1.16 μm
60
Fault) best-fit: 13.35±1.18 μm
80 Zircon (U-Th)/He
Measured: 45.2±1.6 Ma 0 N: 70
100 Best-fit: 44.3 Ma 0.30 GOF: 0.68
20
Temperature (°C)

120 GOF: 0.84 Mean length 40

140 ZFT observed: 13.81 ± 1.41 μm
60
160 Measured: 81.3±10.6 Ma best-fit: 14.06 ± 1.09 μm 0.15
N: 43 80
180 Ar (ortho): 109.7±1.3 Ma 0.30 GOF: 0.58
Temperature (°C)

100
200
120
220 0.00
140 4 8 12 16 20
240 ? 0.15 Apatite (U-Th)/He Length (μm)
160 Measured: 11.1±0.5 Ma
260 180 Best-fit: 10.5 Ma
280 200 GOF: 0.91
300 0.00 220 AFT
320 4 8 12 16 20 ? Measured: 68.3±8.2 Ma
Length (μm) 240
340 Best-fit: 68.3 Ma
260 GOF: 0.99
140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 280
Time (Ma) ZFT
300 Measured: 77.6±10.8 Ma
320
Ar (ortho): 137.3±0.9 Ma
340
140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0
Time (Ma) U-Pb (zircon): 271.9±3.7 Ma

Figure 7b. Central latitudes of the Central Cordillera: see Figure caption 7a

87
 DV165 Mande Batholith DV94 Bolívar Complex
0 0
20 20
40 Unconstrained 40 Unconstrained
60 60
80 80

Temperature (°C)
Temperature (°C)

100 100
120 Mean length 120 Mean length
observed: 14.45±1.09 μm observed: 13.32±1.17 μm
140 140
best-fit: 14.73±0.97 μm best-fit: 14.18±1.37 μm
160 160
180 AFT 0.50 N: 52 180 AFT 0.4 N: 31
Measured: 37.8±5.2 Ma GOF: 0.94 Measured: 61.5±9.4 Ma GOF: 0.58
200 Best-fit: 37.1 Ma 200 Best-fit: 59.9 Ma
220 GOF: 0.82 220 GOF: 0.87
240 ZFT 0.25 240 ZFT 0.2
260 Measured: 41.6±5.4 Ma 260 Measured: 67.9±7.4 Ma
280 280
300 0.00 300 0.0
60 50 40 30 20 10 0 4 8 12 16 20 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 4 8 12 16 20
Time (Ma) Length (μm) Time (Ma) Length (μm)
U-Pb (zircon): 95.0±1.1 Ma

DV167 Mande Batholith DV95 Bolívar Complex

0 0
20 20
40 Unconstrained
40 Unconstrained
60 60
80 80
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

100 100
120 Mean length 120 Mean length
140 observed: 13.47±0.82 μm observed: 13.80±1.28 μm
140
160 best-fit: 13.68±0.89 μm best-fit: 14.25±1.30 μm
AFT 160 AFT
Measured: 38.1±5.4 Ma N: 116 Measured: 62.8±6.8 Ma N: 42
180 0.4 GOF: 0.98 180 0.30
Best-fit: 38.2 Ma Best-fit: 63.3 Ma GOF: 0.98
200 GOF: 0.97 200 GOF: 0.88
220 220
ZFT ZFT
240 Measured: 46.4±5.8 Ma 0.2 240 Measured: 62.5±5.2 Ma 0.15
260 260
280 280
300 0.0 300 0.00
60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 4 8 12 16 20 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 4 8 12 16 20
Time (Ma) Length (μm) Time (Ma) Length (μm)
U-Pb (zircon): 97.1±2.0 Ma

Figure 7c. Western Cordillera: see Figure caption 7a

of the onset of Late Cretaceous cooling of this part reside in separate fault blocks, despite their close
of the Western Cordillera precisely overlaps with proximity to each other.
that found in the central and northern regions of
the Central Cordillera.
Granitoids of the Eocene Mande Batholith yield
best-fit solutions that show rapid cooling during
8 Interpretation: Crustal
50-40 Ma (Figure 7c), which is indistinguishable Exhumation and tectonic evolution
from a zircon U-Pb ages of 43–42 Ma [Cardona,
2010, pers. comm.]. We consider the Eocene The thermal history solutions have delineated
cooling event to be a consequence of thermal periods of rapid cooling of rocks in the Central
relaxation following intrusion into the upper crust. and Western cordilleras during the previous ~140
Two separate samples of the batholith (DV165 Ma (Figure 8). With the exception of the Eocene
and DV167) yield distinctly different post-Eocene Mande Batholith, a comparison of these the
thermal histories, implying that it is likely that they best-fit solutions with crystallisation (zircon U-Pb

88
 Increased used in previous thermochronological analyses
Onset of convergence Reactivation of
accretion of SOAM and major faults of the Northern Andes [e.g. Spikings et al., 2000,
of CCOP Farallón
2010; Mora et al., 2008], and a mean surface
temperature of 20°C.
0 North of 5°N
40 DV54
DV153
80
120 8.1 Early Cretaceous
Temperature (°C)

DV70
160
200
Early Cretaceous rapid cooling is recorded by
240
280
the Jurassic Ibagué Batholith, located along the
320
eastern flank of the Central Cordillera. Granitoids
located south of the Ibagué Fault exhumed rapidly
500
during 138-130 Ma, whereas granitoids to the
540
South of 5°N
south of the fault exhumed rapidly during 117-107
0
Western Cordillera Ma.
40 DV95
Central Cordillera
Similarly, rapid cooling during the Early
Temperature (°C)

80
120
160
200
DV06
South of
240 Ibagué Fault
DV09
280
North of
320 Ibagué Fault
140 120 100 80 60
Time (Ma)
Figure 8. Summary of good-fit thermal history solutions
for a representative selection of samples of the Western
Cordillera (Late Cretaceous indentors; dark grey) and the
Central Cordillera (Late Cretaceous continental margin; light
grey). Vertical blue stripes highlight the timing of major
tectonic events in Colombia, and labels are sample numbers.
age of 42-43 Ma) [Cardona, 2010, pers. comm.]
ages suggests that cooling was not related to
sub-solidus thermal relaxation. Rather, close
temporal correlations between sedimentation in
the retro-foreland basin (e.g. Magdalena Valley
Basin) and in the pro-peripheral foreland basin
(opposite side of the orogeny) with high cooling
rates in the cordilleras suggests that cooling was a
consequence of exhumation.
A present-day average geothermal gradient
of 20–25°C/km has been obtained from oil wells
in the Llanos foreland of Colombia [Bachu et
al., 1995]. However, rock advection occurs at
higher rates than heat conduction during high
exhumation rates, causing isothermal spacing to
reduce and an increase in geothermal gradients
of up to 60% in extreme cases [Manckletow and
Grasemann, 1997]. Therefore, we assumed a
constant Mesozoic–Cenozoic geothermal gradient
of 30°C/km, with flat isotherms, similar to that
DV94
Cretaceous (117–112 Ma) is also recorded by
high-medium P–T rocks of the Arquía Complex
(Early Cretaceous and older oceanic crust, Chapter
2), which was also recorded by previous studies
(107–113 Ma) [Restrepo and Toussaint, 1976;
Restrepo et al., 2008]. We interpret those ages
40 20 0
to be indicative of the timing of cooling after
metamorphism (see below). Early Cretaceous
cooling ages may be diagnostic of exhumation and
emplacement of the Arquía Complex along the
Silvia-Pijao Fault.
8.1.1 145–130 Ma: Berriasian–Hauterivian
(Figure 9b)
Exhumation of the Central Cordillera during
138-130 Ma, post-dates the termination of the
Jurassic continental arc. This period coincides with
a region-wide angular unconformity in the Upper
Magdalena Valley in Colombia [Jaimes and Freitas,
2006], the Oriente Basin in Ecuador [Baby et al.,
1999] and in Northern Peru [Jaillard et al., 1990],
which spans ~140-130 Ma. The cessation of arc
magmatism and subsequent gap in sedimentation
were previously accounted for by i) the accretion of
allochthonous terranes [Chiaradia et al., 2009], and
ii) changes of plate motion kinematics [Jaillard et
al., 1990]. We interpret the cessation in subduction
and regional exhumation to be a consequence of
slab break-off [e.g. Davies and von Blanckenburg,
1995; Wortel and Spakman, 2000], leading to
isostatic rebound and asthenospheric upwelling
leading to dynamically supported rock uplift and
exhumation. Davies and von Blanckenburg [1995]
and Vos et al. [2007] suggest that such a process

89
may lead to asthenospheric upwelling and crustal
extension. Mantle-derived mafic rocks have been
identified in the Eastern Cordillera of Colombia,
which yield hornblende 40Ar/39Ar ages of 136-120
Ma and were emplaced in a rift setting [Vásquez et
al., in press]. Early Cretaceous crustal thinning and
rifting in eastern Colombia has also been proposed
in the tectonic models of Fabre [1984], Sarmiento-
Rojas et al. [2006] and Pindell and Kennan [2009].
Litherland and Aspden [1992] proposed that a
major period of rock uplift occurred in the Eastern
Cordillera of Ecuador during 140-120 Ma (Peltetec
event).
We propose that the termination of arc
magmatism and slab-break off was a consequence
of back-stepping of the subduction zone, possibly
caused by the introduction of buoyant seamounts
into the Jurassic trench. Back-stepping of the
subduction zone resulted in the formation of
a remnant, intraoceanic basin that is currently
preserved as the Quebradagrande Complex
(Figure 2).
8.1.2 130–100 Ma: Barremian–Albian (Figures
9c and 9d)
Elevated exhumation rates during ~117-107 Ma
were contemporaneous with the deposition of the
upper Aptian to middle Albian, fluvial-estuarine
Caballos Fm. that is exposed in the Upper
Magdalena Valley [Etayo-Serna, 1994; Mora et
al., 2009]. Dense mineral assemblages, detrital
zircon FT ages and clay composition suggest that
this epicontinental sedimentary sequence, along
with equivalent rocks in Ecuador (Hollín Fm.) were
at least partly derived from a proto-Cordillera
that was exhuming in the Early Cretaceous [Ruiz
et al., 2007; Martin-Gombojav and Winkler, 2008;
Kennan and Pindell, 2009]. Vergara and Prössl
[1994] describe the stratigraphically underlying
Barremian–early Aptian Yaví Fm. in the Upper
Magdalena basin, and suggest it was also derived
from a cordillera located to the west. A continual
supply of clastic detritus during 130-100 Ma
suggests that protracted exhumation continued
Figure 9 (next page).Tectonic reconstruction of the Western Colombia during 150–60 Ma, showing Jurassic continental arc
magmatism and its termination (a and b), the inception of the Quebradagrande arc sequence and obduction of the Arquía
Complex (c and d), the arrival and collision of the Caribbean-Colombian Oceanic Province (CCOP) with the South American
plate (e, f and g) and the origin of the post-accretionary arc along the Pacific margin of South America (h). See text for further
details. Thick, black arrows are indicative of periods of exhumation.
90
throughout the Early Cretaceous, although the
thermochronological data suggests it occurred at
its highest rates during 117-107 Ma.
To the west, the Aptian–middle Albian Abejorral
Fm. was deposited within a Hautevarian - early
Albian [González, 1980] back-arc basin, and was
derived from sialic crust to the east, possibly as
a consequence of slow exhumation of a proto-
Central Cordillera [Etayo-Serna, 1985; Toussaint,
1996].
High exhumation rates identified in this study
during 117-107 Ma. are interpreted to have been
driven by closure of the Quebradagrande back-
arc basin and collision of the Quebradagrande
Arc with the continental margin along the San
Jerónimo Fault (Figure 9d). The collision event
may have been responsible for exhuming and
obducting high-medium P–T metamorphic rocks of
the Arquía Complex, forcing them to cool through
~500°C and become emplaced within the Romeral
Fault System.
The Arquía Complex may be along-strike
equivalent of high P–T metamorphic rocks of
the Raspas Complex in Ecuador (Figure 1; see
Chapter 2), which have yielded peak prograde
metamorphic ages of 130 Ma (Lu/Hf garnet) [John
et al., 2010]. Similar ~140 Ma ages (plagioclase
40
Ar/39Ar) [Spikings, 2010, pers. comm.] have
been obtained from gabbros of the Peltetec Unit
in Ecuador, which is considered to be the along-
strike, non-metamorphosed equivalent of the
Arquía Complex. Geochemical analyses of basalts
and gabbros of the Peltetec Unit [Spikings, 2010,
pers. comm.], high-P rocks of the Raspas Complex
in Ecuador [John et al., 2010] and high-medium
P–T metamorphic rocks of the Arquía Complex
(Chapter 2) yield evidence for both MORB and OIB
rocks. We suggest that radiometric ages obtained
for the Arquía Complex [117–107 Ma: this study;
113–107 Ma: Restrepo and Toussaint, 1976;
Bustamante, 2008] represent cooling following
metamorphism, driven by emplacement towards
the shallow crust.
A: 180-150 Ma W Ibagué Batholith E
- Continental arc volcanism

B: 145-130 Ma Proto-Central
- Back-stepping of the subduction zone, slab break-off Cordillera
- Rock uplift and exhumation on the continent Major Unconformity

C: 130-115 Ma Quebradagrande arc Caballos Fm

Abejorral Fm
- Intra-oceanic arc forms close to the continent Arquía Complex

D: 115-105 Ma Arquía Complex

- Closure of the intra-oceanic back-arc basin
- Accretion of the Quebradagrande arc
- Obduction and accretion of high and medium P rocks
- Rock uplift and exhumation of the continent

E: 95-90 Ma Antioquia Batholith

- Onset of continental arc magmatism Arquía Complex
- Formation of the CCOP

F: 90-80 Ma Córdoba Batholith

- CCOP converges towards Santa Marta
Buga Batholith Schists
South America

G: 75-70 Ma Central Cordillera

- Oblique collision of the CCOP with Nogales Fm. El Cobre Fm.
South America
- High rates of rock uplift and exhumation +
in the Central Cordillera

H: ~60 Ma Sonsón Batholith

- Active continental margin continues uninterrupted

91
8.2 Late Cretaceous
8.2.1 100–75 Ma: late Albian to middle
Campanian
Subduction recommenced beneath South
America (Figure 9e) subsequent to the collision and
accretion of the intra-oceanic Quebradagrande
Arc and high-medium P–T metamorphic rocks. The
large Antioquia Batholith (zircon U-Pb ages span
95–85 Ma; see Chapter 2) and scattered intrusives
including the Córdoba pluton erupted within a
continental arc. A passive margin environment
has been proposed for Albian to Santonian
marine sedimentation further east in the Upper
Magdalena Valley [Toussaint, 1996], implying
that the rocks of the Central Cordillera existed
as an independent terrane (the Tahami Terrane),
which was separated from the South American
Plate. However, recent analysis of seismic sections
identified compressional deformation in the Upper
Magdalena Valley during this period [Jaimes and
Freitas, 2006]. Furthermore, the paleontological
record also shows that Upper Cretaceous marine
sedimentation was isolated from the Pacific
[Vallejo et al., 2002], and the distribution of
sedimentary facies suggests there were emergent
areas during the Santonian in Colombia [Villamil,
1999]. Consequently, we prefer to interpret the
Tahami as being an integral part of the South
American Plate during 100-75 Ma.
Within the Caribbean oceanic plate, new
geochronological data (Chapter 2) combined with
previous work [Sinton et al., 1998; Pindell et al.,
2005, Pindell and Kennan, 2009] show that the
plateau rocks of Caribbean-Colombian Oceanic
Province erupted offshore during 100-90 Ma
(Figure 9e), and approached Colombia from the
west [Kennan and Pindell, 2009]. Oceanic plateau
rocks were intruded by an east-facing island arc
[e.g. Vallejo et al., 2009; Van der Lelij et al., in
press], resulting in the emplacement of the Buga
Batholith at 92–90 Ma (zircon U-Pb; Chapter
2). Clearly, the pre-accretionary magmatic arc
erupted through both the Caribbean-Colombian
Oceanic Province (Buga Batholith and the Espinal
Fm; Figure 9f) and South America (Antioquia and
Córdoba Batholiths; Figures 9e and 9f), which
can be used to constrain the maximum age of
accretion of the Caribbean-Colombian Oceanic
Province that must be younger than 75 Ma.
92
8.2.2 Campanian–Maastrichtian
The best-fit thermal history solutions for rocks
of the Western and Central cordilleras reveal a
distinct period of rapid cooling during 75–65 Ma.
This period was synchronous with i) deposition
of the arenaceous El Cobre Fm. during the
Campanian, and the Maastrichtian Monserrate,
La Tabla and Cimarrona Fms [Villamil, 1999]
within a retro-foreland position, ii) deposition
of the Campanian–Maastrichtian Nogales Fm.
along the western border of the growing Central
Cordillera within the forearc which hosts a large
proportion of metamorphic grains that were
derived from the Central Cordillera [Moreno and
Pardo, 2003]. Clearly, rapid cooling of both the
buttressing and indenting rocks during 75–65 Ma
was a consequence of rapid exhumation, and was
therefore probably related to a major tectonic
event (Figure 9g). Based on the sedimentary
correlations, we prefer a Campanian age for the
onset of exhumation (75–70 Ma; Figures 8 and 9g).
The onset of exhumation in the Campanian was
driven by the collision of the Caribbean-Colombian
Oceanic Province with the South American Plate
along the Cauca–Almaguer Fault, which forms part
of the Romeral Fault System (Figure 2). The collision
event drove rock and surface uplift resulting in
erosional exhumation that persisted beyond the
timing of initial accretion until ~70–65 Ma due to
isostatic re-equillibration [e.g. Spikings et al., 2005]
and possible coupling with the subducting Farallón
Plate. Previous intensive thermochronological
studies of the Late Cretaceous buttressing
margin of Ecuador (Eastern Cordillera) revealed
dramatically increased cooling rates at 73–70 Ma
[Spikings et al, in press], which in combination
with palaeomagnetic and sedimentological data
was considered to record the timing of collision
of the Caribbean-Colombian Oceanic Province
with the Ecuadorian margin [Luzieux et al., 2006;
Vallejo et al., 2006, 2009]. Average exhumation
rates in the Central Cordillera of Colombia were
1.6 km/My during 75–65 Ma, which are similar to
an average rate of >1km/My [Spikings et al., 2001,
in press] obtained from the Eastern Cordillera of
Ecuador during the same time period.
8.3 Paleocene–middle Eocene
Exhumation of the buttressing and indenting
margins mainly ceased after 70–65 Ma, although
it may have continued at a significantly slower rate
during 65–45 Ma within specific faulted blocks of
the buttressing margin (e.g. sample DV70; Figure
7a). Subduction of the Farallón Plate beneath the
South American Plate occurred subsequent to
the collision, accretion and fragmentation of the
Caribbean-Colombian Oceanic Province (Figure
9h), forming a volcanic arc which includes the
Sonsón Batholith at 65–55 Ma [Ordóñez-Carmona
et al., 2001]. Apatite FT ages young eastwards
across the Altiplano Antioqueño of the Central
Cordillera, and yield ages of ~60–40 Ma proximal
to the Palestina Fault (Figure 5). This younging
trend away from the Late Cretaceous suture
suggests that either vertical fault displacement
propagated eastwards during the Paleocene–
middle Eocene within northern Colombia, or the
Central Cordillera tilted during isostatic rebound
following the accretion event. A single outlier
within this pattern (schist DV67) may correspond
to a distinct faulted block associated with the
Palestina Fault (Figure 2a).
Gualanday Group [Jaimes and De Freitas, 2006]
within the Middle and Upper Magdalena Valley
(retro-foreland).
Thermochronological analyses within the
Sub-Andean Zone and the Western and Eastern
cordilleras of Ecuador also reveal rapid cooling
and exhumation during 43-30 Ma, with the
highest rates occurring during 43-35 Ma [Ruiz et
al., 2002; Spikings et al., 2000, 2001, in press],
which was synchronous with the deposition of
conglomerates of the Tiyuyacu Fm. Elsewhere
within South America, FT analyses of the Eastern
cordilleras of Perú and Bolivia [Barnes et al., 2006]
also record elevated cooling rates between 43-
30 Ma, implying that tectonic reactivation was
widespread and affected >1000km of the South
American plate margin. An increase in convergence
rates between the Farallón and South American
plates during 42-37 Ma [Pilger, 1984; Pardo-Casas
and Molnar, 1987], which corresponds with an
increase in spreading rates in the southern Atlantic
Ocean [Brozena, 1986], may be responsible for
increased compression in the upper plate, rock
uplift and exhumation.

8.4 Middle Eocene–late Oligocene

One Palaeozoic metasedimentary rock and two
Jurassic granites yield high cooling and exhumation
rates (9°C/My; ~0.3 km/My) during 45-30 Ma with
an initial higher exhumation during 45-40 Ma at
rates up to 0.8 Km/My within the Central Cordillera
at mid-latitudes, proximal to the Palestina, Ibagué
and Otú–Pericos Faults. On the other hand, slow
but continuous rates of exhumation of ~0.14 km/
My lasted from ~45 to ~30 Ma within the Altiplano
Antioqueño.
Middle Eocene – late Oligocene exhumation
has been previously identified in discrete faulted
blocks of the Altiplano Antioqueño plateau, based
on apatite and zircon FT data gathered from
granitoids of the Antioquia Batholith [Saenz, 2003]
and apatite (U-Th)/He data [Restrepo-Moreno
et al., 2009]. Those studies identified two slow
cooling periods at rates of 2 to 6°C/My during 45–
40 Ma and ~20–25 Ma.
Exhumation during 45–30 Ma
contemporaneous with the climax of the so-called
Pre-Andean orogeny [Villamil, 1999] corroborated
by Central Cordillera derived alluvial fan deposition
of the Eocene Hoyón Fm. [Villamil, 1999] and
8.5 Oligocene–Pliocene
Contrary to the thermochronological data
acquired from the Sierra Nevada de Santa
Marta (Chapter 4), no evidence of a significant
Oligocene exhumation event has been detected
in the Western and Central Cordilleras, or in
the Eastern Cordillera of Colombia [Mora et al.,
2008; Parra et al., 2009]. Spikings et al. [2000;
2001; in press] proposed that fragmentation of
the Farallón Plate and the subsequent change in
the subducting ocean plate vectors at 25 Ma led
to cooling and rapid exhumation in the Eastern
Cordillera of Ecuador. The absence of Oligocene
cooling and exhumation in the main cordilleras of
Colombia can be attributed to stress partitioning,
which preferentially reactivated the Amazonian
Border Fault System (Figure 1) and the Santa
Marta–Bucaramanga Fault (Chapter 4), bordering
the Eastern Cordillera, and isolated the main
cordilleras of Colombia.
is
Rapid Neogene exhumation of the Western and
Central cordilleras occurred during the Miocene
– Recent. The best-fit thermal history solutions,
combined with the apatite FT and (U-Th)/He data

93
from the Ecuadorian Eastern Cordillera [Spikings
et al., 2001] reveal distinct along strike trends
in cooling and exhumation along the Central
Cordillera since 15 Ma. Within northern Colombia,
the western flank of the Central Cordillera
exhumation from a depth of ≥1 km since ~15 Ma.
However, exhumation from a depth of ≥ 1.5 km
towards the surface since 15 Ma is observed across
the Central Cordillera at mid-latitudes. Apatite
FT ages of ~15 Ma were acquired from samples
that span an elevation difference of 630 m within
southernmost Colombia, revealing a period of
middle Miocene rapid cooling and exhumation.
These samples yield the youngest apatite FT ages
(~18 – 8 Ma) and the youngest apatite (U-Th)/He
ages (~12 - 4 Ma), from the Central Cordillera of
Colombia suggesting these samples cooled from
temperatures ≥120°C, or a depth of ≥3-1.5 km,
since ~15 Ma.
Spikings et al. [2001] identified an identical,
albeit mirror image (northward younging), along-
strike trend of exhumation depth within the
Eastern Cordillera of Ecuador. Those authors
proposed that the Carnegie Ridge collided with
northwestern South America at 15 Ma, which drove
the coastal forearc towards the north – northeast
forcing transpression in northern Ecuador. Their
explanation is consistent with the timing and
trend of exhumation depth the Central Cordillera
of Colombia during 15-0 Ma, and is consistent
with the current location of the Carnegie ridge
beneath the Ecuador – Colombia border (Figure
1). Alternatively, Duque-Caro [1990] propose
the Chocó–Panamá terrane collided with north-
western Colombia at ~13 Ma, and hence may
have also increased compressive stress and drove
exhumation, although it does not easily account
for the along-strike exhumation trend.
Several best-fit thermal history solutions reveal
rapid cooling commencing at 10-5 Ma within
scattered regions of the Central Cordillera, which
we interpret to be a consequence of exhumation of
specific faulted massifs. Late Miocene exhumation
has been identified within the northern Western
Cordillera (Mande batholith; DV167), although it
has not been constrained by apatite (U-Th)/He
data and is considered to be tentative. Spikings
and Crowhurst [2004] and Winkler et al. [2005]
showed that the Interandean Depression of
Ecuador, which is structurally equivalent to the
Cauca-Patía Valley of Colombia, open as a half-
94
ramp basin at 6-5 Ma via dextral transpression
along the Pujilí (Cali–Patía) and Peltetec (Romeral
System) faults. A similar tectonic arrangement
may be responsible for the formation of the Cauca-
Patía Valley, and exhumation of its flanks along
the Central and Western cordilleras of Colombia.
8.6 Significance of the Ibagué Fault
Contrasting exhumation histories experienced
by rocks located north and south of the Ibagué Fault
(Figures 1 and 2) that dissects the Central Cordillera
suggest it was active with a vertical component
during the Early Cretaceous. Orthoclase 40Ar/39Ar
data show that Jurassic granitoids located south
of the fault exhumed at elevated rates during
138-130 Ma, which post-dates the termination of
arc magmatism by ~10 My. However, the earliest
exhumation event recorded in the same arc, north
of the Ibagué Fault occurred at 117-107 Ma, and
the earlier Cretaceous event is not recorded within
the temperature sensitivity realm of the data.
These observations suggest that both regions may
have exhumed during 138-130 Ma, although only
the northern wall of the Ibagué Fault experienced
rock uplift and exhumation during the closure
of the Quebradagrande Arc sequence and the
emplacement of high and medium P–T rocks of
the Arquía Complex. From the thermal history
solutions, we estimate the vertical displacement
that occurred during 117-107 Ma along the Ibagué
Fault was ≥2.5km. The significance of the Ibagué
fault has already been pointed out by several
authors [Villamil, 1999; Montes et al., 2005; Cortés
et al., 2006], who believe it represents a major
crustal structure that was reactivated during the
Cenozoic. This fault currently acts as right-lateral
structure (dextral displacement of around 30 km
during the Cenozoic) [Montes et al., 2005] and
separates the Magdalena Basin into the upper
and middle sub-basins [Villamil, 1999], which
have significant differences in their structural
architecture [Cortés et al., 2006], and have applied
contrasting control on the deposition of major
alluvial fans since the Campanian [Villamil, 1999].
Seismic data suggest that the Ibagué Fault has an
inverse component and dips northwards at depth
[Marquínez, 2001]. Our thermochronological data
suggest that this structure has been active since at
least the late Aptian.
 – Maastrichtian exhumation corroborates the
sudden increase in sedimentation rate in the
foreland (Nogales Fm.) and the retro-foreland (El
Conclusions Cobre Fm.).

1. The earliest cooling event recorded in

4. Cooling and exhumation rates in central
the buttressing continental margin of Colombia
latitudes of the Central Cordillera suddenly
(Tahami Terrane) occurred in the Early Cretaceous
increased during ~45–30 Ma (9°C/My; ~0.3 km/
at 138–130 Ma. This event was approximately
My), with the highest rates occurring during
synchronous with the termination of Jurassic
45–40 Ma (~0.8 km/My). Low exhumation rates
continental arc magmatism. A contemporaneous
are observed at that time in northern Colombia
major unconformity is observed along the entire
(~0.2 km/My). Exhumation during this period is
retro-foreland of the northern Andes (Colombia
observed along the whole Andes [e.g. Spikings
and Ecuador), providing evidence for a regional
et al., 2000; 2001] and was contemporaneous
tectonic event. We ascribe this event to back-
with the deposition of conglomerates along the
stepping of the Jurassic subduction zone, which
Amazon foreland basin, which were derived from
formed the Early Cretaceous Quebradagrande
the west. An increase in the convergence rate
Complex. Break-up of the relict Jurassic slab may
between South America and the Farallón/Nazca
have driven rock uplift and exhumation in the
plates was probably the driving force [e.g. Spikings
upper plate via upwelling of the asthenosphere
et al., in press].
and dynamic support provided by a rebounding
slab segment.
5. No evidence for elevated cooling and
exhumation during the Oligocene has been
2. The development of the Quebradagrande
observed in the Colombian cordilleras, which is
intraoceanic arc and its associated marginal basin
contrary to the exhumation history of Ecuador
continued during the Barremian and sediment
[Spikings et al., in press] and in the Sierra Nevada
supply to the basin was mainly derived from the
de Santa Marta in Colombia (this study, Chapter
continental margin. By Albian time (~117–107 Ma)
4.). We propose that activation/reactivation of
the Quebradagrande Complex accreted onto the
favourably oriented faults such as the Amazonian
Tahami Terrane forming the San Jerónimo Fault,
Border Fault System and the Santa Marta–
and the subduction channel (the Arquía Complex)
Bucaramanga Fault partitioned stress away from
accreted onto the Quebradagrande Complex
the Western and Central cordilleras of Colombia.
along the Silvia-Pijao Fault Fault. These collisions
drove exhumation in distinct regions of the
Central Cordillera, and reactivated major tectonic 6. Elevated exhumation rates that exhumed
structures such as the Ibagué Fault. Cooling of the rocks from depths of ≥3 km since ~15 Ma are
high-medium P–T rocks was synchronous with observed in the far southern Central Cordillera
cooling observed in the buttressing continental of Colombia. Similar middle Miocene – Recent
margin. exhumation rates have been observed in northern
Ecuador [Spikings et al., 2001], and the spatial
relationship between the exhumed region and the
3. Eastward subduction beneath the continent
subducted extent of the Carnegie Ridge suggests
recommenced by the early Late Cretaceous,
that collision and subduction of the ridge drove
forming the Antioquia and Córdoba batholiths. By
rock uplift and exhumation.
Campanian time (~75–70 Ma), the Late Cretaceous
Colombian–Caribbean Oceanic Province (the
Calima Terrane) accreted onto the continent along
the Cauca–Almaguer Fault. This event produced
elevated exhumation rates of ~1.6 km/My during
75–65 Ma in northern Colombia as an immediate
response to collision and accretion. Campanian

95
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102
 Sample Lithology Texture Minerals Alteration Observations Analyses performed

plagioclase present parallel albite and carlsbad

holocrystalline, coarse- Prismatic anhedral crystals of plagioclase and kfspar, very few twinning. K-fpar show typical Carlsbad and
grained granular and small subhedral crystals of biotite. Anhedral quartz. Very few frecuent presence of microcline. No inclusions, no
40
DV01 Granite granite opaques. Very fresh veins. Ar/39Ar

metamorphic quartz, hornblende, idiomorphic titanite, plagioclase

40
DV02 Gneiss gneissic (few kfspar), muscovite. Accesories: epidote, rounded zircon Fresh rock. Few plagioclase slightly chloritized. Ar/39Ar

holocrystalline seriate
Th)/He dating.

texture, coarse to
medium grained Probably plagioclase have inclusion of pyroxenes.
40
DV04 Gabbro-diorite gabbro-diorite Subhedral crystals of hornblende, biotite, quartz Hornblendes very fresh. plagioclase are slighty argillized. Smalls cracks filled with a yellow unkown material. Ar/39Ar, AFT, (U-Th)/He
phaneritic- coarse-
medium grained Plagioclase, Kfspar, Hornblende: coarse-subhedral crystals of
seriate texture Kfspar, zoned plagioclase. Subhedral crystals of hornblende. plagioclase zoned, hornblendes with inclusions of
40 39
DV05 Granodiorite granodiorite Accesories: apatite, zircon, monazite Fresh rock plagioclase U-Pb, Ar/ Ar, AFT, ZFT, (U-Th)/He

phaneritic, coarse- Kfspar, plagioclase, quartz, hornblende, biotite. Accesories: Biotite weakly altered by chlorite, illite. Hornblende are Feldpars present parallel albite and carlsbad
40 39
DV06 Granite grained bt-Hbl granite titanite, zircon, apatite very fresh twinning Ar/ Ar, AFT, ZFT, (U-Th)/He
plagioclase present parallel albite and carlsbad
Quartz, kfspar, biotite, plagioclase, hornblende. Accesories: twinning sometimes. Kfspar show typical
40
DV07 Granite phaneritic epidote, apatite, titanite, zircon, rutile Fresh rock. Biotite weakly chloritized Carlsbad. Ar/39Ar, AFT, ZFT, (U-Th)/He

Carbonaceous quartz intergrowth with muscovite, chlorite, organic matter. no alteration. All the minerals are from the metamorphic
DV08 phyllite phyllitic texture Accesories: titanite, zircon assemblage (maybe retrograde metamorphism) ZFT
Quartz, plagioclase, kfspar, biotite, hornblende. Accesories: plagioclase present parallel albite and carlsbad
40 39
DV09 Granite micro-phaneritic apatite, zircon, epidote, magnetite. hornblende unaltered. plagioclase slightly altered to illite. twinning Ar/ Ar, AFT, ZFT, (U-Th)/He
quartz, (plus 2nd generation of recrystallized quartz), fine grained
DV14 Quartzite granoblastic muscovite. Accesories: Ti-oxide ZFT

DV17 Greenschist schistosity quartz, hornblende, biotite, kfspar. Accesories: zircon, apatite fresh rock ZFT

WM granodioritic Quartz, plagioclase, Kfspar, muscovite. Accesories: zircon, muscovite altered to chlorite, plagioclase slightly altered
DV18 gneiss granoblastic apatite, chiastollite, staurolite (?), pyrite to illite AFT, ZFT
Muscovite and plagioclase replaced by finer second
Quartz, plagioclase, muscovite (relicts), strongly altered garnet generation of muscovite (sericite?). Minor chlorite.
DV19 Quartzite porphyroblastic (?). Accesories: rounded zircons Presence of sulphides ZFT
Coarse grained,
inequigranular, Quartz, plagioclase, kfspar, hornblende. Accesories: zircon, illite altering plagioclase. Presence of carbonates in plagioclase present Carlsbad and albite twinning.
40
DV26 Granodiorite holocrystalline apatite, magnetite and titanite microfractures (weathering) Consertal intergrowth of quartz in cummulates. Ar/39Ar, AFT, (U-Th)/He

Garnet white hornblende, quartz, feldspar. Accesories: white mica, titanite (?), syn-kinematic garnet, foliation wrapped around
40 39
DV28 mica amphibolite porphyroblastic garnet, few small zircons, apatite, epidote fresh rock the porphyroblast Ar/ Ar, AFT, (U-Th)/He
plagioclase, quartz, hornblende. Accesories: epidote, biotite,
DV30 Tonalite phaneritic magnetite, monazite, zircon, apatite illite weakly altering plagioclase. AFT
Hornblende hornblende, plagioclase, pyroxene, quartz (?). Accesories: titanite, plagioclase slightly altered by illite, chlorite. Presence of Two hornblende generations, one fresh the other
40 39
DV42 gabbro phaneritic zircon, monazite carbonates (weathering?) slightly altered. Ar/ Ar
hornblende, plagioclase, kfspar accesories: quartz, zircon, titanite,
DV53 Diorite phaneritic apatite fresh rock AFT, (U-Th)/He
hornblende, plagioclase, accesories: quartz, zircon, apatite,
40
DV54 Diorite microphaneritic titanite, magnetite fresh rock Ar/39Ar, AFT
quartz, kspar (orthoclase and microcline), plagioclase, biotite, Weak alteration, minor chlorite altering biotite, muscovite microcline (with typical twin) and orthoclase
DV56 Granite porphyritic accesories: hornblende, apatite, zircon, rutile and cores of some plagioclase showing Carlsbad twinning. ZFT, (U-Th)/He
quartz, plagioclase, kfspar, accesories: hornblende, biotite,
40
DV58 Granite phaneritic titanite, zircon very weak illite altering plagioclase Ar/39Ar, AFT, (U-Th)/He

103
Appendix 1. Description of samples used for 40Ar/39Ar, fission track and (U-
 Sample Lithology Texture Minerals Alteration Observations Analyses performed
quartz, interstitial small quartz, feldspar and amphibol. Accesories:

104
40
DV63 Qz-rich aplite microphaneritic zircon, titanite fresh rock Ar/39Ar, ZFT, (U-Th)/He
quartz, plagioclase, hornblende, kfspar. Accesories: biotite,
40
DV64 Granodiorite phaneritic zircon, apatite weak alteration: illlite altering plagioclase and biotite Ar/39Ar, AFT
quartz, plagioclase, kfspar, muscovite, biotite. Accesories: zircon,
40
DV65 Gneiss gneissic apatite illite weakly altering plagioclase, kfspar and biotite Ar/39Ar, AFT
Mica schist foliated, crenulation fine quartz, hornblende. Accesories: biotite, muscovite, monazite,
DV67 (metasediment) cleavage zircon (rounded), apatite fresh rock AFT
plagioclase, biotite, hornblende, quartz, kfspar, accesorios: plagioclase slightly altered by philosilicates, biotite is
40 39
DV70 Granodiorite phaneritic apatite, zircon, monazite, magnetite, rutile fresh Ar/ Ar, AFT, ZFT, (U-Th)/He
plagioclase, hornblende, pyroxenes. Accesories: magnetite, plagioclase slightly altered by illite. Hornblendes maybe
40 39
DV78 Andesite porphyritic apatite, quartz slightly altered to chlorite Ar/ Ar, AFT, (U-Th)/He

DV80 White mica schist foliated quartz, muscovite, feldspars fresh rock AFT

holocrystalline, fine
grained inequigranular
granite (medium to fine Kfspar, quartz, hornblende. Accesories: biotite, zircon, rutile, Some kfspar have inclusions of qtz, and some qtz
40
Appendix 1. (continued)

DV81 Granite grained) apatite, monazite Weak argillization of plagioclase have dark rims Ar/39Ar
plagioclase, fedspar, quartz. Accesories: hornblende, zircon, Weakly altered by illite, chlorite, and few carbonates
40 39
DV82 Granite phaneritic apatite, titanite, monazite, magnetite, rutile (weathering) Ar/ Ar, AFT, ZFT, (U-Th)/He
presence of cracks, not filled veins. plagioclase
euhedral, hornblende, plagioclase, quartz. subhedral pyroxenes (albite & carlsbad twinning). Some Hornblendes
40 39
DV91 Diorite phaneritic (Hyperstene). Accesories: monazite, zircon, apatite. Slight chloritic alteration. have inclusions of quartz Ar/ Ar, ZFT
DV94 Pegmatite pegmatitic plagioclase, hornblende fresh rock AFT, ZFT
DV95 Pegmatite pegmatitic plagioclase, biotite fresh rock AFT, ZFT
hornblende, plagioclase, accesories: quartz, allanite (?), titanite,
40 39
DV102 Gabbro-diorite phaneritic zircon, monazite fresh rock lot of titanite Ar/ Ar
DV121 Granodiorite phaneritic plagioclase, hornblende, quartz fresh rock AFT, (U-Th)/He

DV133 Granodiorite phaneritic plagioclase, hornblende, quartz. Accesories: apatite, zircons fresh rock (U-Th)/He

DV134 Granodiorite phaneritic plagioclase, hornblende, quartz. Accesories: apatite, zircons fresh rock AFT, ZFT
DV136 Granite phaneritic kfspar, quartz, plagioclase. Accesories: apatite, zircon fresh rock AFT, ZFT

DV139 Dacitic porphyry porphyritic kfspar, biotite, quartz, matrix: quartz. Accesories: zircon, apatite plagioclase slightly altered to illite AFT, ZFT

DV148 Granodiorite phaneritic plagioclase, hornblende, quartz. Accesories: zircon, apatite fresh rock AFT, ZFT

DV153 Granodiorite phaneritic plagioclase, hornblende, quartz. Accesories: zircon, apatite fresh rock AFT, ZFT
DV154 Schist schistosity quartz, biotite, white mica fresh rock AFT, ZFT
DV156 Granite phaneritic kfspar, quartz, plagioclase. Accesories: apatite, zircon fresh rock AFT, ZFT, (U-Th)/He
DV163 Granite phaneritic kfspar, quartz, plagioclase. Accesories: apatite, zircon fresh rock AFT, ZFT
DV165 Diorite phaneritic plagioclas, biotite, hornblende, pyroxene fresh rock AFT, ZFT
DV166 Diorite phaneritic plagioclas, biotite, hornblende, pyroxene fresh rock (U-Th)/He
plagioclase, hornblende, quartz, biotite, kfspar. Accesories:
DV167 Granodiorite phaneritic apatite, zircon (rounded?), rutile Very fresh hornblende. Biotite weakly altered by chlorite. AFT, ZFT

plagioclase, quartz, kfspar, relicts of hornblende. Accesories: plagioclase moderately altered to sericite and illite.
DV176 Diorite porphiritic titanite, zircon, apatite, rutile, monazite, altered biotite Presence of carbonate AFT
Appendix 2.

40
Ar/39Ar

Samples were placed in small pits within a

copper planchette and were heated by rastering
around the pit area. Usual degassing consisted
of 10-14 temperature steps. Blanks for all Ar
isotopes were measured prior to every third step
incremental heating experiment and comprise
the following ranges: 36Ar: 0.7–5.2 x 10-17 mol;
37
Ar: 0.25–1.1 x 10-16 mol; 38Ar: 0.7–7.4 x 10-17
mol; 39Ar: 0.17–2.0 x 10-16 mol; 40Ar: 0.54–1.4 x
10-14 mol. The released gas fraction was purified
for six minutes using two hot getters (at 0.45A
and 1.45A). Purified gas was then allowed to
diffuse for 50 seconds into the static-vacuum
multi-collector Argus mass spectrometer (GV
Instruments). The mass spectrometer is equipped
with four high-gain (1012 Ω-resistivity) Faraday
cups for the measurement of 36Ar, 37Ar, 38Ar, and
39
Ar, and a single 1011 Ω-resistivity Faraday cup for
40
Ar measurements. The high stability of Faraday
baseline measurements rendered it unnecessary
to record baselines for each analysis. Isotopic
mass/charge ratios were collected using 12
cycles, which were then exponentially regressed
to determine the abundance of individual Ar
isotopes prior to fractionation in the source unit.
Raw data was crunched by using the ArArCalc Excel
macro of Koppers [2002] and corrected for i) mass
discrimination, which in turn was measured via
analyzing clean air-standards in double-air pipette
mode (the final mass discrimination factor was
0.989±0.001 per atomic mass unit), ii) radioactive
decay of 37Ar and 39Ar as well as for nucleogenic
interference from Ca-, K-, and Cl-derived isotopes.
Propagated systematic errors comprise decay
constant, mass discrimination, and J value
uncertainties. All errors are reported at 2σ level.

105
Appendix 3. 40Ar/39Ar incremental step-heating results

DV01-biotite
J = 0.0073347 ± 0.0000073
40
Step Ar/39Ar ±2σ
37
Ar/39Ar ±2σ
36
Ar/39Ar ±2σ 40
Ar (R)/39Ar(K) ±2σ
40
Ar (moles) 40
Ar (R) % 39
Ar (K) % K/Ca ±2σ Age (Ma) ±2σ
1 17.72517 0.18756 2.67117 2.04600 0.05189 0.00663 2.39028 1.96020 1.37E-16 13.49 0.55 0.00 0.00 31.4 51.0
2 16.87645 0.06807 0.02984 0.58506 0.04538 0.00211 3.46846 0.62415 4.99E-16 20.55 2.09 14.41 564.91 45.3 16.1
3 15.13349 0.03708 0.55818 0.32741 0.04399 0.00087 2.17878 0.25738 8.31E-16 14.39 3.88 0.77 0.90 28.6 6.7
4 13.98920 0.01950 0.13157 0.21875 0.03790 0.00084 2.79945 0.24889 9.92E-16 20.01 5.01 3.27 10.87 36.7 6.5
5 14.27570 0.02062 0.13904 0.14162 0.02968 0.00048 5.51614 0.14210 1.40E-15 38.64 6.91 3.09 6.30 71.6 3.6
6 13.71000 0.01937 0.18694 0.12222 0.02262 0.00056 7.02344 0.16534 1.57E-15 51.23 8.09 0.00 0.00 90.6 4.2
7 14.14681 0.01895 0.14717 0.12257 0.02293 0.00041 7.36963 0.12110 1.49E-15 52.09 7.45 0.00 0.00 95.0 3.0
8 13.73172 0.01532 0.29380 0.13698 0.01479 0.00033 9.38408 0.09925 1.67E-15 68.33 8.57 1.46 1.36 120.1 2.5
9 13.63229 0.02057 0.09925 0.16769 0.01401 0.00053 9.50008 0.15874 1.51E-15 69.68 7.81 4.33 14.64 121.5 3.9
10 14.17716 0.02487 0.00143 0.16492 0.01996 0.00058 8.27754 0.17310 1.39E-15 58.39 6.93 0.00 0.00 106.3 4.3
11 13.58336 0.01911 0.52252 0.16399 0.01574 0.00046 8.97510 0.13653 1.69E-15 66.05 8.81 0.82 0.52 115.0 3.4
12 12.65737 0.01067 0.37712 0.10942 0.00709 0.00038 10.55997 0.11379 2.32E-15 83.43 12.97 0.00 0.00 134.6 2.8
13 12.53386 0.01087 0.33949 0.09408 0.00748 0.00027 10.32379 0.08190 2.46E-15 82.37 13.88 0.00 0.00 131.7 2.0
14 12.97092 0.01848 0.22678 0.18970 0.01170 0.00050 9.51380 0.14879 1.29E-15 73.35 7.05 0.00 0.00 121.7 3.7
Total fusion age 105.3 1.1
0.96%

DV01-orthoclase
J = 0.0076020 ± 0.0000076
40
Step Ar/39Ar ±2σ
37
Ar/39Ar ±2σ
36
Ar/39Ar ±2σ 40
Ar (R)/39Ar(K) ±2σ
40
Ar (moles) 40
Ar (R) % 39
Ar (K) % K/Ca ±2σ Age (Ma) ±2σ
1 41.31542 0.03924 0.35394 0.08992 0.05299 0.00039 25.65614 0.11824 6.50E-15 62.10 2.80 0.00 0.00 321.4 2.7
2 18.17702 0.01157 0.15512 0.05618 0.01876 0.00012 12.63169 0.03617 6.53E-15 69.49 6.39 0.00 0.00 165.4 0.9
3 13.06303 0.00878 0.07553 0.04539 0.01102 0.00014 9.80523 0.04165 4.23E-15 75.06 5.76 0.00 0.00 129.7 1.1
4 13.02683 0.00738 0.11366 0.04495 0.00993 0.00008 10.09135 0.02453 5.28E-15 77.47 7.20 0.00 0.00 133.3 0.6
5 10.24728 0.00543 0.06884 0.02234 0.00492 0.00006 8.79167 0.01821 7.67E-15 85.80 13.31 0.00 0.00 116.7 0.5
6 10.08244 0.00542 0.07585 0.02659 0.00430 0.00007 8.81161 0.02209 6.85E-15 87.40 12.08 0.00 0.00 117.0 0.6
7 9.78714 0.00527 0.09627 0.02844 0.00367 0.00007 8.70140 0.02107 6.14E-15 88.91 11.15 0.00 0.00 115.6 0.5
8 9.97731 0.00511 0.05827 0.02398 0.00502 0.00005 8.49375 0.01430 1.04E-14 85.13 18.45 0.00 0.00 112.9 0.4
9 8.98198 0.00458 0.04857 0.01255 0.00507 0.00003 7.48396 0.01021 1.15E-14 83.32 22.86 0.00 0.00 99.8 0.3
Weighted plateau: Steps 5-8 54.99 116.4 0.9
0.7%

DV06-orthoclase
J = 0.0076174 ± 0.0000076
40
Step Ar/39Ar ±2σ
37
Ar/39Ar ±2σ
36
Ar/39Ar ±2σ 40
Ar (R)/39Ar(K) ±2σ
40
Ar (moles) 40
Ar (R) % 39
Ar (K) % K/Ca ±2σ Age (Ma) ±2σ
1 13.41073 0.02010 0.18633 0.21011 0.01128 0.00064 10.07671 0.19026 9.95E-16 75.14 0.26 0.00 0.00 133.4 4.9
2 11.45554 0.00657 0.14877 0.05197 0.00712 0.00011 9.34965 0.03252 4.89E-15 81.62 1.47 0.00 0.00 124.1 0.8
3 8.05260 0.00453 0.09327 0.02241 0.00440 0.00008 6.75229 0.02413 5.48E-15 83.85 2.34 0.00 0.00 90.5 0.6
4 8.66824 0.00448 0.05289 0.01209 0.00256 0.00005 7.91007 0.01424 1.04E-14 91.25 4.13 0.00 0.00 105.6 0.4
5 8.81539 0.00444 0.02369 0.00700 0.00165 0.00002 8.32783 0.00721 2.91E-14 94.47 11.37 0.00 0.00 111.0 0.2
6 8.46966 0.00429 0.02270 0.00537 0.00139 0.00001 8.05831 0.00581 3.01E-14 95.14 12.22 0.00 0.00 107.5 0.2
7 8.67329 0.00440 0.03040 0.00549 0.00160 0.00002 8.19982 0.00655 2.30E-14 94.54 9.13 0.00 0.00 109.3 0.2
8 8.68842 0.00440 0.03290 0.00704 0.00126 0.00002 8.31509 0.00708 2.13E-14 95.70 8.44 0.00 0.00 110.8 0.2
9 8.58260 0.00436 0.01940 0.00526 0.00124 0.00002 8.21403 0.00626 2.54E-14 95.71 10.19 0.00 0.00 109.5 0.2
10 8.96049 0.00456 0.01676 0.00362 0.00157 0.00002 8.49516 0.00632 3.07E-14 94.81 11.80 0.00 0.00 113.1 0.2
11 8.60190 0.00433 0.01636 0.00425 0.00121 0.00002 8.24287 0.00634 3.02E-14 95.83 12.09 0.00 0.00 109.9 0.2
12 8.40048 0.00423 0.03445 0.01243 0.00152 0.00002 7.95102 0.00844 1.85E-14 94.65 7.59 0.00 0.00 106.1 0.2
13 8.81549 0.00444 0.02913 0.01112 0.00193 0.00002 8.24342 0.00638 2.30E-14 93.51 8.98 0.00 0.00 109.9 0.2
Disturbed plateau: Steps 5-13 91.80 109.7 1.3
1.2%

DV07-orthoclase
J = 0.0076434 ± 0.0000076
40
Step Ar/39Ar ±2σ
37
Ar/39Ar ±2σ
36
Ar/39Ar ±2σ 40
Ar (R)/39Ar(K) ±2σ
40
Ar (moles) 40
Ar (R) % 39
Ar (K) % K/Ca ±2σ Age (Ma) ±2σ
1 105.00261 0.10358 0.23211 0.17004 0.07253 0.00028 83.57028 0.11707 1.69E-14 79.59 1.03 0.00 0.00 891.1 2.0
2 22.78686 0.01380 0.31602 0.06053 0.02251 0.00016 16.13418 0.04939 6.91E-15 70.80 1.95 0.00 0.00 209.8 1.2
3 15.35315 0.00826 0.16918 0.02956 0.01308 0.00007 11.48618 0.02296 8.70E-15 74.81 3.64 0.00 0.00 151.8 0.6
4 13.11316 0.00691 0.09452 0.01843 0.00887 0.00005 10.49186 0.01667 1.33E-14 80.01 6.51 0.00 0.00 139.2 0.4
5 9.87597 0.00512 0.03330 0.01478 0.00479 0.00004 8.45853 0.01216 1.40E-14 85.65 9.11 0.00 0.00 113.0 0.3
6 8.94218 0.00453 0.03154 0.01530 0.00342 0.00003 7.93191 0.01071 1.34E-14 88.70 9.63 0.00 0.00 106.2 0.3
7 9.63375 0.00490 0.03298 0.01470 0.00377 0.00003 8.51839 0.01006 1.38E-14 88.42 9.21 0.00 0.00 113.8 0.3
8 9.72597 0.00492 0.03301 0.01080 0.00522 0.00003 8.18190 0.00870 2.28E-14 84.12 15.04 0.00 0.00 109.4 0.2
9 9.88533 0.00500 0.03741 0.00898 0.00447 0.00003 8.56303 0.01007 2.05E-14 86.62 13.28 0.00 0.00 114.4 0.3
10 8.50552 0.00449 0.05788 0.02506 0.00344 0.00005 7.48868 0.01581 6.65E-15 88.04 5.01 0.00 0.00 100.4 0.4
11 8.89464 0.00459 0.04333 0.02370 0.00362 0.00003 7.82519 0.00993 9.29E-15 87.98 6.70 0.00 0.00 104.8 0.3
12 9.88145 0.00504 0.02933 0.01297 0.00478 0.00002 8.46892 0.00846 1.53E-14 85.71 9.90 0.00 0.00 113.2 0.2
13 8.82566 0.00454 0.03239 0.01396 0.00293 0.00003 7.95765 0.01019 1.23E-14 90.16 8.97 0.00 0.00 106.5 0.3
Disturbed plateau: Steps 5-13 86.87 109.8 2.9
2.6%

DV09-orthoclase
J = 0.0076546 ± 0.0000077
40
Step Ar/39Ar ±2σ
37
Ar/39Ar ±2σ
36
Ar/39Ar ±2σ 40
Ar (R)/39Ar(K) ±2σ
40
Ar (moles) 40
Ar (R) % 39
Ar (K) % K/Ca ±2σ Age (Ma) ±2σ
1 90.77722 0.29698 1.59317 0.52373 0.05992 0.00143 73.06952 0.48430 3.17E-15 80.49 0.21 0.00 0.00 801.5 8.6
2 17.10775 0.02775 0.06654 0.32496 0.01214 0.00064 13.52586 0.19087 1.33E-15 79.06 0.47 6.46 63.12 177.7 4.8
3 10.59175 0.00955 0.19245 0.13416 0.00622 0.00030 8.76896 0.09010 1.96E-15 82.78 1.11 2.23 3.11 117.2 2.3
4 8.44085 0.00467 0.00869 0.05283 0.00262 0.00012 7.66446 0.03478 3.82E-15 90.80 2.73 0.00 0.00 102.9 0.9
5 8.29181 0.00435 0.06095 0.02452 0.00151 0.00008 7.84891 0.02350 5.77E-15 94.65 4.19 7.05 5.68 105.3 0.6
6 8.51839 0.00446 0.04859 0.02456 0.00113 0.00007 8.18368 0.02194 6.54E-15 96.07 4.63 0.00 0.00 109.6 0.6
7 8.74868 0.00451 0.03200 0.01793 0.00157 0.00006 8.28284 0.01920 1.02E-14 94.68 7.03 0.00 0.00 110.9 0.5
8 8.70128 0.00444 0.02732 0.01213 0.00096 0.00002 8.41571 0.00825 1.59E-14 96.72 11.00 0.00 0.00 112.6 0.2
9 8.71544 0.00444 0.03378 0.01604 0.00077 0.00003 8.48749 0.01007 1.29E-14 97.38 8.90 0.00 0.00 113.6 0.3
10 8.82653 0.00448 0.03130 0.01496 0.00087 0.00003 8.56878 0.00926 1.41E-14 97.08 9.60 0.00 0.00 114.6 0.2
11 8.69235 0.00443 0.02329 0.01287 0.00078 0.00003 8.46185 0.01071 1.62E-14 97.35 11.26 0.00 0.00 113.2 0.3
12 8.82192 0.00449 0.02271 0.01040 0.00107 0.00003 8.50464 0.01116 1.69E-14 96.40 11.55 0.00 0.00 113.8 0.3
13 9.02319 0.00458 0.01912 0.00857 0.00130 0.00002 8.63783 0.00822 2.06E-14 95.73 13.73 0.00 0.00 115.5 0.2
14 8.91484 0.00454 0.01931 0.00952 0.00111 0.00002 8.58632 0.00813 2.01E-14 96.31 13.60 0.00 0.00 114.8 0.2
Disturbed plateau: Steps 8-14 79.63 114.1 0.8
0.7%

106
Appendix 3. (continued)

DV26-hornblende
J = 0.0039618 ± 0.0000040
40
Step Ar/39Ar ±2σ
37
Ar/39Ar ±2σ
36
Ar/39Ar ±2σ 40
Ar (R)/39Ar(K) ±2σ
40
Ar (moles) 40
Ar (R) % 39
Ar (K) % K/Ca ±2σ Age (Ma) ±2σ
1 119.66803 8.74820 23.32152 30.04304 0.36924 0.05052 10.55530 12.86078 1.79E-16 8.82 0.22 0.00 0.00 73.9 176.5
2 71.60181 8.55952 1.22615 16.62331 0.22331 0.03528 5.61273 10.95178 1.55E-16 7.84 0.32 0.00 0.00 39.7 153.1
3 53.40777 1.16438 8.66620 10.83741 0.16046 0.01202 6.70649 3.52675 2.38E-16 12.48 0.65 0.05 0.12 47.3 49.1
4 24.00007 0.18659 11.14452 3.10697 0.05273 0.00321 9.35686 0.98376 3.97E-16 38.69 2.41 0.04 0.02 65.7 13.6
5 16.84104 0.05574 10.20012 1.28649 0.02210 0.00122 11.18286 0.37902 7.99E-16 65.95 6.92 0.04 0.01 78.2 5.2
6 15.86293 0.04657 10.42007 1.21936 0.01964 0.00097 10.94756 0.30624 8.39E-16 68.53 7.71 0.04 0.01 76.6 4.2
7 14.03194 0.04332 11.15430 1.00071 0.01309 0.00084 11.11531 0.26335 9.94E-16 78.62 10.32 0.04 0.01 77.7 3.6
8 14.37044 0.02630 11.11950 1.02496 0.01506 0.00079 10.86843 0.25066 8.98E-16 75.06 9.11 0.04 0.01 76.1 3.4
9 14.36264 0.02916 9.27865 0.92769 0.01748 0.00070 9.98340 0.22259 9.56E-16 69.08 9.71 0.05 0.01 70.0 3.1
10 13.36554 0.02472 6.43299 0.59775 0.01365 0.00057 9.87515 0.17514 1.17E-15 73.57 12.74 0.07 0.01 69.2 2.4
11 12.43402 0.01890 7.64191 0.67071 0.01170 0.00053 9.62245 0.16763 1.20E-15 76.99 14.12 0.06 0.01 67.5 2.3
12 13.27270 0.01780 7.09680 0.65705 0.01466 0.00059 9.54030 0.18263 1.23E-15 71.54 13.57 0.06 0.01 66.9 2.5
13 11.86628 0.01585 6.09505 0.55493 0.01077 0.00089 9.19669 0.26788 9.90E-16 77.18 12.19 0.07 0.01 64.6 3.7
Weighted plateau: Steps 9-13 62.34 67.9 1.6
2.4%

DV28-hornblende
J = 0.0073604 ± 0.0000074
40
Step Ar/39Ar ±2σ
37
Ar/39Ar ±2σ
36
Ar/39Ar ±2σ 40
Ar (R)/39Ar(K) ±2σ
40
Ar (moles) 40
Ar (R) % 39
Ar (K) % K/Ca ±2σ Age (Ma) ±2σ
1 24.40497 0.15453 3.88441 0.54707 0.08344 0.00301 0.05048 0.88092 4.99E-16 0.21 7.19 0.11 0.03 0.7 23.4
2 18.12281 0.08929 4.44736 0.83305 0.06019 0.00216 0.68400 0.63814 4.44E-16 3.76 8.60 0.10 0.04 9.1 16.9
3 12.65919 0.03306 8.92228 0.63809 0.03424 0.00128 3.25448 0.38213 5.38E-16 25.55 14.89 0.05 0.01 42.7 9.9
4 12.27724 0.02552 10.15180 0.65482 0.02682 0.00091 5.17829 0.27583 7.29E-16 41.89 20.77 0.04 0.01 67.5 7.1
5 12.44523 0.04845 11.36532 0.75946 0.02891 0.00116 4.82474 0.34896 5.19E-16 38.47 14.58 0.04 0.01 63.0 8.9
6 12.41463 0.03703 10.69061 0.69228 0.02777 0.00101 5.07896 0.30436 6.38E-16 40.62 17.98 0.04 0.01 66.2 7.8
7 13.18616 0.03080 9.95642 0.71063 0.03139 0.00078 4.71647 0.23820 6.02E-16 35.53 15.99 0.04 0.01 61.6 6.1
8 14.31352 0.02880 10.73597 0.68076 0.03902 0.00082 3.64609 0.24769 7.31E-16 25.29 15.16 0.04 0.01 47.8 6.4
Weighted plateau: Steps 4-7 69.32 64.4 3.6
5.6%

DV42-hornblende
J = 0.0039979 ± 0.0000040
40
Step Ar/39Ar ±2σ
37
Ar/39Ar ±2σ
36
Ar/39Ar ±2σ 40
Ar (R)/39Ar(K) ±2σ
40
Ar (moles) 40
Ar (R) % 39
Ar (K) % K/Ca ±2σ Age (Ma) ±2σ
1 182.83628 6.59097 1.05545 14.60630 0.61263 0.02457 1.80369 3.38317 6.55E-16 0.99 3.25 0.07 0.29 13.0 48.5
2 68.91514 1.35011 1.91595 7.69126 0.22341 0.00768 3.04930 1.96611 4.92E-16 4.42 6.45 0.22 1.80 21.9 28.0
3 34.60851 0.26500 26.49310 3.29292 0.08732 0.00445 11.07006 1.35312 5.35E-16 31.42 13.76 0.02 0.00 78.1 18.7
4 41.76397 0.34797 43.31683 5.08741 0.11709 0.00551 10.85917 1.70356 5.09E-16 25.24 10.71 0.01 0.00 76.7 23.6
5 39.16801 0.25832 37.12257 4.93685 0.10971 0.00339 9.89055 1.08290 5.73E-16 24.62 12.93 0.01 0.00 70.0 15.0
6 43.84762 0.39968 43.74249 4.91238 0.12148 0.00442 11.70761 1.37877 5.06E-16 25.91 10.15 0.01 0.00 82.5 19.0
7 39.19230 0.25085 41.08236 5.66560 0.10212 0.00382 12.56784 1.23533 5.04E-16 31.18 11.32 0.01 0.00 88.4 17.0
8 67.84457 0.42635 28.67064 3.37606 0.20078 0.00287 10.96032 0.82680 1.31E-15 15.84 17.10 0.01 0.00 77.4 11.4
9 63.51555 0.49118 21.54278 3.44937 0.18490 0.00288 10.71178 0.80352 1.02E-15 16.62 14.33 0.02 0.01 75.7 11.1
Weighted plateau: Steps 3-9 90.30 77.6 5.7
7.3%

DV54-hornblende
J = 0.0039702 ± 0.0000040
40
Step Ar/39Ar ±2σ
37
Ar/39Ar ±2σ
36
Ar/39Ar ±2σ 40
Ar (R)/39Ar(K) ±2σ
40
Ar (moles) 40
Ar (R) % 39
Ar (K) % K/Ca ±2σ Age (Ma) ±2σ
1 81.92485 17.03759 75.44422 60.16683 0.28786 0.09250 0.00000 0.00000 5.32E-17 0.00 0.21 0.16 0.22 0.0 0.0
2 51.18056 2.64076 5.77678 20.95677 0.10797 0.02818 19.27499 8.38894 1.15E-16 37.66 0.72 0.16 0.22 133.0 111.6
3 94.36302 6.57293 26.09852 21.91890 0.20812 0.03977 32.86359 11.31944 1.65E-16 34.83 0.56 0.16 0.22 221.2 143.4
4 52.79060 0.55181 5.19578 4.77760 0.13525 0.00465 12.82326 1.37048 5.19E-16 24.29 3.13 0.16 0.22 89.6 18.7
5 19.00377 0.07368 2.67086 1.79348 0.03979 0.00239 7.46758 0.72123 4.09E-16 39.22 6.85 0.16 0.22 52.7 10.0
6 22.19047 0.02749 5.15999 0.68724 0.03894 0.00059 11.12527 0.18354 1.85E-15 49.96 26.40 0.08 0.02 78.0 2.5
7 13.05410 0.02558 4.80033 0.86851 0.01452 0.00093 9.16661 0.28414 8.02E-16 69.99 19.52 0.09 0.03 64.5 3.9
8 12.70266 0.01080 5.96090 0.45436 0.01170 0.00035 9.74828 0.11094 1.71E-15 76.43 42.63 0.07 0.01 68.5 1.5
Disturbed plateau: Steps 6-8 88.54 70.4 6.3
8.9%

DV58-biotite
J = 0.0039774 ± 0.0000040
40
Step Ar/39Ar ±2σ
37
Ar/39Ar ±2σ
36
Ar/39Ar ±2σ 40
Ar (R)/39Ar(K) ±2σ
40
Ar (moles) 40
Ar (R) % 39
Ar (K) % K/Ca ±2σ Age (Ma) ±2σ
1 15.17522 0.09771 2.06188 1.64750 0.03867 0.00262 3.91231 0.78255 3.22E-16 25.75 0.30 0.21 0.33 27.9 11.1
2 11.37133 0.01025 0.53599 0.18052 0.00947 0.00026 8.57298 0.07987 2.25E-15 75.39 2.83 0.00 0.00 60.5 1.1
3 10.75116 0.00668 0.35670 0.07438 0.00342 0.00011 9.73815 0.03349 5.35E-15 90.58 7.12 0.00 0.00 68.6 0.5
4 10.65734 0.00629 0.26940 0.06311 0.00142 0.00011 10.23619 0.03382 7.02E-15 96.05 9.43 0.00 0.00 72.0 0.5
5 10.64389 0.00585 0.11065 0.03783 0.00144 0.00008 10.21872 0.02338 8.25E-15 96.01 11.09 0.00 0.00 71.9 0.3
6 10.65876 0.00576 0.11597 0.03947 0.00124 0.00011 10.29130 0.03183 7.89E-15 96.55 10.59 0.00 0.00 72.4 0.4
7 10.68280 0.00572 0.12196 0.04202 0.00144 0.00008 10.25624 0.02356 7.52E-15 96.01 10.07 0.00 0.00 72.1 0.3
8 10.56803 0.00559 0.38015 0.07860 0.00101 0.00011 10.26795 0.03282 5.87E-15 97.16 7.95 0.00 0.00 72.2 0.5
9 10.62468 0.00566 0.35966 0.06595 0.00104 0.00007 10.31724 0.02111 6.34E-15 97.11 8.54 0.00 0.00 72.6 0.3
10 10.57683 0.00585 0.38431 0.07432 0.00082 0.00010 10.33447 0.03116 5.91E-15 97.71 8.00 0.00 0.00 72.7 0.4
11 10.58346 0.00588 0.19643 0.05295 0.00118 0.00008 10.23395 0.02545 6.12E-15 96.70 8.28 0.00 0.00 72.0 0.4
12 10.47286 0.00581 0.21469 0.07070 0.00086 0.00009 10.21699 0.02686 5.54E-15 97.56 7.58 0.00 0.00 71.9 0.4
13 10.50655 0.00583 0.19801 0.06314 0.00115 0.00011 10.16679 0.03364 6.03E-15 96.77 8.22 0.00 0.00 71.5 0.5
Weighted plateau: Steps 4-10 65.68 72.3 0.3
0.4%

107
Appendix 3. (continued)

DV58-orthoclase
J = 0.0039983 ± 0.0000040
40
Step Ar/39Ar ±2σ
37
Ar/39Ar ±2σ
36
Ar/39Ar ±2σ 40
Ar (R)/39Ar(K) ±2σ
40
Ar (moles) 40
Ar (R) % 39
Ar (K) % K/Ca ±2σ Age (Ma) ±2σ
1 23.38013 0.12439 5.41929 1.74073 0.03412 0.00178 13.76940 0.54840 5.90E-16 58.68 1.67 0.08 0.05 96.7 7.5
2 14.53637 0.03991 1.83977 0.82593 0.01584 0.00099 10.01192 0.30104 8.07E-16 68.79 3.68 0.23 0.21 70.8 4.2
3 10.37301 0.01856 2.02175 0.60727 0.01181 0.00063 7.04912 0.19206 9.11E-16 67.86 5.82 0.21 0.13 50.1 2.7
4 11.61348 0.04869 5.49839 1.25321 0.00999 0.00108 9.12188 0.33592 5.51E-16 78.25 3.14 0.08 0.04 64.6 4.7
5 11.59459 0.03155 2.31331 0.67404 0.01060 0.00064 8.65495 0.19905 8.81E-16 74.53 5.04 0.19 0.11 61.4 2.8
6 10.07316 0.01590 1.55899 0.40058 0.00680 0.00046 8.19270 0.13945 1.34E-15 81.25 8.80 0.28 0.14 58.1 1.9
7 10.57566 0.01191 1.02162 0.29414 0.00654 0.00033 8.72791 0.09985 1.57E-15 82.47 9.86 0.42 0.24 61.9 1.4
8 10.39450 0.01310 1.50288 0.28184 0.00612 0.00031 8.71060 0.09612 1.66E-15 83.72 10.61 0.29 0.11 61.8 1.3
9 10.33944 0.01194 0.26216 0.33302 0.00511 0.00032 8.85140 0.09827 1.62E-15 85.59 10.41 1.64 4.17 62.7 1.4
10 11.16401 0.01181 1.55893 0.42284 0.00761 0.00033 9.04548 0.10221 1.82E-15 80.94 10.79 0.28 0.15 64.1 1.4
11 9.51694 0.00982 0.56670 0.29841 0.00568 0.00027 7.88327 0.08359 1.39E-15 82.80 9.70 0.76 0.80 56.0 1.2
12 11.38938 0.01285 1.13618 0.31533 0.00748 0.00028 9.27305 0.08589 1.75E-15 81.36 10.21 0.38 0.21 65.7 1.2
13 12.71473 0.01423 0.91832 0.39935 0.00725 0.00031 10.64821 0.09659 1.97E-15 83.70 10.27 0.47 0.41 75.2 1.3
Weighted plateau: Steps 7-10 41.66 62.6 1.1
1.7%

DV64-plagioclase
J = 0.0039968 ± 0.0000040
40
Step Ar/39Ar ±2σ
37
Ar/39Ar ±2σ
36
Ar/39Ar ±2σ 40
Ar (R)/39Ar(K) ±2σ
40
Ar (moles) 40
Ar (R) % 39
Ar (K) % K/Ca ±2σ Age (Ma) ±2σ
1 30.23005 0.14119 4.81328 2.81076 0.06824 0.00232 10.47268 0.71989 7.43E-16 34.53 0.63 0.09 0.10 74.0 10.0
2 24.53967 0.04627 4.21619 0.33701 0.04874 0.00037 10.49404 0.11875 3.43E-15 42.64 3.61 0.10 0.02 74.1 1.6
3 16.70118 0.02386 2.81010 0.25965 0.02287 0.00030 10.18006 0.09261 4.14E-15 60.84 6.41 0.15 0.03 71.9 1.3
4 13.69707 0.02209 1.28250 0.14569 0.01498 0.00018 9.37743 0.05673 3.89E-15 68.40 7.34 0.33 0.08 66.4 0.8
5 12.11549 0.02699 1.28441 0.16305 0.01233 0.00014 8.57794 0.04903 4.48E-15 70.74 9.57 0.33 0.08 60.8 0.7
6 13.08185 0.02621 1.66512 0.16322 0.01440 0.00015 8.96691 0.04953 4.55E-15 68.47 8.98 0.26 0.05 63.5 0.7
7 13.28548 0.02354 1.18110 0.12923 0.01577 0.00010 8.72281 0.03518 6.09E-15 65.60 11.86 0.36 0.08 61.8 0.5
8 13.31093 0.01972 1.03007 0.10134 0.01524 0.00007 8.89360 0.02701 7.82E-15 66.77 15.20 0.42 0.08 63.0 0.4
9 13.05386 0.02713 1.36001 0.16443 0.01453 0.00016 8.87476 0.05269 5.74E-15 67.92 11.36 0.32 0.08 62.9 0.7
10 12.30553 0.02415 1.46681 0.12930 0.01258 0.00012 8.70870 0.04111 6.43E-15 70.70 13.51 0.29 0.05 61.7 0.6
11 11.74521 0.02014 1.41819 0.13768 0.01270 0.00013 8.10903 0.04350 5.23E-15 68.98 11.52 0.30 0.06 57.5 0.6
Disturbed plateau: Steps 6-10 60.92 62.6 0.7
1.1%

DV70-biotite
J = 0.0039740 ± 0.0000040
40
Step Ar/39Ar ±2σ
37
Ar/39Ar ±2σ
36
Ar/39Ar ±2σ 40
Ar (R)/39Ar(K) ±2σ
40
Ar (moles) 40
Ar (R) % 39
Ar (K) % K/Ca ±2σ Age (Ma) ±2σ
1 16.91244 0.94752 19.58486 21.77267 0.02759 0.02934 8.75799 8.83839 4.02E-17 51.78 0.05 0.00 0.00 61.7 122.5
2 12.50628 0.04294 0.07264 1.25805 0.01189 0.00181 8.99715 0.54501 4.85E-16 71.94 0.84 5.92 205.06 63.4 7.5
3 11.04089 0.01188 0.32395 0.24935 0.00485 0.00038 9.60810 0.11331 2.04E-15 87.02 3.99 0.00 0.00 67.6 1.6
4 10.42124 0.00845 0.49341 0.19334 0.00126 0.00019 10.04646 0.05852 2.53E-15 96.40 5.25 0.00 0.00 70.6 0.8
5 10.43028 0.00710 0.35328 0.20489 0.00162 0.00014 9.95107 0.04576 2.93E-15 95.41 6.08 0.00 0.00 70.0 0.6
6 10.32378 0.00664 0.50739 0.14872 0.00076 0.00015 10.09848 0.04516 3.72E-15 97.82 7.79 0.00 0.00 71.0 0.6
7 10.21578 0.00621 0.30107 0.12266 0.00127 0.00016 9.83858 0.04923 4.23E-15 96.31 8.96 0.00 0.00 69.2 0.7
8 10.10999 0.00627 0.28323 0.11100 0.00138 0.00015 9.70129 0.04450 4.46E-15 95.96 9.53 0.00 0.00 68.2 0.6
9 10.05639 0.00583 0.23478 0.09548 0.00119 0.00009 9.70394 0.02927 5.35E-15 96.50 11.50 0.00 0.00 68.3 0.4
10 10.01133 0.00556 0.46288 0.09279 0.00121 0.00012 9.65134 0.03776 4.91E-15 96.40 10.59 0.00 0.00 67.9 0.5
11 10.10496 0.00537 0.44253 0.08820 0.00084 0.00013 9.85666 0.03923 5.18E-15 97.54 11.09 0.00 0.00 69.3 0.5
12 10.14281 0.00543 0.36958 0.07940 0.00075 0.00008 9.92164 0.02579 6.23E-15 97.82 13.28 0.00 0.00 69.8 0.4
13 10.24426 0.00592 0.44454 0.07531 0.00149 0.00013 9.80404 0.03864 5.23E-15 95.70 11.05 0.00 0.00 69.0 0.5
Weighted plateau: Steps 7-13 75.99 68.9 0.6
0.8%

DV91-plagioclase
J = 0.0039949 ± 0.0000040
40
Step Ar/39Ar ±2σ
37
Ar/39Ar ±2σ
36
Ar/39Ar ±2σ 40
Ar (R)/39Ar(K) ±2σ
40
Ar (moles) 40
Ar (R) % 39
Ar (K) % K/Ca ±2σ Age (Ma) ±2σ
1 61.08532 0.45516 10.68862 3.69389 0.18565 0.00438 7.10959 1.27267 8.94E-16 11.56 6.86 0.04 0.03 50.5 17.8
2 55.90496 0.24831 15.03043 1.97034 0.14924 0.00196 13.10858 0.57640 1.54E-15 23.21 12.88 0.03 0.01 92.1 7.9
3 41.20606 0.22651 21.61225 1.94579 0.10762 0.00170 11.25454 0.50621 1.07E-15 26.92 12.09 0.02 0.00 79.3 7.0
4 39.03748 0.19575 17.72354 1.76449 0.10827 0.00156 8.52693 0.46322 1.02E-15 21.58 12.13 0.02 0.00 60.4 6.5
5 42.25051 0.21155 18.48843 1.77347 0.11655 0.00169 9.36928 0.49891 1.22E-15 21.90 13.44 0.02 0.00 66.3 6.9
6 40.39697 0.29712 25.58103 3.27453 0.11001 0.00266 10.05609 0.80949 7.89E-16 24.46 9.05 0.02 0.00 71.1 11.2
7 41.77067 0.17309 27.37118 2.95351 0.10933 0.00229 11.81704 0.71936 1.05E-15 27.77 11.67 0.02 0.00 83.2 9.9
8 39.97700 0.16944 22.05614 3.29086 0.10212 0.00197 11.69417 0.63652 8.62E-16 28.82 10.03 0.02 0.01 82.4 8.8
9 35.04723 0.12657 29.03843 2.91334 0.09216 0.00160 10.28062 0.52820 8.98E-16 28.76 11.86 0.01 0.00 72.6 7.3
Total fusion age 79.2 2.6
0.0

DV94-hornblende
J = 0.0039707 ± 0.0000040
40
Step Ar/39Ar ±2σ
37
Ar/39Ar ±2σ
36
Ar/39Ar ±2σ 40
Ar (R)/39Ar(K) ±2σ
40
Ar (moles) 40
Ar (R) % 39
Ar (K) % K/Ca ±2σ Age (Ma) ±2σ
1 396.36726 177.20961 313.86662 217.67556 1.15332 0.55942 101.48143 101.95406 1.17E-16 20.19 0.17 0.00 0.00 610.8 1041.2
2 232.74123 22.30199 27.65526 33.76979 0.75826 0.08493 11.03856 13.55731 3.05E-16 4.65 0.92 0.02 0.04 77.4 186.1
3 251.00071 25.16024 102.95750 38.71976 0.83482 0.09520 13.26205 14.84203 3.25E-16 4.92 0.86 0.00 0.00 92.6 202.0
4 126.79218 6.11800 21.89409 13.44284 0.38587 0.02766 14.68972 6.27680 3.18E-16 11.41 1.77 0.02 0.02 102.3 85.0
5 41.56000 0.37333 38.42435 3.79671 0.09951 0.00418 15.55408 1.28434 4.22E-16 36.46 7.06 0.01 0.00 108.1 17.3
6 28.85078 0.13968 48.49053 3.55691 0.06956 0.00208 12.48640 0.69514 5.33E-16 41.87 12.74 0.01 0.00 87.3 9.5
7 18.75728 0.11114 22.59024 2.91330 0.03528 0.00179 10.24952 0.58526 3.79E-16 53.81 14.18 0.02 0.00 72.0 8.1
8 22.67980 0.17356 28.08482 2.60269 0.04528 0.00216 11.71163 0.68234 4.94E-16 50.66 15.23 0.02 0.00 82.0 9.3
9 20.19269 0.17349 25.83555 4.47442 0.05223 0.00323 6.89236 1.02638 2.20E-16 33.54 7.64 0.02 0.01 48.7 14.3
10 19.24552 0.12883 22.96072 2.41774 0.04363 0.00199 8.27193 0.62466 4.36E-16 42.32 15.91 0.02 0.00 58.3 8.7
11 11.78470 0.05116 10.77314 1.36550 0.02212 0.00121 6.13204 0.37740 3.91E-16 51.66 23.53 0.04 0.01 43.4 5.3
Disturbed plateau: Steps 4-7 50.98 81.8 10.0
12.3%

108
Appendix 3. (continued)
DV65-biotite
J = 0.0074265 ± 0.0000074
40
Step Ar/39Ar ±2σ
37
Ar/39Ar ±2σ
36
Ar/39Ar ±2σ 40
Ar (R)/39Ar(K) ±2σ
40
Ar (moles) 40
Ar (R) % 39
Ar (K) % K/Ca ±2σ Age (Ma) ±2σ
1 9.95665 0.05205 0.07414 0.79878 0.02323 0.00228 3.09814 0.67603 2.47E-16 31.11 0.34 5.80 124.97 41.0 17.7
2 6.84019 0.00598 0.05192 0.06173 0.00465 0.00019 5.47030 0.05712 1.98E-15 79.97 3.94 8.28 19.69 71.8 1.5
3 6.57366 0.00359 0.02724 0.02595 0.00192 0.00009 6.00465 0.02583 4.56E-15 91.34 9.44 17.06 23.21 78.7 0.7
4 6.43673 0.00338 0.00630 0.01846 0.00104 0.00006 6.12923 0.01929 5.12E-15 95.22 10.82 68.23 399.70 80.3 0.5
5 6.43467 0.00336 0.03445 0.01659 0.00099 0.00006 6.14421 0.01712 5.80E-15 95.48 12.25 12.48 12.02 80.5 0.4
6 6.37244 0.00326 0.02497 0.01147 0.00067 0.00005 6.17515 0.01646 6.79E-15 96.90 14.50 17.22 15.82 80.9 0.4
7 6.35986 0.00336 0.01797 0.01976 0.00058 0.00005 6.18684 0.01447 6.07E-15 97.28 12.99 12.23 9.38 81.0 0.4
8 6.36761 0.00331 0.01495 0.01351 0.00065 0.00005 6.17570 0.01403 7.04E-15 96.99 15.04 28.77 52.02 80.9 0.4
9 6.36100 0.00589 0.09668 0.06069 0.00055 0.00020 6.20456 0.05907 1.81E-15 97.53 3.88 4.45 5.58 81.3 1.5
10 6.36050 0.00356 0.20130 0.02351 0.00048 0.00011 6.23560 0.03173 3.03E-15 98.02 6.47 2.14 0.50 81.7 0.8
11 6.37068 0.00331 0.10927 0.01727 0.00053 0.00007 6.22285 0.02123 4.84E-15 97.67 10.34 3.93 1.24 81.5 0.5
Weighted plateau: Steps 4-8 65.60 80.8 0.3
0.4%

DV81-biotite
J = 0.0075394 ± 0.0000075
40
Step Ar/39Ar ±2σ
37
Ar/39Ar ±2σ
36
Ar/39Ar ±2σ 40
Ar (R)/39Ar(K) ±2σ
40
Ar (moles) 40
Ar (R) % 39
Ar (K) % K/Ca ±2σ Age (Ma) ±2σ
1 44.73340 1.44700 0.85579 4.86370 0.09860 0.01356 15.67295 3.94912 1.79E-16 35.02 0.48 0.50 5.71 201.5 96.1
2 26.09360 0.08859 0.69716 0.61822 0.05756 0.00121 9.14087 0.35852 1.11E-15 35.01 5.13 0.62 1.09 120.2 9.1
3 19.61083 0.02972 0.37144 0.21556 0.03483 0.00051 9.34966 0.15128 1.99E-15 47.66 12.27 1.16 1.34 122.9 3.8
4 21.57331 0.02374 1.32629 0.21396 0.04259 0.00049 9.09727 0.14596 2.24E-15 42.13 12.57 0.32 0.10 119.7 3.7
5 24.08884 0.02836 4.58689 0.37674 0.05001 0.00056 9.69668 0.16818 2.29E-15 40.13 11.45 0.09 0.02 127.3 4.3
6 21.23714 0.03241 3.97679 0.42178 0.04141 0.00081 9.33583 0.24324 1.48E-15 43.84 8.43 0.11 0.02 122.7 6.2
7 22.72751 0.05502 3.11088 0.32307 0.04369 0.00090 10.08119 0.26591 1.27E-15 44.26 6.75 0.14 0.03 132.2 6.7
8 19.26793 0.03384 3.16876 0.21730 0.03250 0.00058 9.93247 0.17140 1.82E-15 51.44 11.37 0.14 0.02 130.3 4.3
9 19.92597 0.03670 4.77351 0.36296 0.03478 0.00062 10.05304 0.18558 1.76E-15 50.29 10.66 0.09 0.01 131.8 4.7
10 16.12326 0.02382 2.51597 0.25571 0.02174 0.00076 9.91180 0.22606 1.30E-15 61.37 9.76 0.17 0.03 130.0 5.7
11 18.45129 0.02272 3.33797 0.29404 0.02856 0.00057 10.29341 0.17014 1.70E-15 55.66 11.12 0.13 0.02 134.8 4.3
Weighted plateau: Steps 5-11 69.55 130.2 2.8
2.1%

DV81-orthoclase
J = 0.0076658 ± 0.0000077
40
Step Ar/39Ar ±2σ
37
Ar/39Ar ±2σ
36
Ar/39Ar ±2σ 40
Ar (R)/39Ar(K) ±2σ
40
Ar (moles) 40
Ar (R) % 39
Ar (K) % K/Ca ±2σ Age (Ma) ±2σ
1 18.94195 0.03944 0.12908 0.40191 0.03789 0.00075 7.74485 0.22408 1.02E-15 40.89 0.58 0.84 1.28 104.0 5.9
2 18.98578 0.01146 0.30265 0.08885 0.03301 0.00019 9.22967 0.05518 6.21E-15 48.61 3.52 0.00 0.00 123.3 1.4
3 14.49340 0.00753 0.15901 0.04760 0.01563 0.00008 9.87430 0.02398 9.03E-15 68.13 6.70 0.00 0.00 131.6 0.6
4 12.92177 0.00734 0.18748 0.03501 0.00965 0.00007 10.06988 0.02161 7.93E-15 77.93 6.60 0.00 0.00 134.1 0.6
5 13.49207 0.00768 0.27129 0.04468 0.01232 0.00014 9.85114 0.04257 5.72E-15 73.01 4.56 0.00 0.00 131.3 1.1
6 14.14573 0.00796 0.23870 0.04749 0.01385 0.00010 10.05136 0.02970 6.82E-15 71.06 5.18 0.00 0.00 133.9 0.8
7 13.00498 0.00683 0.09584 0.03119 0.00970 0.00007 10.13707 0.02102 9.29E-15 77.95 7.68 0.00 0.00 135.0 0.5
8 12.83628 0.00669 0.09001 0.03251 0.00885 0.00007 10.21890 0.02288 9.76E-15 79.61 8.18 0.00 0.00 136.1 0.6
9 12.92661 0.00674 0.10586 0.03841 0.00938 0.00008 10.15326 0.02429 8.37E-15 78.55 6.96 0.00 0.00 135.2 0.6
10 12.99595 0.00659 0.06749 0.02537 0.00924 0.00005 10.26530 0.01523 1.29E-14 78.99 10.69 0.00 0.00 136.7 0.4
11 12.84753 0.00667 0.07942 0.02145 0.00870 0.00005 10.27482 0.01550 1.09E-14 79.98 9.09 0.00 0.00 136.8 0.4
12 12.97062 0.00682 0.09197 0.03436 0.00919 0.00005 10.25493 0.01568 9.47E-15 79.06 7.85 0.00 0.00 136.5 0.4
13 12.91663 0.00662 0.03219 0.02244 0.00904 0.00005 10.24568 0.01585 1.43E-14 79.32 11.92 0.00 0.00 136.4 0.4
14 12.73696 0.00668 0.03654 0.02601 0.00864 0.00005 10.18167 0.01663 1.25E-14 79.94 10.51 0.00 0.00 135.6 0.4
Weighted plateau: Steps 8-13 54.68 136.4 0.5
0.3%

DV82-orthoclase
J = 0.0076823 ± 0.0000077
40
Step Ar/39Ar ±2σ
37
Ar/39Ar ±2σ
36
Ar/39Ar ±2σ 40
Ar (R)/39Ar(K) ±2σ
40
Ar (moles) 40
Ar (R) % 39
Ar (K) % K/Ca ±2σ Age (Ma) ±2σ
1 54.79019 0.88419 1.35276 4.06156 0.14278 0.00986 12.59852 2.85853 3.24E-16 22.99 0.06 0.09 0.13 166.7 72.2
2 29.09200 0.10172 1.23207 0.50926 0.06808 0.00132 8.97327 0.38793 1.12E-15 30.84 0.39 0.00 0.00 120.3 10.1
3 22.92541 0.01906 0.28914 0.11358 0.04388 0.00025 9.95891 0.07491 4.34E-15 43.44 1.91 0.00 0.00 133.0 1.9
4 19.83856 0.01402 0.24028 0.08666 0.03115 0.00017 10.63125 0.05200 5.64E-15 53.59 2.87 0.00 0.00 141.6 1.3
5 15.98999 0.01357 0.23254 0.09552 0.02009 0.00031 10.05144 0.09249 2.99E-15 62.86 1.89 0.00 0.00 134.2 2.4
6 15.87665 0.00872 0.19368 0.03641 0.01895 0.00012 10.27732 0.03636 7.50E-15 64.73 4.77 0.00 0.00 137.1 0.9
7 14.41206 0.00746 0.12981 0.02290 0.01450 0.00006 10.12674 0.01960 1.02E-14 70.27 7.12 0.00 0.00 135.2 0.5
8 14.66696 0.00760 0.05794 0.02038 0.01453 0.00006 10.37332 0.01882 1.59E-14 70.73 10.95 0.00 0.00 138.3 0.5
9 13.30779 0.00712 0.07884 0.03160 0.01061 0.00008 10.17165 0.02351 1.06E-14 76.43 8.05 0.00 0.00 135.7 0.6
10 13.38809 0.00698 0.06476 0.02296 0.01066 0.00006 10.23721 0.01890 1.30E-14 76.47 9.81 0.00 0.00 136.6 0.5
11 13.47803 0.00697 0.05933 0.01914 0.01034 0.00004 10.42180 0.01183 1.83E-14 77.32 13.69 0.00 0.00 138.9 0.3
12 13.58752 0.00713 0.07213 0.02389 0.01103 0.00005 10.32698 0.01507 1.52E-14 76.00 11.27 0.00 0.00 137.7 0.4
13 13.38514 0.00689 0.05296 0.01548 0.01053 0.00004 10.27324 0.01279 2.03E-14 76.75 15.35 0.00 0.00 137.0 0.3
14 13.34740 0.00699 0.06858 0.02262 0.01051 0.00004 10.24048 0.01375 1.57E-14 76.72 11.86 0.00 0.00 136.6 0.4
Disturbed plateau: Steps 7-14 88.10 137.3 0.9
0.7%

DV84-orthoclase
J = 0.0076877 ± 0.0000077
40
Step Ar/39Ar ±2σ
37
Ar/39Ar ±2σ
36
Ar/39Ar ±2σ 40
Ar (R)/39Ar(K) ±2σ
40
Ar (moles) 40
Ar (R) % 39
Ar (K) % K/Ca ±2σ Age (Ma) ±2σ
1 13.89030 0.07337 0.25645 1.12626 0.00416 0.00211 12.68134 0.63347 3.28E-16 91.28 0.25 1.68 14.72 167.8 16.0
2 12.50220 0.01867 0.06994 0.36744 0.00788 0.00061 10.17827 0.18222 9.85E-16 81.41 0.84 6.15 64.59 135.9 4.7
3 12.41359 0.00831 0.35396 0.08697 0.00747 0.00015 10.20447 0.04403 3.45E-15 82.20 2.96 0.83 1.24 136.3 1.1
4 11.67566 0.00760 0.21972 0.05641 0.00567 0.00010 10.00029 0.02940 5.78E-15 85.65 5.29 0.83 1.24 133.6 0.8
5 11.07670 0.00605 0.11111 0.03839 0.00413 0.00013 9.85626 0.03990 5.44E-15 88.98 5.24 0.83 1.24 131.8 1.0
6 11.22623 0.00614 0.09891 0.03709 0.00483 0.00009 9.79874 0.02795 6.20E-15 87.28 5.89 0.83 1.24 131.0 0.7
7 11.21733 0.00602 0.09279 0.03586 0.00414 0.00010 9.99242 0.02937 6.60E-15 89.08 6.28 0.83 1.24 133.5 0.8
8 11.48226 0.00640 0.17322 0.05350 0.00492 0.00010 10.02839 0.03112 6.66E-15 87.34 6.19 0.83 1.24 134.0 0.8
9 11.31961 0.00653 0.17913 0.05673 0.00482 0.00009 9.89562 0.02675 6.36E-15 87.42 5.99 0.83 1.24 132.3 0.7
10 11.35000 0.00591 0.08817 0.02586 0.00472 0.00004 9.95436 0.01234 1.30E-14 87.70 12.18 0.83 1.24 133.0 0.3
11 11.39240 0.00576 0.04189 0.01873 0.00441 0.00002 10.08960 0.00893 1.99E-14 88.56 18.60 0.83 1.24 134.8 0.2
12 11.36536 0.00582 0.05992 0.02647 0.00427 0.00002 10.10151 0.00831 1.39E-14 88.88 13.01 0.83 1.24 134.9 0.2
13 11.22710 0.00597 0.08552 0.03230 0.00417 0.00005 9.99390 0.01572 9.59E-15 89.02 9.12 0.83 1.24 133.5 0.4
14 10.97262 0.00584 0.09582 0.03550 0.00406 0.00005 9.77217 0.01478 8.37E-15 89.06 8.14 0.83 1.24 130.7 0.4
Disturbed plateau: Steps 7-13 71.38 134.3 0.7
0.5%

109
Appendix 3. (continued)
DV89A-hornblende
J = 0.0073997 ± 0.0000074
40
Step Ar/39Ar ±2σ
37
Ar/39Ar ±2σ
36
Ar/39Ar ±2σ 40
Ar (R)/39Ar(K) ±2σ
40
Ar (moles) 40
Ar (R) % 39
Ar (K) % K/Ca ±2σ Age (Ma) ±2σ
1 90.55151 25.09254 556.58883 185.21193 0.28936 0.15185 90.55050 25.85899 3.16E-17 100.00 0.18 0.04 0.09 925.2 413.4
2 15.34322 0.21306 2.69197 3.15042 0.04481 0.00590 2.31474 1.75483 1.47E-16 15.06 4.81 0.16 0.37 30.6 46.1
3 18.27072 0.21601 2.11247 2.34521 0.04941 0.00445 3.66860 1.31882 1.98E-16 20.08 5.44 0.00 0.00 48.3 34.3
4 24.37591 0.37107 4.00648 2.55180 0.07528 0.00507 2.12913 1.47404 2.31E-16 8.73 4.75 0.00 0.00 28.2 38.7
5 35.46964 0.85118 14.61071 5.07837 0.08856 0.01209 10.54260 3.58337 1.59E-16 29.43 2.23 0.03 0.02 135.5 88.7
6 31.03736 0.59051 8.61208 4.37636 0.06061 0.00914 13.87845 2.72976 1.87E-16 44.46 3.01 0.05 0.05 176.4 66.1
7 14.43178 0.05853 26.68037 2.21451 0.03156 0.00278 7.31892 0.85439 2.34E-16 49.80 8.00 0.02 0.00 95.2 21.6
8 12.31553 0.07267 27.55024 2.08384 0.01738 0.00208 9.50400 0.65086 2.31E-16 75.74 9.25 0.02 0.00 122.6 16.2
9 13.12515 0.07912 38.70784 2.65462 0.02141 0.00240 10.07840 0.76053 2.25E-16 74.79 8.40 0.01 0.00 129.8 18.9
10 13.05990 0.07996 32.96363 2.08106 0.02433 0.00248 8.63174 0.76795 2.65E-16 64.63 9.97 0.01 0.00 111.7 19.3
11 13.64996 0.09072 42.01343 2.62316 0.02827 0.00220 8.82116 0.70029 2.60E-16 62.80 9.29 0.01 0.00 114.1 17.6
12 12.57114 0.05550 41.81080 2.57611 0.02335 0.00327 9.19092 1.01667 2.64E-16 71.05 10.25 0.01 0.00 118.7 25.4
13 9.55039 0.03770 21.91965 1.48316 0.01647 0.00200 6.48702 0.61137 2.42E-16 66.92 12.55 0.02 0.00 84.6 15.6
14 9.26495 0.02932 18.30374 1.39559 0.01541 0.00241 6.21440 0.73087 2.21E-16 66.25 11.85 0.02 0.00 81.1 18.7
Weighted plateau: Steps 5-12 60.41 117.2 9.4
8.0%

DV89B-hornblende
J = 0.0074724 ± 0.0000075
40
Step Ar/39Ar ±2σ
37
Ar/39Ar ±2σ
36
Ar/39Ar ±2σ 40
Ar (R)/39Ar(K) ±2σ
40
Ar (moles) 40
Ar (R) % 39
Ar (K) % K/Ca ±2σ Age (Ma) ±2σ
1 83.31265 6.48495 3.78812 15.53572 0.21376 0.04921 20.49339 13.86810 1.13E-16 24.54 0.33 0.11 0.93 257.1 324.3
2 18.22737 0.06113 2.82897 0.83065 0.05324 0.00281 2.72066 0.83155 4.90E-16 14.90 6.65 0.15 0.09 36.3 22.0
3 27.89684 0.56823 15.97159 2.91289 0.06338 0.00817 10.52753 2.42922 2.28E-16 37.33 2.00 0.03 0.01 136.6 60.7
4 16.26922 0.04760 32.98189 2.00990 0.03805 0.00208 7.77097 0.64860 4.34E-16 46.70 6.46 0.01 0.00 101.8 16.5
5 7.53497 0.01104 16.96983 1.00950 0.01441 0.00074 4.65132 0.23580 5.17E-16 61.02 16.81 0.03 0.00 61.6 6.1
6 15.58570 0.03978 36.35606 2.13315 0.04029 0.00125 6.67937 0.41489 5.22E-16 41.81 8.10 0.01 0.00 87.9 10.7
7 14.25828 0.04881 42.63203 2.46648 0.03039 0.00165 8.85728 0.53870 3.81E-16 60.34 6.42 0.01 0.00 115.6 13.6
8 13.31155 0.03301 33.69885 1.95960 0.02705 0.00137 8.13144 0.44416 4.57E-16 59.70 8.32 0.01 0.00 106.4 11.3
9 16.91910 0.04411 20.38785 1.20754 0.03425 0.00086 8.50401 0.27469 7.99E-16 49.57 11.53 0.02 0.00 111.1 7.0
10 13.82485 0.04421 21.00478 1.33792 0.02250 0.00179 8.94015 0.54823 4.54E-16 63.75 8.02 0.02 0.00 116.7 13.9
11 13.67967 0.03330 26.80493 1.58881 0.02359 0.00122 8.95930 0.38733 6.41E-16 64.31 11.40 0.02 0.00 116.9 9.8
12 14.31036 0.02524 22.37805 1.33897 0.02618 0.00079 8.44635 0.26012 8.19E-16 58.13 13.96 0.02 0.00 110.4 6.6
Weighted plateau: Steps 7-12 59.64 112.0 3.7
3.3%

DV90-hornblende
J = 0.0076242 ± 0.0000076
40
Step Ar/39Ar ±2σ
37
Ar/39Ar ±2σ
36
Ar/39Ar ±2σ 40
Ar (R)/39Ar(K) ±2σ
40
Ar (moles) 40
Ar (R) % 39
Ar (K) % K/Ca ±2σ Age (Ma) ±2σ
1 141.57131 20.38152 41.07044 17.25440 0.28179 0.07184 63.25498 20.36258 1.19E-16 43.45 0.15 0.01 0.01 710.0 377.9
2 46.95264 0.72678 6.13379 1.54096 0.12244 0.00980 11.29642 2.85986 3.20E-16 23.96 1.28 0.07 0.04 149.0 72.4
3 42.41775 0.64664 5.17707 1.88618 0.10456 0.00708 11.96465 2.05804 2.96E-16 28.11 1.31 0.08 0.06 157.5 51.9
4 37.17517 0.74602 5.67349 3.87321 0.10592 0.01095 6.34032 3.20285 1.98E-16 16.99 1.00 0.08 0.10 85.2 84.0
5 21.94454 0.15832 8.56800 0.99412 0.05145 0.00378 7.45045 1.12126 4.21E-16 33.76 3.59 0.05 0.01 99.7 29.2
6 14.70402 0.05107 14.81638 0.88861 0.02397 0.00175 8.86426 0.52601 5.79E-16 59.68 7.33 0.03 0.00 118.0 13.6
7 11.87012 0.03233 14.89107 0.85317 0.01516 0.00124 8.63848 0.37644 6.80E-16 72.05 10.67 0.03 0.00 115.1 9.7
8 12.19884 0.03218 14.20694 0.84011 0.01777 0.00059 8.13323 0.19007 6.19E-16 66.03 9.46 0.03 0.00 108.5 4.9
9 12.47050 0.03081 16.34793 0.92960 0.01670 0.00073 8.90876 0.23210 6.29E-16 70.65 9.39 0.03 0.00 118.6 6.0
10 12.42574 0.02995 16.80809 0.95195 0.01452 0.00075 9.55473 0.23838 6.13E-16 76.02 9.17 0.03 0.00 126.9 6.1
11 12.92052 0.03113 14.83168 0.81687 0.01353 0.00082 10.17899 0.25470 8.19E-16 78.00 11.80 0.03 0.00 134.8 6.5
12 12.91788 0.03646 17.71190 0.98612 0.01500 0.00096 9.98545 0.29846 6.28E-16 76.38 9.03 0.02 0.00 132.4 7.6
13 12.90495 0.02782 16.55940 0.92324 0.01499 0.00084 9.87731 0.26109 7.59E-16 75.69 10.93 0.03 0.00 131.0 6.7
14 12.39259 0.02273 0.82085 0.09198 0.01494 0.00051 7.97630 0.15277 9.83E-16 64.36 14.92 0.09 0.05 106.5 4.0
Weighted plateau: Steps 9-13 50.31 128.0 6.0
4.6%

DV102-hornblende
J = 0.0039857 ± 0.0000040
40
Step Ar/39Ar ±2σ
37
Ar/39Ar ±2σ
36
Ar/39Ar ±2σ 40
Ar (R)/39Ar(K) ±2σ
40
Ar (moles) 40
Ar (R) % 39
Ar (K) % K/Ca ±2σ Age (Ma) ±2σ
1 459.42410 41.42173 112.72641 35.21270 1.46271 0.13909 38.94150 14.96601 6.20E-16 7.83 1.74 0.00 0.00 260.3 186.3
2 224.78161 10.58859 67.70313 20.14773 0.74981 0.04272 8.89964 7.63674 5.33E-16 3.78 3.15 0.01 0.00 62.9 106.1
3 105.24488 2.55548 44.27096 10.54595 0.33493 0.01147 10.02340 2.61960 5.05E-16 9.24 6.48 0.01 0.00 70.7 36.2
4 60.39774 0.84321 74.44212 6.77433 0.19912 0.00455 7.75152 1.25917 5.07E-16 12.19 11.10 0.01 0.00 54.9 17.6
5 50.37317 0.73612 54.44414 6.68675 0.18098 0.00595 1.18468 1.72441 3.64E-16 2.27 9.71 0.01 0.00 8.5 24.7
6 14.24034 0.07319 23.97077 2.12367 0.03381 0.00182 6.21749 0.57097 3.24E-16 42.96 31.24 0.02 0.00 44.2 8.0
7 29.94405 0.30761 40.97177 3.70119 0.10205 0.00406 3.06671 1.23201 3.51E-16 9.96 15.87 0.01 0.00 21.9 17.5
8 47.13962 0.47828 59.85840 4.85975 0.14152 0.00389 10.40706 1.18811 5.22E-16 21.19 14.81 0.01 0.00 73.3 16.4
9 67.18189 1.30133 131.57568 10.18956 0.25947 0.01086 0.84858 3.23615 3.12E-16 1.15 5.90 0.00 0.00 6.1 46.4
Total fusion age 46.9 8.1
17.3%
Data are baseline and blank corrected, and are corrected for post-irradiation decay of 37Ar (t½=35.1 days) and 39Ar (t½=269 years).
Mass discrimination value during analyses was 0.989±0.5%.
Correction factors for interfering isotopes have been calculated from 10 analyses of two Ca-glass samples and 22 analyses of two pure K glass samples, and are:
36
Ar/37Ar(Ca)=2.603E-4±2.373E-9, 39Ar/37Ar(Ca)=6.501E-4±7.433E-9 and 40Ar/39Ar(K)=1.547E-2±7.455E-7

110
111
112
Chapter 4

Vertical tectonics at a continental crust-oceanic plateau, plate boundary zone:

Low temperature thermochronology of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta,
Colombia (*)
Diego Villagómez1, Richard Spikings1, Andrés Mora2, Agustín Cardona3, Georgina Guzmán4, Germán Ojeda2,
Elizabeth Cortés5, Roelant Van der Lelij1
1
Section of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Geneva, 13 Rue des Maraîchers, 1205 Geneva,
Switzerland (Diego.Villagomez@gmail.com).
2
Empresa Colombiana del Petróleo (ECOPETROL), Instituto Colombiano del Petróleo, Km. 7 Carretera Piedecuesta,
Santander, Colombia.
3
Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, AP 0843-03092, Ancón, Panamá.
4
Invemar, Cerro Punta Betín, Santa Marta, AA 1016, Colombia
5
Instituto Nacional de Geología y Minas (INGEOMINAS), Diagonal 53 No. 34-53, Bogotá, Colombia.

Abstract

The topographically prominent Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta is hosted by a faulted block of continental
crust located along the northern boundary of the South American Plate, hosts the highest peak in the
world (~5.75km) whose local base is at sea level, and juxtaposes oceanic plateau rocks of the Caribbean
Plate. Quantification of the amount and timing of exhumation will constrain interpretations of the history
of the plate boundary, and the driving forces of rock uplift along the active margin. The Sierra Nevada
Province of the southernmost Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta exhumed at elevated rates (≥0.2 Km/My)
during 65-58 Ma in response to the collision of the Caribbean Plateau with north-western South America.
A second pulse of exhumation (≥0.32 Km/My) during 50-40 Ma was driven by underthrusting of the
Caribbean Plate beneath northern South America. Subsequent exhumation at 40-25 Ma (≥0.15 Km/My) is
recorded proximal to the Santa Marta–Bucaramanga Fault. More northerly regions of the Sierra Nevada
Province exhumed rapidly during 26-29 Ma (~0.7 Km/My). Further northwards, the Santa Marta Province
exhumed at elevated rates during 30-25 Ma and 25-16 Ma. The highest exhumation rates within the Sierra
Nevada de Santa Marta progressed towards the northwest via the propagation of NW-verging thrusts.
Exhumation is not recorded after ~16 Ma, which is unexpected given the high elevation and high erosive
power of the climate, implying that rock and surface uplift that gave rise to the current topography was
very recent (i.e. ≤1 Ma?), and there has been insufficient time to expose the fossil apatite partial annealing
zone.

(*) Submitted to Tectonics

113
1. Introduction
The Maracaibo block represents a major crustal
fragment of the northern South American Plate,
forms part of the broad, right lateral boundary
zone between the Caribbean and South American
Plates and hosts the highest mountain range on
earth (Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta; 5775m),
whose topographic baseline is located directly at
sea level (Figure 1). We aim to use apatite fission
track data collected along several vertical profiles
and transects to quantify the thermal histories of
surface rocks of the north-west verging thrust belt
of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta (SNSM, Figure
1), which defines the northwestern corner of the
Maracaibo block and was deformed and uplifted
in the Tertiary. The structural architecture of the
block formed in response to the multiple plate
boundaries that have interacted to drive accretion
along the Pacific margins of Ecuador and Colombia
and lateral tectonics along the northern boundary
of the South American Plate during the dextral
migration of the Caribbean Plate [Pindell, 1993;
Colletta et al., 1997; Taboada et al., 2000], since
~75 Ma. Variations in sedimentary successions and
sharp changes in elevation within the Maracaibo
block suggests that faulted regions responded
differently to plate interaction during the Tertiary
and have highly varied exhumation, surface
uplift and burial histories. Clearly, any tectonic
reconstructions of this hydrocarbon rich region
must account for these variations. Thermal histories
for the SNSM have been combined with previous
radiometric data and the surrounding sedimentary
record to propose exhumation histories and
a tectonic synthesis for the evolution of the
crystalline rocks. Previous thermochronological
data from the SNSM are sparse and are usually
not-interpretable, which has hampered tectonic
interpretations in that region.
The SNSM is bound to the north by the right
lateral Oca Fault, which separates it from Caribbean
oceanic crust and continental crust of the Guajira
Peninsula (Figure 1) that was deformed and
laterally displaced during the Tertiary [Macellari,
1995]. Oceanic crust of the Caribbean Plate
currently underthrusts the SNSM and the Guajira
Peninsula [Cerón, 2008]. The eastern boundary of
the SNSM block is faulted against the Perijá Range,
which, along with the Maracaibo basin and the
Mérida Andes (Figure 1) form the Maracaibo Block
114
[Kellogg, 1984]. The Santa Marta-Bucaramanga
fault (Figure 1) defines the western boundary
of the SNSM block, which extends southwards
towards central Colombia where it is responsible
for high elevations of Precambrian rocks within
the Santander Massif (Figure 1). Collectively, the
interactions of these major fault systems have
driven rock uplift and exhumation leading to a
peak elevation of ~5.75km within the SNSM block,
located ~40km from the coast, and quantification
of that record may enable us to i) assess the
tectonic relationship between the cordillera of
the SNSM and surrounding structural zones within
the Maracaibo Block, ii) determine the relative
roles played by tectonic forces that originated at
the Pacific and Caribbean margins since the Late
Cretaceous, and iii) constrain the displacement
history of the Caribbean plate boundary zone,
thus contributing to plate reconstructions of the
northern South American and Caribbean plates.
2. Geological Framework
The SNSM massif resides within a triangular
faulted block in northern Colombia and reaches
a peak elevation of ~5.75km within ~40km of the
coastline (Figures 1 and 2). The northern margin
of the SNSM block is truncated by the right-lateral
Oca fault, which is displacing Cretaceous and older
continental crust of the Guajira Peninsula to the
east [Cardona et al., 2009] (Figure 2). The western
margin of the triangular block is defined by the
Santa Marta-Bucaramanga Fault (Figure 1), which
separates crystalline rocks in the east from the
Oligo-Miocene Lower Magdalena Basin to the west,
which is believed to be floored by Triassic rocks
similar to those exposed in the SNSM [Montes et
al., 2010]. The Santa Marta-Bucaramanga Fault
extends towards the SSE for a distance of several
hundred kms, where it defines the western margin
of elevated Paleozoic and older gneisses of the
Santander Massif within the Colombian Eastern
Cordillera (Figure 1). The eastern margin of the
cordillera of the SNSM is marked by the burial of
Jurassic granites beneath the Paleocene-Miocene
Cesar Basin, which resides within the SNSM block,
and the structural limit of the fault block of the
SNSM can be considered to be the Cerrejón Fault,
which separates the Cesar Basin from the Perijá
 90°W 80°W 70°W 60°W

North American Plate

20°N

Caribbean Plate

South Caribbean Plate

Boundary zone
SNSM
OF
B
10°N PR
LMB

SMB
MB
Cocos Plate
MA

F
SM
CC

EC

GM
0 Km 400
0°N South American
Plate Subduction zone
EC
Thrust Fault
Nazca Plate

-8 km -6 km -4 km -2 km 0 2km 4km
Bathymetry Land elevation

Figure 1. Tectonic setting of the Northern Andes and the Caribbean region, showing the plate boundaries, cordilleras and
location of the Maracaibo Block (bound by the thick, black lines) and the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta. Abbreviations: B:
Barranquilla, CC: Cordillera Central, EC: Eastern Cordillera, GM: Garzón Massif, LMB: Lower Magdalena Basin, OF: Oca Fault;
PR: Perija Range, SM: Santander Massif, SMBF: Santa Marta-Bucaramanga Fault, SNSM: Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta. Red
squares show the areas of Figures 2 and 5.

Range (Figure 2). in the southeast of the SNSM are intruded by

undeformed Jurassic granites, which collectively
The recognition of major geological units
define the Sierra Nevada Province (Figure 2).
and detailed geological mapping was compiled
The belt is the largest province within the SNSM,
in the work of Tschanz et al. [1969]. The present
hosts the highest elevations of 5775m and may
study follows the geological subdivisions of the
represent part of a Grenvillian terrane, which
SNSM proposed by Tschanz et al. [1969, 1974],
forms the basement of the Eastern Cordillera and
which were recently better geochronologically
is exposed in the Garzón and Santander Massifs
constrained by Cardona et al. [2008a, 2010a,
[Restrepo-Pace et al, 1997, Ordoñez-Carmona et al.,
2010b]. The cordillera of the SNSM is divided into
2006] (Figure 1). These rocks overthrust the Sevilla
three NW-verging thrusted provinces, which host
Province to the northwest, and the main structural
rocks of distinctly different ages and lithologies
boundary is referred to as the Sevilla Lineament
(Figure 2). Proterozoic granulites, anorthosites and
(Figure 2). The Sevilla Province consists of Paleozoic
gneisses [Cordani et al., 2005; Cardona et al., 2006]

115
orthogneisses and schists, which were intruded 3.1 Previous thermochronological studies
by Permian–Late Triassic syntectonic granitoids of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta
[Cardona et al., 2006] and the Paleogene Buritaca
granite [Tschanz et al., 1974; Ingeominas, 2007a].
Several high temperature (>300°C) radiometric
These rocks have been correlated with the Macuira
analyses were performed on rocks of the SNSM
Schist Belt in the Guajira Peninsula [Cardona
during the period 1969-1997, which utilised the
et al., 2006]. The Sevilla Province overthrusts
potentially inaccurate Rb/Sr and K/Ar methods.
metamorphosed Upper Cretaceous-Paleogene
Those ages relate to i) Precambrian crystallisation
intrusive, volcanic and sedimentary rocks of the
or isotopic disturbance during the Precambrian
Santa Marta Province (Figure 2), towards the
[MacDonald and Hurley, 1969; Restrepo-Pace et
northwest. The bounding fault has been assigned
al., 1997], ii) Jurassic magmatic crystallisation [e.g.
numerous names [Ingeominas, 2007a, 2007b],
Tschanz et al., 1974], iii) Late Cretaceous–Early
and it is referred to here as the La Aguja Fault
Tertiary metamorphism of rocks of the Santa
(Figure 2). Within the Santa Marta Province, Upper
Marta Province [MacDonald et al., 1971], and
Cretaceous low-grade metamorphic rocks to the
iv) Paleocene–Eocene arc activity (Santa Marta
northwest are separate from amphibolites in the
Batholith, [Tschanz et al., 1969]). More recently,
southeast by undeformed Paleogene granitoids
Cardona et al. [2006] utilised the oldest individual
of the Santa Marta Batholith (K/Ar ages of 58–44
step-ages from discordant hornblende and biotite
Ma, [Tschanz et al., 1974]; zircon U–Pb ages of 40
Ar/39Ar age spectra, obtained from a paragneiss
57-50 Ma, [Cardona et al., 2008a]) (Figure 2). The
of the Paleozoic Sevilla Complex (minimum zircon
batholith yields a Maastrichtian – early Paleocene
U–Pb age of 529±10 Ma; [Cardona et al., 2006])
minimum age for the timing of metamorphism
(Figure 2), to suggest it experienced heating and
within the Santa Marta Province [Cardona et al.,
cooling during the Triassic-Jurassic. However, Ar
2010b]. The outermost coastal metamorphic rocks
isotope homogenizing, dehydration reactions
probably extend offshore towards the Caribbean
during in-vacuo heating of ferromagnesian phases
Plate [MacDonald et al., 1971], and correlate with
suggests the form of the age spectra does not
similar lithologies found along the northern Guajira
reflect the original distribution of 40Ar, implying that
Peninsula.
their conclusions cannot be regarded as robust.
Recent paleomagnetic studies [Bayona et Clearly, these high temperature studies provide no
al., 2006, 2010] have shown that Jurassic rocks information to constrain the exhumation history of
exposed in the southern border of the Sierra the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta during the Late
Nevada Province displaced northwards (from 9°S Cretaceous– Recent, and no fission track studies
to 4°N) with respect to cratonic South America, have been performed on the Sierra Nevada de
and rotated clockwise (17º±13°C) between the Santa Marta.
Middle–Late Jurassic and Early Cretaceous. This
Cardona et al. [2008b] obtained zircon and
rotational event may have occurred during the
apatite (U-Th)/He ages of 20–27 Ma and 5–24 Ma
opening of the Early Cretaceous Colombian
respectively, from crystalline rocks exposed along
marginal back-arc basin [Pindell, 1993]. Bayona
a NW-SE traverse within the northwestern region
et al. [2010] report that the pre-Early Cretaceous
of the Santa Marta Province. They assumed a
units of the SNSM were at their current latitude
high geothermal gradient of 50°C/km to propose
by the Albian. Vertical-axis clockwise rotation of
moderate exhumation rates of 0.16 km/Ma during
up to 30°C during the Cenozoic has been proposed
the late Oligocene, and 0.33 km/Ma since the
to accommodate simultaneous contractional and
middle-late Miocene.
extensional deformation in the Cesar and Lower
Magdalena Basins [Montes et al., 2010].

3.2 Low-temperature thermochronology

3. Methodology and Previous Work Low-temperature thermochronology is

essential for quantifying upper crustal tectonics
and surficial processes. Within this crustal

116
level, temperature can be used as a proxy for
depth and thermal histories are a proxy for rock
displacement relative to the earth’s surface,
provided paleo-geothermal gradients are known.
Apatite fission track thermochronology is a
broadly used thermochronometer that is sensitive
to temperatures of <120°±10°C to <60°C in
common apatites (e.g. Cl <1wt%), which constrains
exhumation within the upper 3–5 km of the crust
[e.g. Kohn et al., 2005].
Whole rock samples were crushed and apatite
was recovered using conventional heavy liquid and
magnetic methods. Apatite grains were mounted
in epoxy, polished and etched using 5.5M HNO3
for 20 seconds at 21.0±0.5°C in a temperature-
calibrated waterbath, and spontaneous track
densities were obtained with a Zeiss Axioimager
optical microscope and used as a proxy for
the number of 238U fission decay events. Only
those grains that were mounted with the c-axis
parallel to the microscope stage were counted.
Identical regions of each apatite grain where the
spontaneous track counts were recorded were
subsequently analysed by either i) the LA-ICP-
MS method [e.g. Hasebe et al., 2004; Parra et al.,
2009] for 27 samples collected from the SNSM
(Appendix 1), or ii) the external detector method
[Gleadow, 1981] for 2 samples collected from the
Santander Massif, to determine the 238U content
of the apatites. Separate grain mounts were
irradiated with 252Cf fission fragments to generate
~107 tracks/cm2 in a vacuum chamber to enhance
the number of confined track-in-tracks available
for length measurement [e.g., Donelick and Miller,
1991; Donelick et al., 2005], after etching in 5.5N
HNO3 for 20.0 seconds at 21.0±0.5°C. A mean Dpar
value was determined for each sample to assess
the variation of track annealing kinetics between
samples. Further methodological details are
provided in Appendix 1.
4. Results
Apatite fission track data has been acquired
from twenty seven samples of Precambrian -
Paleogene intrusives and metamorphic rocks and
a single rhyolite collected from several traverses
within the SNSM that span a total elevation range
of 20-2720 m (Table 1). Zircon and apatite fission
track data has been obtained from two Jurassic
granitoids that form part of the Santander Massif
(Figure 1), to assess the regional influence of the
Santa Marta – Bucaramanga fault, south of the
SNSM.
Fourteen samples of Jurassic granitoids and
Precambrian gneisses were collected in discrete
regions of the Sierra Nevada province, along the
eastern, southeastern and southwestern slopes
of the cordillera (Figure 2), the westernmost
of which have experienced brittle deformation
associated with displacement of the Santa Marta –
Bucaramanga fault. One sample of the Paleogene
Buritaca granodiorite and one granitoid with an
undetermined age were collected north of the Sevilla
Lineament, within the eastern Sevilla Province. The
remaining eleven samples of Paleocene-Eocene
granitoids of the Santa Marta Batholith and Upper
Cretaceous metasedimentary rocks of the Santa
Marta Schist were collected along a single traverse
that is oriented approximately perpendicular to
the Aguja Fault within the Santa Marta Province
(Figure 2). This traverse spans an elevation range
of 24–2340 m, and hence represents a useful
elevation profile for reconstructing quantitative
exhumation information.
Maximum long etch pit diameter (Dpar) values
in apatite within the studied region range between
1.89-1.00 um (Table 1) without any particular trend
(Figure 3) relative to apatite FT age, which suggests
that the compositional influence on fission track
age distribution and fission track annealing is
insignificant. P(χ2) values for all modeled samples
range between 5% and 96.7% (Table 1), suggesting
that the apatite fission track ages obtained by
the LA-ICP-MS method define single FT age
populations. All apatite fission track age errors are
reported at the 2σ-level.
4.1 South of the Sevilla Lineament (Sierra
Nevada Province)
4.1.1 Rocks from southern and eastern regions of
the Sierra Nevada Province
The oldest apatite fission track ages within the
Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta were obtained from
the southern and eastern Sierra Nevada Province.
Six Jurassic granitoids and a single rhyolite that
are located furthest inland (Figure 2; Table 1) and
are proximal to the Cesar Lineament yield apatite
117
 74°W 73°W 74°W 73°W

Sample location 13, 28.6

03, 16.3
COLOMBIA 15, 20.2 31, 22.2 Sample location
01, 20.6
08, 24.9 32, 27.6
Guajira Península 18, 22.4
Sevilla
OF OF 42, 40.3
AF Santa Marta AF 43, 59.6
SL SL
04, 24.4 44, 43.3
11°N 11°N
06, 41.0
14, 16.0 CL CF
CF 17, 21.6 Sierra
Nevada 35, 40.6
09, 19.3
TF 36, 44.4
23, 26.7 37, 42.5
39, 53.8
SM

25, 24.2
Cesar
BF

24, 29.8 Basin

10°N VENEZUELA 10°N

SM
26, 23.3 28, 28.6

BF
29, 30.3
Lower Perijá 0 20 40
Magdalena 30, 25.6
0 20 40 Range
Basin Km
Km

Eocene - Quartenary Jurassic Figure 2. A) Geological map of the Sierra Nevada de Santa
Continental sandstones and shales Acidic intrusive rocks
Marta (SNSM). B) Structural features are shown, and labels
Paleogene Intermediate volcanic rocks
Acidic intrusive rocks (58-50 Ma;
Triassic-Jurassic
are sample codes (in blue) and apatite FT ages in Ma (in black;
Santa Marta and Buritaca Batholiths)
Upper Cretaceous
Continental metasedimentary rocks errors range between 20% and 9% at 2σ). The main structural
Permo-Triassic
Mica schists and amphibolites
Syntectonic granites provinces and basins are labeled [after Tschanz et al., 1974].
Marine limestones, shales and
sandstones Paleozoic Fault abbreviations: AF: Aguja Fault, CF: Cerrejón Fault, CL:
Lower Cretaceous Orthogneisses and mica schists
Deltaic sandstones Cesar Lineament, OF: Oca Fault, SL: Sevilla Lineament, SMBF:
Proterozoic
Granulites, anorthosites, gneisses Santa Marta-Bucaramanga Fault. TF: Tierra Nueva Fault.

fission track ages between ~60 Ma and ~40 Ma.
These rocks form part of the Andean-wide,
Jurassic continental arc that extends along the
western South American margin. Despite the fact
that these samples reside in three or more distinct
faulted blocks (Figure 2), all of the apatite fission
track ages are indistinguishable over an elevation
range of 400–2700m, with the exception of granite
SN43 (Figure 4). Two of these samples yielded
intermediate mean track lengths of 12.55±1.81µm
and 12.72±1.19µm suggesting they are partially
annealed, and Dpar values range between 1.09 –
1.12 µm (Figure 3; Table 1).
4.1.2 Rocks located within the deformation zone
associated with the Santa Marta - Bucaramanga
Fault
Apatite fission track data has been acquired
from deformed Jurassic arc rocks and gneisses of
their host Precambrian sequence (the Los Mangos
granulite), located within 10km of the Santa Marta
– Bucaramanga Fault, within the Sierra Nevada
Province. Seven samples span an elevation range
of 290–1620m, and yield indistinguishable pooled
apatite fission track ages between 23 and 30 Ma
(Figure 4), which are clearly younger than less
deformed regions of the same province to the
east. However, Dpar values range between 1.00-
1.39 µm, and are thus similar to those yielded by
rocks exposed further east. Mean apatite fission
track lengths range between 12.21±1.70µm –
13.96±0.17µm (Table 1), suggesting the tracks are
partially annealed.
4.2 North of the Sevilla Lineament: Santa
Marta and Sevilla Provinces
Twelve Paleogene granitoids (Santa Marta
Batholith; K/Ar age 58-44 Ma, [Tschanz et al.,
1974]; zircon U–Pb age 57–50 Ma, [Cardona et
al., 2008a]) and Upper Cretaceous schists from
the region north of the Sevilla Lineament, defined
by the Santa Marta and Sevilla provinces yielded
the youngest apatite fission track ages within the
Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, ranging between
16 Ma and 28 Ma (Figures 3 and 4). An exception
to this group is mica schist SN6, which gave an
imprecise apatite fission track age of 41.0±9.6 Ma,
and will be considered separately. Dpar values

118
 Table 1. Apatite fission track data, Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta.

Pooled Fission Std. MTL±SD (μm)

Stratigraphic Elevation Total area Σ(PiΩi)±2s U Track Age±2s Dev. c-axis
a 2 a -5 2 b 43 c 238 d f
Sample Lithology age (m) UTM-X UTM-Y Grains Ns ΩT (cm ) (10 cm ) Ca U (ppm) P(χ2) e (Ma) MTL±2s (μm) (mm) Dpar±1σ (μm) f corrected

North of the Sevilla Lineament

Santa Marta Province
SN1 Quartz diorite Paleogene 252 993827 1726304 24 92 6.80E-04 2.78±0.11 7.00E-02 2.00E-03 12.67 70.2 20.6±4.6 1.33±0.45(50)
SN3 Mica schist Late Cretaceous 789 996768 1723675 25 617 1.11E-03 23.70±0.78 6.71E-02 1.20E-03 67.00 5.0 16.3± 1.8 13.28±0.38(64) 1.51 1.21±0.02(125) 14.63±0.93
SN4 Quartz diorite Paleogene 943 997166 1722398 40 248 1.89E-03 6.17±0.14 7.18E-02 1.06E-03 10.81 5.1 24.4±3.4 13.37±0.50(41) 1.60 1.24±0.02(200) 14.68±0.99
SN6 Mica schist Late Cretaceous 1795 1000415 1719049 23 79 1.24E-03 1.20±0.04 6.58E-02 4.49E-03 3.29 96.7 41.0±9.6 1.77±0.05(40)
SN8 Quartz diorite Paleogene 1569 1003817 1715731 30 179 1.60E-03 4.48±0.13 8.06E-02 1.99E-03 8.84 5.9 24.9±4.0 1.41±0.06(40)
SN9 Amphibolitic gneiss Late Cretaceous 1575 1002675 1714718 27 138 1.52E-03 4.46±0.14 6.60E-02 2.26E-03 9.94 25.5 19.3±3.6 1.79±0.06(40)
SN13 Amphibolic schist Late Cretaceous 2341 1001773 1720079 27 150 1.13E-03 3.27±0.10 7.53E-02 1.30E-03 10.02 1.2 28.6±5 1.55±0.05(50)
SN14 Micaceous quartzite Late Cretaceous 1781 1000409 1718778 22 199 3.02E-04 7.42±0.32 6.02E-02 1.97E-03 94.73 0.0 16.0±2.6 1.89±0.06(50)
SN15 Aplite Paleogene 1502 999740 1718621 24 593 7.81E-04 18.30±0.69 8.15E-02 2.68E-03 70.67 6.0 20.2±2.2 12.62±0.56(38) 1.71 1.54±0.02(50) 14.14±1.09
SN17 Amphibolitic schist Late Cretaceous 1046 999982 1715980 34 209 1.24E-03 6.03±0.16 6.20E-02 1.11E-03 16.36 6.6 21.6±3.2 1.21±0.04(50)
SN18 Aplite Paleogene 24 983234 1728421 24 653 9.93E-04 18.10±0.78 8.03E-02 1.51E-03 55.00 7.0 22.4±2.4 13.83±0.27(61) 1.05 1.25±0.02(96) 14.97±0.68
Sevilla Province
SN31 Granodiorite Paleogene 96 1069334 1726181 33 269 1.62E-03 7.53±0.25 6.79E-02 2.53E-03 15.50 4.8 22.2±3.2 1.79±0.06(50)
SN32 Granitoid Undetermined 191 1073862 1726853 29 171 8.95E-04 3.86±1.03 8.85E-02 3.05E-03 13.03 6.5 27.6±4.6 1.31±0.07(50)

South of the Sevilla Lineament

Sierra Nevada Province, proximal to the Santa Marta - Bucaramanga Fault
SN23 Granodiorite Jurassic 519 1005843 1672714 30 317 1.67E-03 7.38±0.29 5.85E-02 1.78E-03 13.22 5.0 26.7±3.6 13.96±0.05(57) 0.17 1.39±0.02(150) 15.07±0.73
SN24 Granodiorite Jurassic 321 1011153 1647082 36 340 1.46E-03 71.0±0.26 7.57E-02 5.38E-03 16.53 5.0 29.8±3.8 1.31±0.07(40)
SN25 Granite Jurassic 288 1009718 1646858 49 465 2.30E-03 12.00±0.54 6.44E-02 2.78E-03 15.81 6.6 24.2±2.8 1.23±0.04(40)
SN26 Diorite Jurassic 431 1012021 1648745 22 127 8.29E-04 3.95±0.15 8.21E-02 4.80E-03 12.88 7.7 23.3±4.4 1.11±0.05(50)
SN28 Gneiss Precambrian 1585 1019272 1649201 34 165 8.47E-04 3.59±0.09 6.29E-02 1.12E-03 13.07 45.2 28.6±4.8 1.24±0.06(50)
SN29 Gneiss Precambrian 1620 1019703 1649390 30 647 1.36E-03 13.30±0.31 7.36E-02 2.06E-03 30.76 11.2 30.3±3.0 13.20±0.33(65) 1.34 1.00±0.02(150) 14.50±0.96
SN30 Gneiss Precambrian 674 1013476 1648602 27 163 6.04E-04 3.96±0.17 6.61E-02 2.96E-03 19.73 18.7 25.6±4.4 12.21±0.48(50) 1.70 1.13±0.02(135) 13.91±1.09

Sierra Nevada Province, central and eastern regions

SN35 Quartz monzonite Jurassic 1927 1052998 1658854 32 247 1.85E-03 3.79±0.09 0.083879 0.005304 6.64 5.0 40.6±5.8 12.72±0.34(48) 1.19 1.12±0.02(160) 14.24±0.72
SN36 Diorite Jurassic 2108 1053035 1657157 30 188 1.39E-03 2.63±0.09 0.068239 0.00395 5.67 26.1 44.4±7.2 1.15±0.07(40)
SN37 Quartz monzonite Jurassic 2721 1055748 1654892 24 105 8.26E-04 1.54±0.13 0.08441 0.001702 4.90 5.0 42.5±9.4 1.65±0.05(40)
SN39 Quartz monzonite Jurassic 1304 1054581 1648389 29 212 1.58E-03 2.45±0.07 0.072333 0.001905 5.23 8.6 53.8±8.2 12.55±0.52(48) 1.81 1.09±0.02(145) 14.16±0.98
SN42 Quartz monzonite Jurassic 470 1124545 1714243 32 236 8.20E-04 3.64±0.10 0.07016 0.003527 13.91 1.3 40.3±5.8 1.14±0.07(50)
SN43 Granite Jurassic 451 1114470 1701914 32 155 9.96E-04 1.61±0.05 0.073791 0.002762 4.95 38.9 59.6±10.4 1.66±0.06(50)
SN44 Rhyolite Jurassic 408 1113822 1700312 25 334 5.70E-04 4.79±0.16 0.070661 0.002109 27.27 2.5 43.3±5.6 1.49±0.05(50)

Zeta MS for all samples is 12.4756±0.368.

a
Number of spontaneous fission (Ns) tracks counted over the total area (ΩT)
b
Sum of Pi*Ωi for all grains evaluated (Pi is the 238U/43Ca for apatite grain i and Ωi is the area over which Nsi and Pi are evaluated
c
background corrected 43Ca (dimensionless)
d
background corrected 238U (dimensionless)
e

119
chi-squared test: values greater than 5% are considered to pass the test and represent a single age population
f
Mean track length (MTL), numbers in parentheses are the number of tracks measured and etch pits (Dpar) measured.
Table 2. Fission track data, Santander Massif.

Pooled
Stratigraphic elevation RhoS x105 RhoI x105 RhoD x105 FissionTrack
Sample Lithology Age (m) UTM-X UTM-Y Grains track/cm2 track/cm2 track/cm2 U (ppm) P(χ2) Age±2σ (Ma)
Apatite
BU140 granite Jurassic 1275 710320 788226 19 1.452(122) 24.107(2025) 16.322 (18044) 17 98.97 16.7±3.2
BU142 granite Jurassic 1896 715252 787948 20 2.186(73) 25.689(858) 16.138 (18044) 18 56.28 23.3±3.8
Zircon
BU140 granite Jurassic 1275 710320 788226 15 40.206(780) 45.206(877) 5.341 (7728) 284 22.65 28.1±3.2

Values in parentheses indicate the number of tracks counted. Samples counted by D. Villagómez (zeta: 340.83±8.02, CN5 glass, apatite; 118.52±3.08, CN1 glass, zircon).
Mean track length (µm)

15 1.8

diameter (µm)
Long etch pit
14
1.4
13
1.0
12

11 0.6
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
AFT age ± 2σ (Ma)
3
deviation (µm)
Standard

2 Santa Marta Province

1 Sierra Nevada Province: Proximal to the Santa

Marta - Bucaramanga Fault
0
Sierra Nevada Province: Central and eastern
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
regions
AFT age ± 2σ (Ma)
Figure 3. Relationship between apatite FT ages and mean track length distribution, standard deviation of track length
measurements and etch pit diameter (Dpar) for individual samples from the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta.

range between 1.21–1.54 µm and mean apatite which is distinguishably older than its apatite
fission track lengths range between 12.62±1.71µm fission track age.
– 13.83±1.05µm (Table 1), suggesting the tracks
are partially annealed.

5. Periods of Cooling
4.3 Santander Massif
Apatite fission-track ages are a function of
Two samples of Jurassic granites exposed in thermal history and annealing kinetics of individual
the Santander Massif (Figures 1 and 5), which apatite grains. A comparison of apatite fission track
form part of the Andean-wide Jurassic continental age and the long etch-pit diameter (Dpar), which
arc yielded pooled apatite fission track ages of is considered to be a reliable proxy for variations
16.7±3.2 Ma (sample BU140) and 23.3±3.8 Ma in track annealing [Donelick, 1993; Carlson et al.,
(sample BU142) Ma, although insufficient confined 1999] reveals no clear relationship (Figure 3) and
tracks were found to generate a meaningful length therefore we consider that inter-sample variations
distribution. P(χ2) values are >5% suggesting in fission track data in this study are dominated by
that these ages define single fission-track age differences in thermal histories.
populations (Table 2). The ages are similar to those
obtained from the SNSM in the vicinity of the
Santa-Marta-Bucaramanga Fault. Granite BU140 A comparison of apatite fission-track age and
yielded a zircon fission track age of 28.1±3.2 Ma, mean track length (Figure 3) from nine samples

120
 3000

37

2500
13

36

2000 35
Elevation (m)

14 6

9 29
1500 8 28
15
39

17
1000
3 4

30
23 42 43
500 26
24
25 44
1
31 32
18
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80
Apatite fission track age ± 2σ (Ma)
North of the Sevilla Lineament South of the Sevilla Lineament
Santa Marta Province Sierra Nevada Province: Proximal to the
Santa Marta - Bucaramanga Fault
Sierra Nevada Province: Central and eastern
Sevilla Province
regions
Figure 4. Comparison between apatite FT age and elevation for samples from several regions of the Sierra Nevada de Santa
Marta. The gray line highlights samples taken from a single fault block in the Sierra Nevada Province. See text for further
discussion.

dispersed across the sampled region shows that
the longest mean lengths (13.83-13.96µm) are
associated with ages between 20-30 Ma, implying
that cooling rates were most rapid during the late
Oligocene – early Miocene. However, the partially
annealed nature of these tracks precludes a more
precise estimate of the timing of cooling through
the apatite partial annealing zone. To quantify
the timing and amount of cooling experienced by
the current land surface between ~120–60°C we
modelled the apatite fission track data following
the approach described by Ketcham et al. [2005]
using the quantitative description of apatite
annealing kinetics of Ketcham et al. [2007] and
the software HeFTy v 1.6.7 [Ketcham et al., 2009].
The modelling procedure predicts fission track
parameters for various thermal history paths and
compares them with the observed fission track
age and length data. A controlled random search
procedure identifies those thermal histories that
most closely match the fission track analytical data.
The paucity of fission track length measurements
restricted the acquisition of useful thermal history
solutions, which were only acquired from nine
samples (Figure 6) from the SNSM. Those solutions
have been compared with the relationship between
fission track age and elevation to reconstruct the
thermal histories of the samples.

121

5.1 South of the Sevilla Lineament (Sierra
Nevada Province)
5.1.1 Rocks located in southern and eastern regions
of the Sierra Nevada Province
Undeformed granitoids (SN42 and SN44) and a
rhyolite (SN43) located far from the Santa Marta–
Bucaramanga fault zone yield apatite fission track
ages older than 40 Ma (Figure 2) and partially
annealed track lengths, suggesting they did not
cool rapidly through ~120–60°C. Two quartz
monzonites (SN35 and SN39) yielded sufficient
track length data to generate thermal history
solutions using inverse modeling. Considering only
the good-fit solutions (Figure 6), quartz monzonite
SN39, located within 15 km of the Cesar Lineament
cooled from ≥120°C to ~75°C during 65–58 Ma
at rates ~6°C/My, with subsequent significantly
slower rates towards the surface, despite a poorly
constrained possible increase at ~35 Ma. Quartz
monzonite SN35, located 7 km northwards and
separated from sample SN39 by an ~east-west
trending strike-slip fault (Tierra Nueva Fault;
[Ingeominas, 2007b]) (Figure 2) experienced a
slightly younger cooling history with cooling from
≥120°C to ~70°C between 50–40 Ma, at an average
cooling rate of ~5°C/My.
No clear relationship exists between the fission
track ages and elevation of Jurassic granitoids
(samples SN42 and SN43) and a Jurassic rhyolite
(Figure 4; sample SN44) located close to the
Oca Fault, implying the samples probably reside
in distinct fault blocks (Figure 2). The lack of
track length data renders the fission-track ages
uninterpretable. However, three granitoids (SN35,
SN36 and SN37) located in the central part of the
Sierra Nevada Province yield indistinguishable
apatite fission track ages over an elevation range
spanning 1927–2721m, suggesting they may reside
in a single fault block, corroborating the fault
distribution shown on Figure 2. Their weighted
mean age of ~43 Ma overlaps with the timing of
elevated cooling rates of quartz monzonite SN35,
obtained from inverse modeling (Figure 6; 50–40
Ma).
5.1.2 Rocks located within the deformation zone
122
associated with the Santa Marta - Bucaramanga
fault
Post-Eocene apatite fission track ages are
restricted to rocks located north of the Sevilla
Lineament, and in the vicinity of the Santa Marta
– Bucaramanga Fault within the Sierra Nevada
Province. This latter group yielded ages between
23–30 Ma, with partially annealed mean track
lengths. Two Precambrian gneisses (SN29 and
SN30) yield almost identical thermal history
solutions, which reveal elevated cooling rates
during 40–25 Ma, with cooling from ≥120°C to
80–60°C (Figure 6), at an average rate of ≥4°C/
My. Subsequent cooling occurs in both samples
at slower rates, towards the present day. The
thermal history solution for Jurassic granodiorite
SN23 located close to the Sevilla Lineament, which
gave the longest mean track length in the dataset
(13.96±0.17µm), yields a period of rapid cooling
during 26–29 Ma between ≥120°C to ≤60°C at a
high average rate of ~20°C/My (Figure 6).
The relationship between fission track age
and elevation (Figure 4) for all samples located
proximal to the Santa Marta – Bucaramanga Fault
can be described as linear, and ages overlap at 25–
30 Ma over elevations spanning 288-1620m (Figure
4), suggesting they share a common, exhumation
induced, cooling event. However, considering the
differences in the thermal history solutions (Figure
6) and the spatial distribution of samples (Figure
2), we suggest that with the exception of granite
SN23, all samples proximal to the Santa Marta –
Bucaramanga Fault cooled within the same fault
block during 40-30 Ma, at a rate slow enough to
allow the partial annealing of tracks in apatite, and
hence a reduction in their apatite fission track ages.
Subsequent cooling during 26–29 Ma, may have
affected all samples located proximal to the Santa
Marta – Bucaramanga Fault, although cooling was
more rapid in the Jurassic granitoid (SN23) that is
located proximal to the Sevilla Lineament (Figure
6), and may reside within a distinct, faulted block.
5.2 North of the Sevilla Lineament
 Apatite fission track ages from Paleogene
granitoids and Upper Cretaceous schists from
the region north of the Sevilla Lineament range
between 16 and 28 Ma, and define a slightly
younger group than samples from south of the
lineament (Figures 3 and 4). Mica schist SN6 yields
and older apatite fission track age of 41.0±9.6 Ma
and its low precision reflects its extremely low U
content (~3 ppm; Table 1). Four samples, which are
located in three different faulted blocks (Figures
2 and 6), yielded a statistically useful quantity
of confined track lengths and have been used to
generate plausible thermal history solutions.
The good-fit models for mica schist SN3 reveal
elevated cooling commencing at 16-25 Ma,
which proceeds at an almost constant average
rate of ~4°C/My until 10-0 Ma. Similarly, aplite
SN18 experienced high cooling rates of 8–9°C/
My during 18-25 Ma from ≥120°C to <60°C, which
subsequently decelerated towards the present
day. In contrast, aplite SN15 was cooling rapidly
during 25–30 Ma from ≥120°C to 100°C, followed
by slower cooling until the present day (Figure 6).
The good-fit envelope for quartz diorite SN4
(incorporating zircon and apatite (U-Th)/He data
taken from Cardona et al., (submitted to Geological
Acta)) reveals two potential cooling periods, which
occurred during 30–25 Ma from ≥200°C to <80°C
at rates of ~24°C/My, and during 20-15 Ma at a rate
of ~10°C/My, from 70°C to the surface (Figure 6).
Summarising, the most rapid periods of cooling
north of the Sevilla Lineament occurred either in
the late Oligocene (30–25 Ma, samples SN4 and
SN15), or in the early to middle Miocene (25–16
Ma, samples SN3 and SN18), and the solutions for
SN4 reveals evidence for both cooling periods. The
age v elevation profile reveals no obvious trend
(Figure 4), which is probably a consequence of
vertical displacements along faults that separate
the samples (Figure 2). However, when considered
as a whole, the age range is restricted to 15-30

Siliclastic rocks and carbonates

San

Vene

9° MB Pliocene - recent
Colo
ta M

zu

Oligo-Miocene
Ri

mbia

ela
arta
o

Paleogene
- Bu
Magdalena

Cretaceous
cara

Mesozoic
99±12
man

7±1 - 4±1 Paleozoic (metamorphosed)

ga F

Precambrian (metamorphosed)
ault

Igneous rocks
Tertiary - Mesozoic
8°
granitoids
Paleozoic -
Precambrian granitoids
(metamorphosed)

94±8
16±3
BU142
23±4 Figure 5. Geology of the Santander Massif,
Colombia [modified from Mascle and
Bucaramanga 93±10 Letouzey, 1990], showing the locations of
BU140 14±2 previous [Shagam et al., 1984] and new
28±3 (samples BU140 and BU142) fission-track
7° 17±3 age determinations, and the southern
106±10 - 91±11 extent of the Santa Marta – Bucaramanga
14±2 - 7±1 Fault. Bold text: zircon fission track ages,
plain text: apatite fission track ages.
74° 73°

123
 SIERRA NEVADA PROVINCE, eastern and central regions
SN39, Jurassic quartz monzonite SN35, Jurassic quartz monzonite
0 Observed age: 53.8±4.1 Ma 0
20 Best fit age: 53.9 Ma 40.6±2.9 Ma
20 40.3 Ma 14.24±0.72µm
GOF: 0.98 Observed MTL: 14.16±0.98µm
14.30±0.78µm
40 Predicted MTL: 14.16±0.92µm 40 0.99
60 48
T (°C)

60

T (°C)
0.4 1.00
0.4 N: 48
80 GOF: 0.95 80
100 100
0.2 0.2
120 120
140 0.0 140 0.0
80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 8 16 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 8 16
time (Ma) Length (µm) time (Ma) Length (µm)

SIERRA NEVADA PROVINCE, proximal to the Santa Marta - Bucaramanga fault

SN23, Jurassic granodiorite SN29, Precambrian gneiss
0 15.07±0.73µm
14.83±0.77µm 0
20 26.7±1.8 Ma 57
30.3±1.5 Ma
20 29.6 Ma
26.9 Ma 14.50±0.96µm
40 0.93 0.6 0.65 40 0.99 14.49±0.83µm
T (°C)

T (°C)
60 60 65
0.4 0.4 1.00
80 80
100 100
0.2 0.2
120 120
140 0.0 140 0.0
80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 8 16 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 8 16
time (Ma) Length (µm) time (Ma) Length (µm)
SN30, Precambrian gneiss
0
20 25.6±2.2 Ma
25.9 Ma
40 0.99
60 13.91±1.09µm
T (°C)

13.89±1.28µm
80
50
100
0.2 0.99
120
140 0.0
80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 8 16
time (Ma) Length (µm)

SANTA MARTA PROVINCE

SN3, Late Cretaceous mica schist SN4, Paleogene quartz diorite
0 0
16.3±0.9 Ma 24.4±1.7 Ma
20 14.63±0.93µm 24.3 Ma
16.2 Ma 40 14.68±0.99µm
40 0.93 14.79±1.01µm 0.97
14.56±1.10µm
60 64 80 Ap He : 13.3±1.9 Ma 41
T (°C)
T (°C)

0.4 0.92 13.1 Ma 0.4 0.34

80 120 0.92
100
0.2 160 Zr He : 26.8±1.1 Ma 0.2
120 27.0 Ma
0.90
140 0.0 200 0.0
80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 8 16 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 8 16
time (Ma) Length (µm) time (Ma) Length (µm)
SN15, Paleogene aplite SN18, Paleogene aplite
0 0 15.10±0.61µm
20.2±1.1 Ma 22.4±1.2 Ma 15.07±0.73µm
20 20 Ma 20 22.6 Ma
40 0.98 40 0.99 0.6 61
14.97± 0.68m 0.92
60 60
T (°C)
T (°C)

14.25±1.16µm
0.4
80 38 80
100 0.98 100
0.2 0.2
120 120
140 0.0 140 0.0
80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 8 16 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 8 16
time (Ma) Length (µm) time (Ma) Length (µm)

124
Ma over an elevation range of more than 2 km
suggesting the fission track ages originate from
rapid cooling events that occurred during the late
Oligocene – middle Miocene, corroborating the
thermal history solutions.
ii) they are not coeval with and do not immediately
post-date proximal magmatic activity, and iii) they
are contemporaneous with sedimentation in the
neighbouring basins (Cesar and Lower Magdalena
Basins; Figure 7).

Public domain heat-flow data from rocks in

5.3 Santander Massif
The lack of track length data precludes an
accurate assessment of the timing of cooling of the
Santander Massif. However, both apatite fission
track ages span a similar range (23-16 Ma, Figure 5)
to those obtained from the Santa Marta Province
of the SNSM, suggesting it may have also cooled
during the Oligocene – early Miocene. The zircon
fission track age (28.1±3.2 Ma) of Jurassic granite
BU140 is distinguishably older than its apatite
fission track age (16.7±3.2 Ma), precluding rapid
cooling of the massif from temperatures >200°C
during the middle Miocene.
6. Exhumation of rocks within the
Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta
The thermal history solutions reveal periods of
elevated cooling rates at i) 65–58 Ma and 50–40 Ma
(Jurassic granitoids), in the central Sierra Nevada
Province, ii) 40–25 Ma (Precambrian gneisses)
proximal to the Santa Marta – Bucaramanga Fault
with higher rates at 26-29 Ma (Jurassic granitoid)
close to the Sevilla Lineament, in the western Sierra
Nevada Province, and iii) 25–30 Ma (Paleogene
quartz diorite and aplite) and 16–25 Ma (Paleogene
aplite and quartz diorites and Upper Cretaceous
schist) north of the Sevilla Lineament. We consider
these cooling events to be a consequence of
exhumation because i) they broadly correlate with
high gradients on the age v elevation plot (Figure 4),
Colombia is sparse, and current estimates of the
geothermal gradient are restricted to 20–25°C/km
in the Llanos foreland basin [Bachu et al., 1995],
and a similar value of 22°C/km from the continental
shelf adjacent to the Santa Marta–Barranquilla
region [López and Ojeda, 2006] (Figure 1). Given
the paucity of data, we are forced to estimate a
value for the geothermal gradient throughout
the Tertiary. Mancktelow and Grasemann [1997]
demonstrated that high exhumation rates lead
to narrowing of isotherms and higher geothermal
gradients due to rock advection, and thus we have
assumed a constant Tertiary geothermal gradient
of 30°C/km, which is similar to the gradient used in
thermochronological studies of the foreland basin
of Colombia [e.g. Mora et al., 2008; Mora et al.,
2010] and the cordilleras of Ecuador [e.g. Spikings
et al., 2000].
Exhumation rates can be estimated by i) the
rate of change of elevation with fission-track
age, and ii) direct measurements taken from the
best-fit thermal history solutions. However, it is
likely that the apatite partial annealing zone was
laterally perturbed by variations in surface relief,
and therefore any slopes obtained from Figure 4,
will yield maximum exhumation rates [Braun et al,
2006].
6.1 The Sierra Nevada Province
The Sierra Nevada Province experienced cooling

Figure 6 (previous page). Time-temperature solutions obtained by numerical modelling, using the kinetic relationship of
Ketcham et al. [2007] for fission track annealing in apatite. Dark grey areas are envelopes for “good fits” and light grey areas
are envelopes for “acceptable fits”. The bold line shows the statistically best–fitting solution. Measured and predicted data
(for the best fit model) are shown for comparison. The solutions were considered to be good fits when track length histograms
and model ages passed the Kolgomorov-Smirnof statistic test with values of >0.5, and acceptable with values of >0.05. GOF:
Goodness-of-fit. Further details can be found in the text. Mean track length values are c-axis projected [Ketcham et al., 2007].

125
periods during 65–40 Ma. Jurassic granitoid SN39,
located in a distinct fault block (Figure 2) cooled
most rapidly during 65-58 Ma at rates of ~6°C/My,
which is equivalent to a slow exhumation rate of
≥0.2km/My. Subsequently, granitoid SN35, which
is located in an adjacent faulted unit towards the
north cooled during 50–40 Ma at an average rate of
5°C/My (Figure 6), yielding an average exhumation
rate of 0.2km/My. Jurassic granitoids SN35, SN36
and SN37 reside within the same fault block (Figure
2), span an elevation range of 794m and yield
indistinguishable apatite fission-track ages, with a
best-fit linear regression line that yields a slope of
~0.32km/My (Figure 4). Combining both estimates
of exhumation rate obtained from the elevation
profile and the thermal history solutions, we
propose that these Jurassic granitoids exhumed at
rates of 0.32–0.2 km/My during 50–40 Ma.
The gneisses and granitoids sampled proximal
to the Santa Marta – Bucaramanga fault probably
reside in the western section of the same faulted
block that hosts Jurassic granitoids SN35, SN36
and SN37 (Figure 2). Consequently, it is plausible
to suggest that these rocks exhumed through
the crust within the same, northwest vergent
transpressive fault slice and experienced a similar
quantity of rock uplift, implying that along-
structural strike variations in fission track ages are
simply a function of variable amounts of erosional
exhumation. Thermal history models indicate that
gneisses SN30 and SN29 cooled during 40–25 Ma
at an average rate of ≥4°C/My, via exhumation at
a rate of ~0.15km/My, and are exposed at lower
elevations than the granitoids located further east
(Figure 4). Assuming that this analysis is accurate,
the relationship between age and elevation (grey
line on Figure 4) for samples taken from this
particular faulted block reflects elevated, albeit
moderate exhumation rates at 40–25 Ma and 50–
40 Ma. Clearly, the reduction in apatite fission track
ages of these rocks relative to the time of cooling
is reflected by the partially annealed track lengths
(Table 1). Thermal history solutions have not been
obtained from Jurassic granitoids SN24, SN25 and
SN26, although they intersect the same trend line
(Figure 3), suggesting they exhumed within the
same fault block.
Jurassic granodiorite SN23, located in a distinct
126
thrust slice in the western Sierra Nevada Province,
proximal to the Sevilla Lineament (Figure 2), yields
a high cooling rate of ~20°C/My during 26–29 Ma,
and an exhumation rate of 0.6–0.7 km/My. Clearly,
this thrust slice was exhumed more after 30 Ma
than regions located more distal to the Sevilla
Lineament within the Sierra Nevada Province,
which may reflect the progradation of thrusts
towards the northwest during the Eocene – late
Oligocene.
6.2 The Santa Marta and Sevilla Provinces
Thermal history modeling suggests that
thrusted units of Paleogene granitoids and Upper
Cretaceous schists of the Santa Marta province
cooled at elevated rates of 4-10°C/My during 16–
25 Ma (Figure 6), and the highest cooling rate in the
Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta of 24°C/My during
25–30 Ma, yielding exhumation rates of 0.14–
0.3km/My and ~0.8km/My, respectively. The rocks
were sampled along a traverse that ascends from a
low coastal elevation of 24m to 2341m towards the
southeast, although the traverse crosses numerous
thrust faults whose displacements clearly gave
rise to variations in thermal and exhumation
histories (Figure 6), and are responsible for the
non-linear relationship between fission track
age and elevation (Figure 4). No clear geographic
trends of the timing of elevated exhumation rates
can be observed within the Santa Marta Province,
suggesting that any thrust displacement occurred
out-of-sequence.
Granitoids SN31 and SN32 are the only samples
taken from the Sevilla province, although they did
not yield a useful quantity of confined fission tracks
in apatite, precluding the generation of thermal
history solutions via numerical modeling.
6.3 Trends in exhumation across the Sierra
Nevada de Santa Marta
The southern Sierra Nevada Province exhumed
at elevated rates during 65–40 Ma, with a younger
pulse at 40–25 Ma occurring proximal to the Santa
Marta – Bucaramanga Fault. More northerly
regions of the Sierra Nevada Province located
proximal to the Sevilla Lineament, exhumed
by greater amounts and more rapidly during
26–29 Ma. North of the Sevilla Lineament, the
densely thrusted Santa Marta Province exhumed
at elevated rates during 25–30 and 16–25 Ma,
without any clear correlation between the timing
of exhumation and location. This general pattern
shows that the location of the region of highest
exhumation rates gradually progressed towards
the northwest within the Sierra Nevada province,
possibly via the propagation of northwest verging
thrust slices. After 25 Ma, the highest exhumation
rates are found in the Santa Marta Province,
suggesting that displacement along the Sevilla
Lineament may have partially decoupled it from
the Sierra Nevada province.
7.0 Regional Correlations and
Discussion
7.1 65-50 Ma
A clear coincidence can be found linking the
inception of sedimentation proximal to the SNSM
and exhumation of the SNSM, supporting our
interpretation that cooling was a consequence of
erosional exhumation.
Inception of the foreland Cesar Basin, located
along the southeastern border of the cordillera of
the SNSM (Figure 2) occurred during the earliest
Tertiary with high subsidence and the deposition
of terrigenous, reb-bed, coarse siliclastic rocks of
the Manantial Fm. during 65-61 Ma [Montes et
al., 2010] (Figure 7), precisely matching the timing
of elevated exhumation in the southern Sierra
Nevada Province of the SNSM. The Manantial Fm.
hosts clasts of granulite and schist, and dense
minerals such as garnet indicating that it was
derived from the Sierra Nevada Province [Montes
et al., 2010]. The conformably overlying mudstones
of the Cerrejón Formation (58–55 Ma [Jaramillo
et al., 2007, Montes et al., 2010]), which were
deposited in a relatively low energy environment,
approximately temporally correlate with a
reduction in exhumation rates within the present
day cordillera of the SNSM. Analyses of the dense
mineral assemblages of these basal sequences of
the Cesar basin confirms that they were dominantly
sourced from rocks of the SNSM [Bayona et al.,
2007; Ayala, 2009]. The region now occupied by the
SNSM, Cesar Basin, Perijá Range and the Maracaibo
Basin was buried beneath extensive Cretaceous
siliclastic and carbonate sequences that terminate
at 65 Ma (Figure 7). Consequently, it is clear that
the first phase of orogenic growth of the SNSM
occurred at 65 Ma, although exhumation was slow
(0.2km/My) compared to thrust belts that evolve
at plate margins such as the Himalayas (in the area
of K2: 3-6km/My [Foster et al., 1994]). However,
an exhumation rate of 0.2km/My is comparable to
values proposed for intra-continental orogenesis
in Australia (0.4km/My [Shaw et al., 1992]), and
may be typical for crust responding to increased
compression originating at a distal plate margin.
Several authors have shown that the
allochthonous Caribbean Plateau and overlying
island arc collided with the pacific margin of
northern South America, approximately north
of 5°S (present day co-ordinates) at 75–70 Ma
[Spikings et al., 2000; Villagómez et al., 2008;
Vallejo et al., 2009], resulting in i) a sudden
onset of high exhumation rates (>1km/My) along
the continental margin, which is represented
by the Central Cordillera in Colombia and the
Eastern Cordillera in Ecuador, ii) initiation of a
foreland setting east of the Central Cordillera in
Colombia (the Middle Magdalena Basin; [Villamil,
1999; Gómez et al., 2005] and Ecuador (Oriente
Basin), and iii) inversion of the pre-foreland basin
sequence of the Amazon Foreland Basin [Baby
et al., 1990]. However, platform continental
sedimentation persisted across northern Colombia
(north of 8°N; present day co-ordinates; Figure 7)
covering the region of the present day SNSM until
65 Ma, implying the region did not respond to
the initial collision event. More recently Van der
Lelij et al. [2010] have shown that the plateau-
continent collision event did not occur until 65 Ma
along the northernmost zone of collision, near to
the northwestern corner of the continental plate,
implying that the collision was diachronous, and
younged to the northeast. We propose that the
onset of exhumation in the Sierra Nevada Province
and the associated early Paleocene inception of
the foreland Cesar basin was a direct response
to increased transpressive stress originating from
ocean plateau – continent collision along the
northwestern corner of South America. Surface
uplift caused the marine platform that covered the
northern region of Colombia to retreat, and the
foreland was placed into a continental environment
127
 Maracaibo
LM SNSM Cesar Perijá Border Basin
Basin Allocht. Autoch. Basin Range Perijá NW SE
Neogene

10 Tubara
Mioc

20 Porquero Real Icotea

basin
C. de Oro Ceibote of the
30 ning
ope
Ol

40
Paleogene

Eoc

nce
Tabaco seque
50 e ssive
Sta. Marta regr
60 Arc
Pal

Manantial Cerrejón
70
Ma

Sta. Marta Molino Colón

80 Schist
Late

90 La Luna
Cretaceous

Maraca
100 Cogollo Group.
110
120
Early

Río Negro
130
140
150
Jurassic
arc

Pre-Jurassic

Alluvial fan deposits

Erosion of source regions as predicted
by deposits within adjacent basins
Mudstones and coal

Continental sanstones and shales High (≥0.5 mm/y) exhumation rates obtained from the
apatite fission track data
Shelf carbonates and shales
Moderate (<0.5 mm/y) exhumation rates obtained from
the apatite fission track data
Acidic intrusive rocks

Lavas

Schists

Amphibolites

Figure 7. Time-space chart for the post-Jurassic evolution of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta and its neighbouring regions
showing the periods of exhumation deduced from this study. Increased exhumation rates are contemporaneous with the
onset of sedimentation in the surrounding basins (all names correspond to stratigraphic formations). References, Cesar Basin
[Touissant, 1999; Mora and García, 2006; Arango and Blandón, 2006; Montes et al., 2010], Maracaibo Basin [Mann et al.,
2006], Lower Magdalena Basin, geophysical and well data [Mora and Garcia, 2006; Gómez et al., 2006, Reyes et al., 2000].
LM: Lower Magdalena Basin.

128
(Manantial, Cerrejón and Tabaco Fms [Toussaint,
1999] (Figure 7). Previous thermochronological
studies of the Late-Cretaceous Pacific margin of
Colombia and Ecuador have shown that elevated
exhumation events persisted during 75–45 Ma
and 75–55 respectively [Spikings et al., 2000;
Villagómez, 2010], possibly due to a combination
of a long period of elevated stress, and rock uplift
driven by isostatic rebound. Therefore, we also
suggest that the elevated exhumation rates in the
Sierra Nevada province that persisted until ~58 Ma
also represent continued exhumation beyond the
timing of collision at 65 Ma.
7.2 50-40 Ma
The onset of deposition of the terrigenous
Tabaco formation in the Cesar Basin during
continuous subsidence slightly pre-dates an
increase in exhumation rates within the Sierra
Nevada province during 50–40 Ma (Figure 7),
suggesting the SNSM may not have been the sole
source of detritus, with some sediment being
derived from the Perijá Range [Shagam et al.,
1984].
The ocean plateau-continent collision event
during the early Paleocene was followed by the
dextral displacement of the Caribbean Plate and
the onset of a new shallow, southeast dipping
subduction zone offshore of the SNSM, whose
present-day surficial trace corresponds to the
Southern Caribbean Plate Boundary Zone (Figure
1). Subduction of the Caribbean slab [e.g. Gorney
et al., 2007] and the onset of a continental arc
commenced in the late Paleocene [Pindell and
Barret, 1990; Müller et al., 1999] and lasted until
the early Eocene [MacDonald et al., 1971], which
produced the Santa Marta Batholith (K/Ar ages
of 58–44 Ma [Tschanz et al., 1974]; zircon U–Pb
ages of 57–50 Ma [Cardona et al., 2008a]) as a
consequence of increased NE–SW convergence
between the South and North American Plates
[Müller et al., 1999]. We propose that the elevated
exhumation rates in the Sierra Nevada Province
were driven by the same compressive forces,
and ultimately reflect convergence between the
North and South American plates. Coeval local
occurrences include i) the initiation of surface
uplift of the Perijá Range during the middle Eocene
[Bayona et al., 2007] (Figure 7) as a response
to displacement along the Cerrejón Fault (CF;
Figure 2), and ii) southeastwards younger onset
of continental deposition in the late Paleocene –
early Eocene in the region of the Maracaibo Basin
[Mann et al., 2006], reflecting tilting upwards of
its northwestern sector (Figure 7). Eocene arc shut
off in the Santa Marta Province could have been
produced by the onset of flattening subduction
beneath the SNSM.
7.3 40-30 Ma
Precambrian gneisses and Jurassic granitoids of
the Sierra Nevada Province located proximal to the
Santa Marta – Bucaramanga fault were exhuming
at elevated rates during 40–30 Ma. The thermal
history models suggest that exhumation rates in
more easterly regions of the Sierra Nevada province
may have also increased slightly during ~35–30 Ma
(sample SN39). This spatial distribution of elevated
exhumation rates during 40–30 Ma suggests they
were related to displacement along the Santa Marta
– Bucaramanga Fault. This time period coincides
with a hiatus in both the Cesar and Maracaibo
basins, and pre-dates the earliest preserved
sedimentary rocks in the Lower Magdalena Basin
(Figure 7), suggesting either i) surface uplift in the
basins rendered them topographically prominent,
ii) the depocenters were starved of sediment, or
iii) the sedimentary rocks were reworked prior to
sedimentation in the Oligocene. We are unable to
distinguish between these possibilities, although
previous authors have utilised seismic data to
suggest that there is a late Eocene-early Oligocene,
regional unconformity present in the Cesar and
the Lower Magdalena Basins [Mora and García,
2006]. We propose that cooling during 40–30 Ma
is unequivocal evidence of exhumation, although
the detritus was mainly distributed offshore, and
may still exist as unrecognized remnants within
the surrounding basins. A zircon fission track age
of 28.1±3.2 Ma (Table 2; Jurassic granite) from the
Santander Massif, which is bound to the west by
the Santa Marta – Bucaramanga fault suggests that
the region has undergone extensive exhumation
since 30 Ma, precluding a determination of the
regional influence of the fault prior to 30 Ma.
A lack of regionally distributed exhumation
during 40–30 Ma renders it difficult to confidently
129
assign a driving force, although we speculate
that exhumation was caused by flattening of the
subducted Caribbean slab, leading to reactivation
of faults and the rapid drainage of sediments
towards the continental shelf, accounting for hiati
distributed across the region (Figure 7). It is likely
that the slab was composed of buoyant, oceanic-
plateau rocks [Taboada et al., 2000], which
provided support for an elevated upper plate.
7.4 30 – 16 Ma
The highest exhumation rates within the
cordillera of the SNSM during 30–16 Ma occurred
during 29-26 Ma proximal to the Santa Marta –
Bucaramanga Fault in the western Sierra Nevada
Province, and 30–25 Ma and 25–16 Ma in the Santa
Marta Province. These time periods correlate
closely with conglomerates and sandstones (Real
Fm. [Toussaint, 1999]) in the Cesar Basin and
basal terrigenous strata of the Lower Magdalena
Basin (Figure 7), bolstering our interpretation
that cooling of the SNSM was a consequence of
erosional exhumation. Kellogg and Bonini [1982]
document intense folding and thrusting and
elevated exhumation in the northwestern SNSM
during the late Oligocene based on field mapping
and gravity data, corroborating our interpretations.
Post-middle Oligocene tectonic events recorded
in the SNSM were coeval with events recorded in
basins located on the South American Plate (e.g.
Lower Magdalena, Cesar, Maracaibo and Llanos
basins of Colombia and Venezuela; e.g. [Mann et
al., 2006; Parra et al., 2009; Horton et al., 2010;
Mora et al., 2010; Nie et al., 2010]). In contrast,
thermochronological analyses of the Leeward
Antilles islands suggest they have been tectonically
quiescent since ~40–35 Ma [Van der Lelij et al., in
press.]. Therefore, we suggest that the SNSM was
already mainly decoupled from the Caribbean by 30
Ma and has responded to a South American tectonic
regime since then. East-west dextral vertical faults
located south of the Southern Caribbean Plate
Boundary Zone (Figure 1; e.g. Oca Fault) formed
after the tectonic emplacement of the Santa Marta
Province [Pindell and Barret, 1990] and have only
been active since the late Miocene [Pindell and
Kennan, 2009] by absorbing a component of lateral
displacement within the Southern Caribbean Plate
Boundary Zone [Taboada et al., 2000].
130
Zircon and apatite fission-track ages that
span 28–16 Ma in the Santander Massif (Table 2)
suggest the region was also cooling and exhuming
at elevated rates during the late Oligocene–
Miocene. Mora et al. [2010] show that the southern
termination of the Santa Marta-Bucaramanga fault
(Figure 1) was active at that time. Similarly, coeval
exhumation of the Perijá Range is recorded in the
Maracaibo basin, where a thick clastic wedge fills
the basin from the west [Shagam et al., 1984;
Mann et al., 2006] (Figure 7).
We propose that sinistral displacement of the
Santa Marta–Bucaramanga fault was responsible
for the deformation and elevated exhumation
rates found in the SNSM during 30–16 Ma, in
addition to surface uplift within the Perijá Range.
The Santa Marta–Bucaramanga fault is believed to
be an old paleosuture, which has been reactivated
several times, culminating with displacement in
the Miocene that uplifted the Santander Massif
and caused thickening in the Perijá Range [Cediel
et al., 2003]. Prolonged sinistral transpressional
movement extended all along the Santa Marta
- Bucaramanga fault towards its northern tip,
where displacement was impeded by the presence
of oceanic plateau rocks of the Caribbean plate,
favouring northwest verging thrusting. The
westernmost part of the Sierra Nevada province
thrusted above the Sevilla Province along the
Sevilla Lineament at ~30 Ma (see thermal history
solution for SN23; Figure 6). Faulted blocks linked
with the Santa Marta – Bucaramanga fault were
also exhumed at a similar time. As transpression
proceeded north-westwards, the Santa Marta
Province was thrusted, uplifted and exhumed
during 25–16 Ma.
This period (30–16 Ma) was coincident with a
period of elevated exhumation rates during the
late Oligocene – early Miocene throughout the
Northern Andes [Spikings et al., 2000, 2001, 2010;
Parra et al., 2009; Mora et al., 2010]. The Farallón
Plate fragmented into the Cocos and Nazca Plates at
~25 Ma, and the Nazca plate vector changed from
ESE to E with an accompanying sudden increase
of its convergence rate with the South American
plate [Pilger, 1984; Pardo-Casas and Molnar, 1987].
Müller et al. [1999] report increased convergence
rates between the South and North American
plates during the early Miocene, which could have
underthrust Caribbean oceanic crust below the
South American Margin, increasing the regional
compressive stress.
8. Why is the Sierra Nevada de Santa
Marta currently at 5775m?
The SNSM reaches a maximum height of 5775m,
which is unexpected considering that i) it yields
an unexpectedly high gravity anomaly (180 mGal
relative to the adjacent basins, [Kellogg and Bonini,
1982]) indicating the region is not in isostatic
equilibrium [Case et al., 1982, 1990; Cerón, 2008],
ii) the youngest period of exhumation detected
within the sensitivity realm of the apatite fission
track method, which we assume to be a proxy for
rock uplift is ~16 Ma, and iii) the prevailing climate
is tropical–subtropical with an annual rainfall of
1000–2000 mm/year [Arias and Morales, 1999] in
the foothills of the massif, which should provide
significant erosive power.
Cerón [2008] propose that the dynamic
topography of the SNSM and isostatic disequilibrium
is maintained by a rigid, underthrusted Caribbean
oceanic lithosphere. If this underthrusted slab is
composed of oceanic plateau rocks [Taboada et
al., 2000], then its high bouyancy compared to
MORB may be sufficient to support high elevations
at the margins of the continental lithosphere even
though it has no deep continental roots. Given
the high elevation of the SNSM, coupled with the
highly erosive climate of northern Colombia, we
would expect rock uplift and therefore exhumation
to have been more recent than 16 Ma. For
example, fission-track analyses of other prominent
topographic regions such as the Cordillera Blanca
in Peru, and K2 in the Pakistan Karakoram, yielded
ages of 10–7 Ma (zircon U-Th/He [Garver et al.,
2005]) and 4–2 Ma (apatite fission track [Foster et
al., 1994]), respectively.
This comparison suggests that the high peaks of
the SNSM formed when the present surface was
at temperatures lower than 60°C, and there has
been insufficient erosion (approximately <1.5km)
to expose late Miocene and younger apatite partial
annealing zones. Therefore, we suggest that this is
indicative of very recent, rapid rock uplift, leaving
insufficient time for erosion to expose rocks that
cooled through the apatite partial annealing zone
after ~16 Ma. This analysis suggests that i) there
has been significant alterations to the relief since
the surface cooled through the apatite partial
annealing zone, rendering our exhumation rates to
be maximum values, and ii) the lower temperature
apatite (U-Th)/He thermochronometer should be
applied to constrain the time and origin of the
driving forces that generated the high elevations
of the SNSM.
9. Conclusions
1. Elevated exhumation rates in the Sierra
Nevada Province during 65–58 Ma represent the
initial phase of rock uplift and exhumation within
the SNSM, and were driven by the latter stages of
diachronous accretion of the Caribbean Plateau
to the Pacific margin of the South American Plate,
and the initiation of a foreland basin setting in the
Cesar Basin.
2. Convergence between the North and South
American plates at ~50 Ma [e.g. Pindell et al., 2005]
underthrusted the Caribbean Plate beneath the
northern South American Plate, and was probably
responsible for a second pulse of exhumation
within the Sierra Nevada Province during 50–40
Ma, which corresponds with terrigenous deposition
in the foreland Cesar Basin, and south-eastward
trending regression of continental deposition in
the Maracaibo Basin.
3. Precambrian gneisses and Jurassic granitoids
located proximal to the Santa-Marta Bucaramanga
fault exhumed at elevated rates during 40–30
Ma. Similar lithologies located further east within
the same fault block within the Sierra Nevada
province may have also exhumed during the same
period although their fission-track record has since
eroded. Coeval sedimentary rocks have not been
preserved in the surrounding basins, suggesting
they may have been reworked. A lack of regionally
distributed exhumation during 40-30 Ma renders
it difficult to confidently assign a driving force,
although we speculate that exhumation was
caused by flattening of the subducted Caribbean
slab, leading to reactivation of faults, and the rapid
drainage of sediments towards the continental
shelf.
131
 4. The highest exhumation rates within the
cordillera of the SNSM occurred during 26–29 Ma
proximal to the Santa Marta – Bucaramanga fault
in the western Sierra Nevada Province, and 25-30
Ma and 16–25 Ma in the Santa Marta Province.
Interactions between the SNSM and the Caribbean
Plate were minor during the late Oligocene –
Miocene, and exhumation was a consequence of
compression originating at the Pacific margin of
South America. Sinistral displacement of the Santa
Marta – Bucaramanga fault compressed the SNSM
against the thick oceanic plateau of the Caribbean
Plate during 30–16 Ma, and also gave rise to rock
uplift and exhumation in the Santander Massif and
the Perijá Range. Fragmentation of the Farallón
Plate and increased convergence rates at the pacific
margin were probably responsible for increased
compressive stress in northern South America,
which was partly accommodated by transpression
along the Santa Marta – Bucaramanga fault.

5. The data reveal northwest directed

propagation of exhumation within the SNSM
that is probably linked to progressive thrust
displacement. The displacing thrusts intersect the
Santa Marta–Bucaramanga Fault, whose sinistral
displacement probably provides the driving force
for the advance of exhumation within the SNSM.

6. The high peaks of the SNSM (5775m) formed

when the present surface was at temperatures
lower than 60°C, and there has been insufficient
erosion (approximately <1.5km) to expose late
Miocene and younger apatite partial annealing
zones. Given the high erosional power of the
climate in northern Colombia, this is indicative of
very recent, rapid rock uplift, leaving insufficient
time for erosion to expose rocks that cooled
through the apatite partial annealing zone after
~16 Ma.

132
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Appendix 1 and other previously dated grains demonstrates
the ability of the LA-ICP-MS method to reproduce
results obtained by EDM [Donelick, unpublished].
Apatites were mounted in epoxy resin and
polished using 3.0 μm and 0.3 μm Al2O3 slurry at
Apatite to Zircon Inc. Natural fission tracks crossing
the polished apatite grains surface were etched
for counting using: 5.5 N HNO3 for 20.0 (±0.5)
seconds at 21.0(±0.5)°C. Mounts were scanned to
search for the best apatite grains for age dating
and grain location and pictures were digitally
recorded at the University of Geneva (Microscope
Zeiss Axio-Imager.z1m - 3 axis motorized stage -
Autoscan System Pty. Ltd.). Grain localities were
revisited using the Laser ablation inductively
coupled plasma-mass spectrometer (LA-ICP-MS
apparatus housed at the GeoAnalytical Laboratory,
Washington State University, Pullman, Washington,
U.S.A.) in order to determine 238U concentrations
by measuring the ratio of 238U to 43Ca in apatite
grains from the same regions of individual
grains from which the spontaneous tracks were
obtained [see Hasebe et al., 2004; Donelick et
al., 2005; Parra et al., 2009]. We assumed that
Ca occurs in stoichiometric amounts in all of the
analysed apatite grains, and 43Ca is assumed to
be directly proportional to the volume of apatite
ablated. Samples were ablated in He to reduce
condensation and elemental fractionation. Spot
analyses were performed with the laser centered
on a fixed point. A total of 30 scans for 238U, 232Th,
147
Sm, and 43Ca were performed for each spot. The
first 10 scans were performed while the laser was
blocked from contacting the grain surface, allowing
the background measurements to be recorded.
Subsequently, a cylindrical pit was excavated to a
depth beyond which uranium did not contribute
fission tracks to the etched grain surface. The
depths of a representative number of the pits were
measured and 238U/42Ca was calculated for the
entire pit based on the weighted mean of 238U/43Ca
values for individual scans relative to the depths
from which the ablated material was derived.
Fission track ages and errors were calculated using:
(a) the ratio of the density of natural fission tracks
present in the grain to the amount of 238U present,
and (b) a modified version of the radioactive decay
equation that includes a LA-ICPMS zeta calibration
factor [Donelick et al. 2005]. The zeta calibration
factor was determined for each sample analyzed
by measuring the U/Ca ratio in standard Durango
(31.44±0.09 Ma) apatite at the beginning and end
of each LA-ICP-MS session. Dating of age standards

137
Appendix 2

Samples codes used in this work and the original codes from the project
“Geodynamic evolution of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta” [Ingeominas , 2007a, 2007b]

Sample Code
Number in this (Invemar-
contribution Ingeominas)
North of the Sevilla Lineament
Santa Marta Province
SN1 EAM-11-42L
SN3 EAM-11-48L
SN4 EAM-11-50L
SN6 EAM-19-55G
SN8 EAM-19-60L
SN9 EAM-19-61L
SN13 JRG-12-17L
SN14 JRG-19-20L
SN15 JRG-18-22G
SN17 JRG-19-26L
SN18 CAS-11-25G
Sevilla Province
SN31 JRG-13-10L
SN32 CAS-13-11L
South of the Sevilla Lineament
Sierra Nevada Province, proximal to the Santa Marta - Bucaramanga Fault
SN23 JRG-26-68L
SN24 EAM-26-102L
SN25 JRQ-26-81bG
SN26 JRQ-26-84bL
SN28 JRQ-26-87L
SN29 JRQ-26-88aL
SN30 JRQ-26-90dL
Sierra Nevada Province, central and eastern regions
SN35 JRQ-26-96L
SN36 JRQ-26-98L
SN37 JRQ-26-102L
SN39 JRQ-26-110L
SN42 FCB-21-36L
SN43 EAM-26-110L
SN44 EAM-20-122cL

138
139
140
Chapter 5
Conclusions
The main objective of this thesis was to
establish a time-constrained tectonic model for
the Colombian Andes since the disassembly of
Pangaea. Any tectonic reconstruction must take
into account A) the existence of (and the tectonic
and paleogeographic origin) allochthonous and
para-autochthonous Cretaceous terranes ,and
B) the timing of accretion of those terranes
to the continental margin, as constrained by
numerous analytical methods that have been
presented throughout the thesis, and the nature
of reactivation of the buttressing continent
in response to accretion. The work has been
presented in three main chapters: Chapter 2
addressed point A, whereas Chapters 3 and 4 were
dedicated to point B.
Chapter 2 presented and discussed 16 new U-Pb
zircon ages and 9 new geochronological 40Ar/39Ar
ages for multiple igneous and metamorphic rocks
and whole rock geochemistry (XRF and ICP-MS)
from a variety of rocks exposed in the Central and
Western Cordilleras. This chapter characterized the
tectonic origin of major igneous and metamorphic
geological units and provided a basis upon which
the thermochronological data was evaluated
(Chapters 3 and 4).
To decipher the time of accretion of the different
terranes (point B) onto the continent, we took into
account:
i) Thermochronological data acquired from the
indenting oceanic rocks and buttressing continental
rocks.
ii) Characterization of syn- and post-accretionary
sedimentary rocks within the accreted terranes
and the continental margin in the peripheral and
retro-foreland basins.
iii) Geochronological data obtained from
arc-related batholiths, which intrude both the
allochthonous and autochthonous terranes, and
thus pre- and post-date terrane accretion (Chapter
2).
Chapters 3 and 4 present more than 140
thermochronological ages (with zones of partial
daughter isotope loss ranging from 550°C to 40°C)
from the Western and Central Cordilleras and
the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta in Colombia.
Thermal history solutions have been obtained
using a Monte-Carlo numerical procedure for
more than 20 samples using a controlled search
algorithm provided by HeFTy® software. The
solutions satisfied i) in all cases, the apatite fission
track age, track length distribution and average
Dpar, ii) in several samples, apatite and zircon (U-
Th)/He data. For the final presentation. Additional
constraints were provided by zircon fission track
ages (250±40°C), plateau biotite 40Ar/39Ar ages
(300±50°C), plateau hornblende 40Ar/39Ar ages
(500±50°C) and alkali-feldspar 40Ar/39Ar ages
(between 350–200°C).
Thermal history solutions yielded by the
numerical models showed periods of elevated
cooling during the Early Cretaceous, Late
Cretaceous, Eocene and Miocene, in Colombia.
These cooling events are considered to be a
consequence of exhumation because i) they
broadly correlate with high gradients on age v
elevation plots, ii) the periods are not coeval and
do not immediately post-date proximal magmatic
activity, and iii) they are contemporaneous with
sedimentation in the neighbouring basins (e.g.
Middle and Lower Magdalena Basins and the Cesar
Basin).
The geochronological and thermochronological
data, in combination with geochemical analysis
have provided useful constraints for the tectonic
model for the Jurassic-Cretaceous evolution of the
Colombian Andes, which is presented in this thesis.
The main implications of that model are:
1. The earliest cooling event recorded in the
buttressing continental margin of Colombia
occurred in the Early Cretaceous at 139–133 Ma.
This event was approximately synchronous with the
termination of Jurassic continental arc magmatism.
A contemporaneous major unconformity was
observed along the entire retro-foreland of the
northern Andes (Colombia and Ecuador), providing
evidence for a regional tectonic event. We propose
that this event was caused by back-stepping of the
Jurassic subduction zone, forming the oceanic Early
Cretaceous Quebradagrande Complex.
2. The development of the Quebradagrande
intraoceanic arc and its associated marginal basin
continued during the Barremian, and sediment
supply to the basin was mainly derived from the
141
continental margin. By Albian time (~117–107 within the Sierra Nevada province, possibly via the
Ma) the Quebradagrande Complex accreted onto propagation of northwest-verging thrust slices.
the paleocontinent and the subduction channel After 25 Ma, the highest exhumation rates were
(the Arquía Complex) accreted onto the forearc found in the Santa Marta Province, suggesting
of the Quebradagrande Complex. These collisions that displacement along the Sevilla Lineament may
drove exhumation in distinct regions of the Central have partially decoupled it from the Sierra Nevada
Cordillera, and reactivated major structures. Province.
3. The Caribbean-Colombian Oceanic Province
was formed between 100 and 92 Ma and
approached the South American continent from
the east. East-dipping subduction of the remnant
oceanic crust beneath the continent formed the
Antioquia and Córdoba batholiths, whereas west-
dipping subduction beneath the plateau probably
formed the Buga Batholith.
4. By Campanian time (~75–70 Ma), the Late
Cretaceous Caribbean–Colombian Oceanic
Province accreted onto the continent. This event
drove elevated exhumation rates during 75–65 Ma
in northern Colombia as an immediate response to
collision and accretion. Campanian – Maastrichtian
exhumation corroborates the sudden increase in
sedimentation rate in the foreland and the retro-
foreland basins.
5. The composite allochthonous and
autochthonous terranes revealed periods of
elevated exhumation at 45–30 Ma (rocks exposed
at central latitudes) and at 15–5 Ma (yielded by
rocks in Southern Colombia), which are believed
to have been caused by an increase in the
convergence rate between South America and
the Farallón/Nazca plates, and the collision and
subduction of heterogeneities in the oceanic crust
(e.g. the Carnegie Ridge), respectively.
6. The thermotectonic history preserved in
rocks form the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta in
the northernmost region of Colombia revealed
periods of elevated exhumation which were
diachronous compared with events that occurred
along the Pacific margin. Rapid cooling and
exhumation occurred at i) 65–58 Ma and 50–40
Ma in the central Sierra Nevada Province, ii) 40–25
Ma proximal to the Santa Marta–Bucaramanga
Fault with higher rates at 29–26 Ma close to the
Sevilla Lineament, in the western Sierra Nevada
Province, and iii) 30–25 Ma and 25–16 Ma north
of the Sevilla Lineament. This general pattern
shows that the location of the region of the highest
exhumation rates in the Sierra Nevada de Santa
Marta gradually progressed towards the northwest

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