Module of the

Selected
Topics in
Science VIII

Prepared by:
Jomell M. Santiago First Lesson: Cell
Cycle and Mitosis

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Objectives:

At the end of the lesson, you are expected to:

a. identify the two stages of cell cycle

b. describe the events in different stages of mitosis
c. draw the different stage of mitosis
d. explain the importance of cell division in growth and reproduction

Discussion
Cell cycle is a cycle of alternating stages of division and rest from division. It consists of
two major stages: Interphase and Cell Division.

Figure 1. Stages in Cell Cycle

Interphase takes up more than 90% of a cell lifespan and considered as the “living” phase of the cell. It
is where the chromosome doubles in number and cell does not divide. It is divided into three stages: G1
phase, S phase and G2 phase.

G1 (first gap period) phase where most growing occurs. The cells grow and function normally. There are
more organelles produced which increases the volume of the cytoplasm and synthesis of various enzymes
that are required in S phase.

Chromosome Number a cell with two sets of chromosome is called diploid (2N) and cell with
one set of chromosome is called haploid (N).

S phase (synthesis stage) is also known as the Swanson phase. It is the period of DNA synthesis where
chromosomes are duplicated in preparation for the next cell division.

G2 (Second gap period) phase is characterized by a rapid cell growth and protein synthesis to prepare
the cell for cell division.
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 Figure 2. Interphase and its stages
During interphase, the nucleus is clearly visible as a distinct membrane-bound organelle in
stained cell and can be clearly seen under microscope. The chromosomes cannot be seen clearly since
they appear as an irregular mass because DNA they contain are stretched out thinly in nucleus.
After division, the cells may go through G1 to prepare for the next division or proceed to G 0
phase. G0 phase is the arrested, quiescent stage which involved in differentiation of different cell such as
the nerve, blood cell, etc. Some cells enter G0 temporarily until an external signal triggers the onset of
G1. Other cells that never or rarely divide remain in G0 permanently.

Cell division is formation of new cell. The two types are: mitosis and meiosis.
Mitosis is a type of nuclear cell division that occurs in somatic (non-reproductive) eukaryotic
cells. It comes from the Greek word mitos means "warp thread“ and osis means "act, process”. It
accounts for approximately 10% of the cell cycle and produces two daughter cells with the same number
of chromosomes. The importance of mitosis in organisms is for growth and development, cell
replacement, regeneration and asexual reproduction. The four stages of mitosis are:
(1) Prophase (2) Metaphase (3) Anaphase (4) Telophase

Prophase is the longest phase of mitosis. It is when the chromosomes condense and become visible which
is made up of two identical sister chromatids. The nucleolus and nuclear membrane starts to disappear.
Centrosome or pair of centrioles moves to opposite poles of nucleus. Spindle fibers emerge from
centrioles.

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Figure 3. Prophase
 Metaphase is the stage where
nuclear membrane disappears completely.
Chromosome is aligned in the equator plate
or metaphase plate, centrioles are at
opposite poles of the cell and the spindle
fibers attach to the kinetochore. The
kinetochore is a protein structure on the
centromere that is the point of attachment
between the mitotic spindle and the sister
chromatids.

Figure 4. Metaphase

Anaphase is the shortest phase of

mitosis. In this phase, the centromeres
of each chromosome separate and
spindle fibers begin to pull the sister
chromatids. The paired sister chromatids
separate from one another. Each end of
the cell receives one partner from each
pair of sister chromatids, ensuring that
the two new daughter cells will contain
identical genetic material.

Telophase is the final phase of Figure 5. Anaphase

mitosis. It is characterized by the
formation of two new daughter nuclei at
either end of the dividing cell. The
spindle fiber continues to push poles
apart and the chromosomes move at the
opposite poles of the cell. Chromosomes
uncoil or decondense. Nucleoli also
reappear within the new nuclei, and the
mitotic spindle breaks apart, each new
cell receiving its own complement of
DNA, organelles, membranes, and
centrioles. At this point, the cell is
already beginning to split in half as
cytokinesis begins. Figure 6. Telophase
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Cytokinesis is the second part of the
mitotic phase during which cell division is
completed by the physical separation of the
cytoplasmic components into two daughter
cells. It is from cyto which means “cell”
and kinesis which means “division”.

Cytokinesis in in animal cells occurs

with the formation of cleavage furrow. The
furrow deepens as the actin ring contracts,
and eventually the membrane and cell are
cleaved in two. On the other hand, plant cells
involves the formation of cell plate that
eventually develops into the cell wall and the
middle lamella. Figure 7. Formation of cleavage furrow in
animal cell and cell plate in plant cell

Figure 8. Cytokinesis Figure 9. Cell cycle checkpoints

It is necessary that daughter cells be nearly exact duplicates of the parent cell. Mistakes in the
duplication or distribution of the chromosomes lead to mutations that may be passed forward to every new
cell produced from the abnormal cell. To prevent a compromised cell from continuing to divide, there are
internal control mechanisms that operate at three main cell cycle checkpoints at which the cell cycle can
be stopped until conditions are favorable. These checkpoints occur near the end of G1, at the G2–M
transition, and during metaphase.

G1 checkpoint or restriction point, determines whether all conditions are favorable for cell division to
proceed into S phase. At G1 checkpoint, there is a check for cell size, protein reserve and damage to the
genomic DNA.
In G2 checkpoint, it ensures that all of the chromosomes have been replicated and the DNA that is
replicated is not damaged.
M checkpoint also known as the spindle checkpoint occurs near the end of the metaphase and determines if
all the sister chromatids are correctly attached to the spindle microtubules. Because the separation of the
sister chromatids during anaphase is an irreversible step, the cycle will not proceed until the kinetochores of
each pair of sister chromatids are firmly anchored to spindle fibers arising from opposite poles of the cell.
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 When the Cell Cycle gets out of Control
In healthy cells, the tight regulation mechanisms of the cell cycle prevent abnormal cell (which causes
cancer or tumor) continue to divide. Failures of cell cycle control can cause unwanted and excessive cell
division. Failures of control may be caused by inherited genetic abnormalities or environmental factors that
compromise the function of certain “stop” and “go” signals. Fortunately, certain cells of the immune system are
capable of recognizing cells that have become cancerous and destroying them. However, in certain cases the
cancerous cells remain undetected and continue to proliferate. If the resulting tumor does not pose a threat to
surrounding tissues, it is said to be benign and can usually be easily removed. If capable of damage, the tumor is
considered malignant and the patient is diagnosed with cancer.

Summary
Cell cycle is a cycle of alternating stages of division and rest from division. It consists of interphase,
which is the “living phase” of the cell and cell division. Interphase is divided into G1, S and G2 phase.
Mitosis is a type of cell division in which two daughter cells are formed and occurs in somatic (non-
reproductive) eukaryotic cells.. Its four stages are prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase. Mitosis is
important in organisms for growth and development, cell replacement, regeneration and asexual reproduction.
Cytokinesis in animal cell forms a cleavage furrow while in plant cell forms a cell plate. Cell cycle
checkpoints ensure that before the cell divides, it has all the requirements need and correct check and correct
any mistake before the cell divides.
Enrichment Activity
I. Draw and label the different phases of mitosis. (30 pts)

Interphase Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase Cytokinesis

II. In the space provided, write the letter of the phase during which each event occurs. (10 pts)
a. interphase b. prophase c. metaphase d. anaphase e. telophase f. cytokinesis
_______1. The nucleolus begins to disintegrate.
_______2. At the beginning of this phase, the chromatids separate.
_______3. The chromosomes move toward the center of the cell.
_______4. Nuclear membrane reappears.
_______5. The cell increases in size.
_______6. Spindle fibers attached to the kinetochore of each chromosome.
_______7. The chromosome duplicates.
_______8. Spindle fiber breaks.
_______9. Spindle fibers emerge from centrioles.
_______10. A cell plate completely divides a plant cell.
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II. Answer the following questions briefly. (10 pts)

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1. Explain the importance of cell division in the life of an organism.

2. Discuss the importance of cell cycle checkpoints.
 Second Lesson: Meiosis

Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, you are expected to:
a. define meiosis
b. explain the important events in each meiotic stage
c. draw a diagram showing the different stages in meiosis
d. explain the significance of meiosis to sexual reproduction

Discussion
Meiosis is the process by which a diploid cell
forms gametes. It comes from the Greek word means
“to make smaller” .It reduces the chromosome
number in half and makes the cells having diploid
chromosome (2N) produce gametes with the haploid
chromosome (N). It takes place in plants and
animals whenever gametes or sex cells are formed
through the process called gametogenesis. The cell
undergoes two rounds of cell division to produce
four daughter cells, each with half the chromosome
number as the original parent cell and with a unique
set of genetic material. The two division of meiosis
are Meiosis I and Meiosis II. Figure 10. Interphase
Meiosis I is called reductional division where the homologous pairs in a diploid cell separate, producing two
haploid cells. The four stages of meiosis are: Prophase I, Metaphase I, Anaphase I and Telophase I.

In Prophase I, chromosomes condense and nuclear membrane breaks up. Homologous chromosome pair
up, forming a tetrad, synapse and crossing over occur through chiasma and serves to increase genetic
diversity by creating four unique chromatids.

Figure 11. Homologous chromosome Figure 12. Prophase I

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 In Metaphase I, the tetrads line up to the center and spindle fiber attached to the kinetochore.
In Anaphase I, the centromeres break and homologous chromosomes separate. Note
that the sister chromatids are still attached.

Figure 13. Metaphase I Figure 14. Anaphase I

In Telophase I, chromosomes reach their

respective poles and cytokinesis follows. Nuclear
membrane reappears and spindle fiber breaks
down. It creates two haploid daughter cells.

Figure 15. Telophase I

Meiosis II is equational division and similar to mitosis. The sister chromatids are finally split, creating a
total of 4 haploid cells (N) per daughter cell from the first division.

Figure 16. Meiosis II

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 In Prophase II, the chromosomes form, nucleolus and nuclear membrane starts to disappear, two pair
of centrioles move to opposite poles of nucleus and spindle fiber forms.

Figure 17. Prophase II Figure 18. Metaphase II

In Metaphase II, the nuclear membrane disappears completely. Chromosome is aligned in the equator
plate and the spindle fibers attach to the kinetochore at the centromere
In Anaphase II, the centromeres of each chromosome separate and spindle fibers begin to pull the
sister chromatids. The paired sister chromatids separate from one another.

Figure 19. Anaphase II Figure 20. Telophase II

In Telophase II, the spindle fibers break down. The chromosomes move at the opposite poles of
the cell and will uncoil or decondense. Nucleoli and nuclear membrane reappears.
Cytokinesis in in animal cells occurs
with the formation of cleavage furrow and in
plant cells occurs with the formation of cell
plate.
One parent cell produces four daughter
cells. Daughter cells have half the number of
chromosomes found in the original parent cell
and with crossing over, are genetically different.
Meiosis differs from mitosis primarily because
there are two cell divisions in meiosis, resulting
in cells with a haploid number of chromosomes.
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Figure 21. Cytokinesis in meiosis

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Summary
Meiosis comes from the Greek word means “to make smaller”. It allows the formation of haploid
gametes. It ensures that even after fusion of gametes, the chromosome number of the zygote or the offspring
remains the same as the diploid chromosome number of the parents. It has two stages, meiosis I and meiosis
II. Each stage is divided into four sub-stages: prophase I and II, metaphase I and II, anaphase I and II and
telophase I and II. Meiosis differs from mitosis primarily because there are two cell divisions in meiosis,
resulting in cells with a haploid number of chromosomes.

Enrichment Activity
I. Draw and label the different phases of meiosis. (30 pts)

Prophase I Metaphase I Anaphase I Telophase I Cytokinesis

Prophase II Metaphase II Anaphase II Telophase II Cytokinesis

II. In the space provided, write the letter/s of the phase during which each event occurs. (10 pts)
a. prophase I b. metaphase I c. anaphase I d. telophase I
e. prophase II f. metaphase II g. anaphase II h. telophase II

_______1. Tetrad is form. _______6. Nuclear membrane reappears.

_______2. Sister chromatids separate.
_______3. Nuclear membrane begins to disintegrate.
_______4. Chromosome become condense.
_______5. Spindle fiber attach to the kinetochore.
_______7. Crossing over occurs.
_______8. Spindle fiber breaks.
_______9. Spindle fibers emerge from centrioles.
_______10. Tetrads moves to the
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equatorial plate.
II. Answer the question briefly. (10 pts)
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1. Why is meiosis is important to sexually reproducing organisms?

 Third Lesson: Chromosome and Sex Determination

Objectives:

At the end of the lesson, you are expected to:

a. define the term 'chromosome'
b. name the different parts of a chromosome
c. identify chromosomal abnormalities in a karyotype
d. discuss how sex is determined
e. explain the processes involved in the formation of gametes

Discussion
What is chromosome?
Chromosome comes from the
Greek word chroma which means
“color” and soma means “body”. It
contains the genetic material of an
organism and its structure is made from
tightly packed strands of DNA and
proteins called histones and form into
long worm-shaped structures called
‘chromatids’. Two chromatids join
together form chromosome. It is formed
in the nucleus and normally visible
under a light microscope only when the
cell is undergoing the metaphase of cell
division.

Figure 22. Chromosome

The number of chromosomes varies between species. Humans have 46 chromosomes. Some species
can have many more than 100 while others can have as little as 2. It contains genes and some may carry
thousands of important genes while some may carry only a few.

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Figure 23. Number of chromosome in different organism

Parts of a Chromosome

The centromere holds the sister chromatids

together and divide the chromosomes into p and q arm. The
short arm of the chromosome is labeled the “p arm.” The
long arm of the chromosome is labeled the “q arm”. The
location of the centromere on each chromosome gives the
chromosome its characteristic shape, and can be used to
help describe the location of specific genes. The
heterochromatin are the darkly staining region while
euchromatin is the lightly staining region. The
kinetochore is made up of protein where spindle fiber
binds.
Figure 24. Parts of a chromosome

What is DNA?

DNA stands for deoxyribonucleic acid. It is the genetic

material which is a double helix shaped like a spiral staircase or
twisted ladder. It provides cells with the information they need to
perform tasks that allow an organism to grow, survive and
reproduce. It is made of nucleotides where the outer parts of the
ladder are made up of sugars. The steps of the ladder are made up
of pairs of nitrogen bases.

Figure 25. DNA Structure

Each nucleotide contains one of the four possible nitrogenous bases: adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine
(C), and guanine (G) and A always bond with T; C always bond with G. It stores and passes on genetic
information from one generation to another. In eukaryote, it is bound with proteins and are organized to form
chromosome.

What is Gene?
Gene is one particular section of a DNA molecule that tells a cell to perform one specific task. It is a
specific segment of a DNA molecule that holds the information for one specific protein. There are about
20,000 genes located on one of the 23 chromosome. Genome refers to all DNA contained in an organism or a
cell.
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Figure 26. Genes are made up of DNA. Each chromosome contains many genes.
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 Mutation refer to any abnormality in the genome. It is sudden genetic change (change in base pair
sequence of DNA). Its cause includes high energy mutation, chemical as mutagens and induced mutations.
Chromosomal Mutation is the alteration on the parts of the chromosome or duplication of the entire
chromosome. It is usually occurs when there is an error in cell division resulting in cells with too few or too
many copies of a chromosome. Other factors that can increase the risk of chromosome abnormalities include
maternal age and environmental factors such as exposure to certain drugs. Even tiny changes in the
chromosome structure can affect multiple genes and have significant effects. Karyotype is a laboratory
procedure that analyzes the size, shape and number of chromosomes. Specialists prepare and photograph
chromosomes during metaphase of mitosis when they are fully condensed.

Figure 27. Karyotype Figure 28. Nondisjunction

Nondisjunction is an error that sometimes happens during meiosis in which homologous

chromosomes fail to separate. One gamete receives two homologues, while the other gamete
receives none.

Chromosomal abnormalities cause by Sex Chromosome:

1. Turner’s Syndrome - missing or incomplete X chromosome.

Figure 29. Karyotype of a person having a

Figure 30. Karyotype of a person having a Triple
Turner syndrome X syndrome
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2. Triple X syndrome - also known as trisomy X and due to the presence of an extra X chromosome in
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each cell of a female.

3.Klinefelter’s Syndrome-or XXY. It is characterized by having two X chromosomes and one Y chromosome.
4.DoubleY Syndrome (Jacob's syndrome) or XYY. The male has an extra male (Y) chromosome.

Figure 31. Karyotype of a person having a Figure 32. Karyotype of a person having
Klinefelter syndrome a Double Y syndrome

Chromosomal abnormalities cause by Somatic Chromosome:

1. Trisomy 21 – also known as Down syndrome. It is the most common chromosomal disorder in the
Philippines. It is caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21.

2. Patau’s Syndrome or trisomy 13. It is caused by an extra copy of chromosome 13.

Figure 33. Karyotype of a person with Down syndrome Figure 34. Karyotype of a person with Patau syndrome
3. Edward’s Syndrome or trisomy 18. It is caused by an extra copy of chromosome 18.
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Figure 35. Karyotype of a person having an Edward syndrome

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Sex Determination
Human have 46 chromosomes or 23 pairs. 22 pairs are homologous called autosomes which determines
body traits while 1 pair is the sex chromosome which determines sex (male or female). Females sex
chromosomes are homologous (look alike) – label XX while males sex chromosomes are different – label
XY.
Mechanism of sex determination
Father determines their children’s sex.
Male has 44 autosomes and 2 sex
chromosomes (X and Y) while female has
44 autosomes and 2 sex chromosomes (both
X). Sexual reproduction involves meiosis
and fertilization. The sex of an organism is
determined at fertilization. The male gets an
X chromosome from his mother and a Y
chromosome on his father. The female gets
two X chromosomes, one from each her
mother and father. Figure 36. Sex Determination
Gametogenesis literally means “creation of gametes”. Spermatogenesis is the process of producing
sperm cell in male. Four mature sperm are produce and each sperm has exactly half the number of
chromosomes as the father. Oogensis is the process of producing egg cell in female. One mature ovum or
egg is produced and has exactly half the number of chromosomes as the mother.

Figure 37. Gametogenesis Figure 38. Sex linked genes

During gamete formation, the normal diploid chromosome number is halved. This is called the
haploid condition. All the eggs of a female have 22 + X chromosomes. A male produces two types of
sperms—one type bears the 22 + X composition and the other, 22 + Y. Therefore, in every 100 sperms, 50
have Y chromosomes and 50 have X chromosomes.
Sex-linked genes are traits carried on the X chromosome or Y chromosome. If a sex-linked trait is
due to recessive mutation, a female will express the phenotype only if she carries two mutated gene. If she
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carries only one, she will be a carrier. If the male inherits a mutated X-linked gene, he will express the gene.
Males suffer more sex-linked trait than female
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 Sex – linked traits are traits located only on the sex chromosome. X linked alleles always show up in
males whether dominant or recessive because males have only one X chromosome.

Summary
Chromosome contains the genetic material of an organism. Two chromatids join together to form
chromosome. Number of chromosome varies between species. Humans have 46 chromosomes. The different
parts of the chromosome are the centromere, p and q arm, heterochromatin, euchromatin and kinetochore.
Chromosomal mutation is the alteration on the parts of the chromosome or duplication of the entire
chromosome. Karyotype is a laboratory procedure that analyzes the size, shape and number of chromosomes.
Chromosomal abnormalities causes by sex chromosome are Turner, Triple X, Double Y and Klinefelter
syndrome. Chromosomal abnormalities causes by somatic chromosome are Trisomy 21, 18 and 21. 22 pairs
of human chromosome are homologous called autosomes which determine body traits while 1 pair is the sex
chromosome which determines sex. Father determines their children’s sex. Male has 44 body chromosomes
and 2 sex chromosomes (X and Y) while female has 44 body chromosomes and 2 sex chromosomes (both
X). Sexual reproduction involves meiosis and fertilization. The sex of an organism is determined at
fertilization. The male gets an X chromosome from his mother and a Y chromosome on his father. The
female gets two X chromosomes, one from each her mother and father. Gametogenesis literally means
“creation of gametes”. Spermatogenesis is the process of producing 4 sperms cell in male while Oogensis is
the process of producing an egg cell in female.

Enrichment Activity
I. Identify the chromosomal abnormalities exhibited by the following pictures. (12 pts)

II. True or False. In the space provided, write T if the statement is true, otherwise write F.
_____1. In humans, sex determination generally depends upon the presence of Y chromosome.
_____2. Nondisjunction is the failure to change daughter cell from diploid to haploid.
_____3. The process of fertilization is random in the selection of which gametes fuse.
_____4. Colorblindness is more common in males than in females.
_____5. Chromosome is formed in the cytoplasm of a cell when a cell is dividing.
_____6. Human has 46 sex chromosomes.
_____7. Oogensis is the process of producing four egg cells in female.
_____8. The sex of an organism is determined at fertilization.
III. Answer the following questions.
1. Is it true that the father determine their children’s sex? Why or why not?
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2. Does mutation only cause harmful effects on organism? Why or why not?
3. Give the importance of karyotyping in the field of medicine.
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 Fourth Lesson: Mendelian Genetics
Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, you are expected to:
a. discuss the contributions of Gregor Mendel and his experiments with the garden pea in genetics
b. define the different terminologies used in Genetics
c. explain the different Mendelian Law of Inheritance
d. solve a problem in Genetics using Punnette square method
e. value the importance of genetics in our daily life

Discussion
Genetics is the study of heredity and variation. It is derived from the Greek word genetikos meaning "
generative", and genesis meaning "origin".It aims to understand how traits can be passed on to the next
generation and how variation arises.
Every person is born with genetic differences, called variation. Variation is why each individual is
unique at the level of genes and traits. Most variation is harmless, but some causes disease. Genetic and trait
variation allows populations to adapt more readily to different environmental challenges. In fact, variation in
populations is necessary for the evolution of species.
Genetics is important in the following field:
- Agriculture -Medicine
- Crime investigation -Industry

Heredity is the transmission of genes from generation to generation. Every child inherits genes from
both of their biological parents and these genes in turn express specific traits. Example are hair and eye color
and skin color etc. and some genes may also carry the risk of certain diseases and disorders that may pass on
from parents to their offspring. Hereditary characters are characters that are controlled by gene transmitted
from one generation to the next. Genes are passed from the parents, not the characters.

Types of Hereditary characters

1. Morphological characters refer to structure or form such as shape, length, color of body parts, etc.
2. Physiological characters refer to functions of parts such as rolling of tongue, color vision.
3. Behavioral characters refer to externally directed activities in response to stimuli. Instinct such as crying,
thumb sucking in babies.
4. Sexual characters are associated with being a male or a female such as hair growth at puberty, change in
voice quality of males or fat deposition in the breast and hips of females.

Terminologies in Genetics
Allele - alternative form of a gene Locus/loci - specific location of a gene/allele
Homozygous - contains 2 identical allele Heterozygous - contains 2 different allele
Genotype - genetic composition of the individual
Phenotype - the physical and observable expression of a gene
Gene - portion of DNA of chromosome that contain information
Dominant allele - gene that is expressed
Recessive allele - gene that is masked by dominant allele and not fully expressed
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 Who is Gregor Mendel?
Gregor Mendel (1822-1884) is an Augustinian monk in a monastery in Brunn, Austri-
Hungarian Empire (now Brno, Czech Republic). He is interested in investigating how individual
traits were inherited. After returning to the monastery, he continued to teach and worked in the
garden. Between 1856 and 1863 he grew and tested over 28,000 pea plants. He wanted to find out
whether both parents contributed equally to the traits of the offspring and he chose the garden pea
(Pisum sativum) for his experiments. Mendel observed seven traits that are easily recognized and
apparently only occur in one of two forms:
1. flower color is purple or white 5. seed color is yellow or green
2. flower position is axil or terminal 6. pod shape is inflated or constricted
3. stem length is long or short 7. pod color is yellow or green
4. seed shape is round or wrinkled

Figure 39. Different traits of pea plant

Reasons why Mendel selected peas in his experiment

• they grow quickly
• they produce by self-pollination (have both male and female parts)
• they also possess characteristics that can easily be recognized like height, color of flower, etc
• pollination can be controlled where he could develop plants that always produce seeds with the same
trait
• produce enough offspring

Mendelian Principle
1. Law of Unit Character states that genetic characters are controlled by unit factor that occurs in pairs.
2. Law of Segregation states that the genes of a pair separate during gamete formation. One goes to one gamete
while other gene goes to another gamete. The pair of genes segregate or separate from each other during gamete
formation.
3. Law of independent assortment states that genes for different traits assort independently of one another in
gamete production. The distribution or assortment of one pair of factors is independent of the distribution of the
other pair.
4. Law of Dominance states that the dominant allele is naturally selected to appear more often than the other.
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 Mendel’s experiments
The first thing Mendel did was create a “pure” generation or true-breeding generation. He made sure
that certain pea plants were only able to self pollinate, eliminating unwanted traits. Mendel found that the
first offspring generation (F1) always has yellow seeds. However, the following generation (F2)
consistently has a 3:1 ratio of yellow to green.

Figure 40. Mendel experiment on pea plant

What did Mendel conclude?
1. Inheritance of each trait is determined by "units" or "factors" that are passed on to descendants
unchanged (units are genes).
2. Individual inherits one such unit from each parent for each trait.
3. A trait may not show up in an individual but can still be passed on to the next generation.

Probability is the likelihood of a particular event will happen or Chance. It can be expressed as a fraction
or a percent. Example: coin flip.
Ex. 1. Toss a coin. ; S = {Head, Tail} Head = is a sample point Tail = is also a sample point

Probability of an event.
P ( E ) = nE/nS
Ex. 1 in tossing a coin twice, what is the probability of getting
a. All heads. S = {HH, HT, TH, TT} b. At least one tail
nS = total number of outcomes = 4 E2 = event of getting at least one tail
E1 = event of getting all heads E2 = {HT, TH, TT}
E1 = {HH} nE1 = 1. nE2 = 3
Thus, PE1 = 1/4 Thus, P ( E 2) = ¾

What is Punnett square?

Punnett Square is a diagram used to show the probability or chances of a certain trait being passed
from one generation to another. It was developed by Reginald Punnett.
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Figure 41. Punnett square

 Reading Punnett squares
• Gametes are placed above and to the left of the square and Offspring are placed in the square.
• Capital letters (B) represent dominant alleles and Lower case letters (b) represent recessive alleles.

Multiplicative Law of Probability states that the probability or chance of 2 or more independent events
occurring together is the product of their chance of occurring separately. Thus, the probability of receiving
genotypes is as follows
Bb x Bb
• BB = ½ x ½ = ¼
• Bb = ½ x ½ = ¼
• bB = ½ x ½ = ¼
• bb = ½ x ½ = ¼
• GR : ¼ BB, 2/4 Bb, ¼ bb (1:2:1)
• PR : 3:1
Monohybrid Cross
• a cross between two organisms for a single trait, such as Tt x Tt (T = tall, t = dwarf)
• genotype ratio is 25%homozygous dominant (TT) to 50% heterozygous (Tt) to 25% homozygous recessive
• the phenotype ratios that result from this cross are 3 tall to 1 short, or 75% tall plants to 25% dwarf plants
P1 : Tt x Tt
F1: TT, Tt, Tt, tt
GR : 1:2:1
PR : 3:1
P1 = parent F1 = first filial generation
First filial generation - offspring resulted from a cross between two pure breeding plants
Hybrids - results of a cross between parents differing in one or more traits
T t

Tt Tt
T Tt
t Tt

Figure 42. Monohybrid cross

Cross the following.
1. HH x Hh (H = curly hair and h = straight hair)
H H
H HH HH
H Hh Hh

GR: 2:2
2 HH, 2 Hh
PR: 4:0
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4/4 or 100% curly and 0/4 or 0% straight

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 2. Gg x gg (G = green and g = yellow)
G g
g Gg gg
g Gg gg

GR:2:2
2 Gg, 2 gg
PR: 2 : 2
1/2 or 50% green and 1/2 or 50% yellow
3. Both husband and wife are heterozygous for having dimples. What are the chances that their
children will have dimples? Let D = have dimple, d = have no dimple
D d
D DD Dd
d Dd dd
GR: 1:2:1
1 DD, 2 Dd, 1 dd
PR: 3 : 1
3/4 or 75% have dimples and 1/4 or 25% have no dimples
4. What percentage of offspring would be expected to have short whiskers from the cross of two long-
whiskered seals, one that is homozygous dominant and one that is heterozygous?
Let W = long whisker, w = short whisker
W W
W WW WW
w Ww Ww
GR: 2 : 2
2 WW, 2 Ww
PR: 4 : 0
4/4 or 100% long whisker and 0/4 or 0% short whisker
The percentage of offspring to be expected to have short whisker is 0%

Dihybrid Cross is crossing two traits at a time. Ex. A pure bred plant with inflated-yellow seed is
crossed with constricted-green seed. What is the GR and PR?

Cross the following.

1. TtGg x ttGg (T = tall, t = short and G = green, g = yellow)
Get the individual gametes from the parent by perform monohybrid cross.
T t
G TG tG
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g Tg tg
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 TtGg = TG, Tg, tG, tg
t t
G tG tG
g tg tg

ttGg = tG, tG, tg, tg

TG Tg tG tg
tG TtGG TtGg ttGG ttGg
tG TtGG TtGg ttGG ttGg
tg TtGg Ttgg ttGg ttgg
tg TtGg Ttgg ttGg ttgg

GR: 4 : 4 : 2 : 2 : 2 : 2
2 TtGG, 4 TtGg, 2 Ttgg, 2 ttGG, 4 ttGg, 2 ttgg
PR: 6: 6 : 2 : 2
6/16 are tall green, 6/16 are short green, 2/16 are tall yellow and
2/16 are short yellow

2. RrBb x RrBb (R = round, r = wrinkled and B = Black, b = brown)

R r
B RB rB
b Rb rb

RrBb = RB, Rb, rB, rb

RB Rb rB rb
RB RRBB RRBb RrBB RrBb
Rb RRBb RRbb RrBb Rrbb
rB RrBB RrBb rrBB rrBb
rb RrBb Rrbb rrBb rrbb
GR: 1 : 2 : 1 : 2 : 4 : 2 : 1 : 2 : 1
1 RRBB, 2 RRBb, 1 RRbb, 2 RrBB, 4 RrBb, 2 Rrbb, 1 rrBB, 2 rrBb, 1 rrbb

PR: 9 : 3 : 3 : 1
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9/16 are round black, 3/16 are round brown, 3/16 are wrinkled black and 1/16 is wrinkled brown
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3. In pea plant, tall plant is dominant over short plant and green color pod is dominant over yellow color pod. In
following a TtGg x ttgg cross, what is the percentage of obtaining a tall plant with green pod?
T = tall, t – short and G = green, g = yellow
T t
G TG tG
g Tg tg

TtGg = TG, Tg, tG, tg

t t
g tg tg
g tg tg

ttgg = tg, tg, tg, tg

TG Tg tG tg
tg TtGg Ttgg ttGg ttgg
tg TtGg Ttgg ttGg ttgg
tg TtGg Ttgg ttGg ttgg
tg TtGg Ttgg ttGg ttgg
GR: 4 : 4 : 4 : 4
4TtGg, 4Ttgg, 4 ttGg, 4ttgg
PR: 4 : 4 : 4 : 4
¼ or 25% are tall green, ¼ or 25% are tall yellow, ¼ or 25% are
short green and ¼ are short yellow
Backcross or Test Cross is a way to determine whether an individual plant or animal showing the dominant
trait is homozygous or heterozygous. If the individual being tested is actually homozygous dominant, all
offspring of the test cross will show the dominant trait and have the hybrid genotype. If the individual being
tested is actually hybrid, we can expect that ½ the offspring, or at least one individual will show the recessive
trait. Therefore, if any offspring show the recessive trait, the parent of unknown genotype must be hybrid

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Figure 43. Dihybrid cross

 Summary
Genetics is the study of heredity and variation. It aims to understand how traits can be passed on to the
next generation and how variation arises. Genetics is important in the field of agriculture, medicine, crime
investigation, and industry. Variation is why each individual is unique at the level of genes and traits. Heredity is
the passing of traits from parents to offspring. Every child inherits genes from both of their biological parents
and these genes in turn express specific traits. Gregor Mendel is an Augustinian monk and become interested in
investigating how individual traits were inherited. He wanted to find out whether both parents contributed
equally to the traits of the offspring and he chose the garden pea (Pisum sativum) for his experiments. The four
Mendelian Principle are the Law of Unit Character, Law of Segregation, Law of Independent Assortment and the
Law of Dominance. In his experiment, he concluded that inheritance of each trait is determined by "units" or
"factors" that are passed on to descendants unchanged; individual inherits one such unit from each parent for
each trait; and a trait may not show up in an individual but can still be passed on to the next generation.
Probability is the likelihood of a particular event will happen or Chance. It can be expressed as a fraction or a
percent. Punnett Square is a diagram used to show the probability or chances of a certain trait being passed from
one generation to another. It was developed by Reginald Punnett. In reading Punnett squares, gametes are placed
above and to the left of the square, offspring are placed in the square, capital letters (B) represent dominant
alleles and lower case letters (b) represent recessive alleles. Monohybrid Cross is a cross between two organisms
for a single trait.

Enrichment Activity
I. Show the genotypic ratio and phenotypic ratio of the following using punnett square. (25 pts)
1. Rr x RR (R = round, r = wrinkled)
2. TT x tt (T = tall, t = short)
3. Dd x dd (D =have dimple, d = have no dimple)
4. RrBb x RrBb (R = round, r = wrinkled and B = Black, b = brown)
5. RrGg x RrGG (R = round, r = wrinkled and G = Green, g = yellow)

II. Answer the following problem and show your complete solution. (25 pts)
1. Both husband and wife are homozygous recessive for having dimples. What are the chances that their
children will have dimples?
2. In seals, the gene for the length of the whiskers has two alleles. The dominant allele (W) codes long whiskers
and the recessive allele (w) codes for short whiskers. What fraction of offspring would be expected to have
short whiskers from the cross of two long-whiskered seals, one that is homozygous dominant and one that is
heterozygous?
3. In the case of pea plants, tall (T) is dominant over dwarf (t). What is the genotype of the parents of a
generation of plants half of which are tall and half of which are dwarf?
4. In tomatoes, round fruit (R) is dominant to a long fruit (r) and smooth skin (S) is dominant to fuzzy skin (s).
A pure round hybrid smooth tomato was crossed-breed with a hybrid round pure fuzzy tomato. What will be the
expected proportions of the genotypes and phenotypes? What is the fraction of obtaining long and smooth skin?
5. Following a Ssyy x SsYy cross, what fraction of the offspring are predicted to have a genotype that is
heterozygous for one characteristic and homozygous for one characteristic?
24 Page
 Fifth Lesson: Non-Mendelian Genetics

Objectives:

At the end of the lesson, you are expected to:

a. discuss the non-Mendelian patterns of inheritance
b. solve a problem in genetics using Punnett square

Discussion
Non Mendelian Patterns of Inheritance are the pattern of inheritance which is beyond the
study of Gregor Mendel. It includes the following:

1. Incomplete dominance – occurs when the phenotype of the offspring is somewhere in between the
phenotypes of both parents; a completely dominant allele does not occur. It is a situation in which neither
allele is dominant. When both alleles are present a “new” phenotype appears that is a blend of each allele. The
result of the cross is intermediate of the dominant and recessive trait. Alleles will be represented by capital
letters only.
For example, when red snapdragons (RR) are crossed with white snapdragons (WW), the F1 hybrids
are all pink heterozygotes for flower color (RW). The pink color is an intermediate between the two parent
colors. When two F1 (RW) hybrids are crossed they will produce red, pink, and white flowers.

Figure 44. Incomplete dominance in Japanese four-o-clock flower

Example.
1. If pink Gumamela (RW) are crossed, what is the percentage that an offspring will be pink?
Let RR = red, WW = white, RW = pink Cross. RW x RW
R W
R RR RW
W RW WW
GR: 1:2:1
1 RR, 2 RW, 1 WW
PR: 1:2:1
¼ or 25% will be red, ½ or 50% will be pink and ¼ or 25% will be white

2. If red Gumamela (RR) is crossed with a white Gumamela (WW), what is the percentage that an offspring
will be pink? Cross RR x WW.
25
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 R R
W RW RW
W RW RW
GR: 4:0
4 RW
PR: 4:0
4/4 or 100% will be pink

2. Codominance is when two alleles both appear in the phenotype. There is equal expression of phenotype.
It is usually signified using superscripts. Example: color of hair coat in cattle.
• crcr = red hairs
• cwcw = white hairs
• crcw = roan coat (mixture of both colors)

Figure 45. Codominance in coat color of cattle and flower

Example.
1. If a red-hair cattle mates with roan-hair cattle, what is the fraction that the off spring will have a red-hair
cattle? Let CRCR = red, CRCW = roan, CWCW = white, CRCR x CRCW
CR CR
CR CR CR CRCR
CW CRCW CR CW
GR: 2:2
2 CR CR, 2 CR CW
PR: 2:2
½ or 50% will be red and ½ or 50% will be roan

3. Multiple allele is when two or more alleles contribute to the phenotype. An example is ABO blood type
26

in humans. A,B,O and AB determined by the presence of specific molecules on the surface of the Red blood
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cell. A and B are codominant to each other and Both A and B are dominant over O.
 There are three common alleles for the gene that controls this characteristic. The alleles IA and IB are
dominant over i. A person who is homozygous recessive ii has type O blood. Homozygous dominant I AIA
or heterozygous dominant IAi have type A blood, and homozygous dominant IBIB or heterozygous
dominant IBi have type B blood. IAIB people have type AB blood, because the A and B alleles are
codominant.

Figure 46. Multiple Genes in red blood cell

Blood type Genotype
A Homozygous A: AA
A Hybrid A: Ai
B Homozygous B: BB
B Hybrid B: Bi
AB Hetorozygous: AB
O Homozygous O ii

Type A blood: IAIA or IAi Type AB blood: IAIB

Type B blood: IB IB or IB i Type O blood: ii

Example.
1. A woman with a blood type “AB” is married to a man with type “O” blood. What are the chances
that their child will have type AB?
IA IB x ii
IA IB GR: 2 : 2 2 IA i , 2 IB i
i IAi IB i PR: 2 : 2 50% blood type A
i IAi IB i and 50% blood type B

2. A woman with a blood type “O” is married to a man with hybrid type “B” blood. What are the
chances that their child will have type B? ii x IBi
i i
27

IB IB i IB i
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i ii ii
 GR: 2:2
2 IBi, 2 ii
PR: 2 : 2 ½ or 50% will be blood type B and ½ or 50% will be blood type O
Summary
Non Mendelian Patterns of Inheritance are the pattern of inheritance which is beyond the study of
Gregor Mendel. It includes the following: Incomplete dominance, Codominance and Multiple Allele.
Incomplete dominance is a situation in which neither allele is dominant. When both alleles are present a “new”
phenotype appears that is a blend of each allele. The result of the cross is intermediate of the dominant and
recessive trait. Alleles will be represented by capital letters only. Codominance is when two alleles both appear
in the phenotype. There is equal expression of phenotype. It is usually signified using superscripts. Multiple
allele is when two or more alleles contribute to the phenotype. An example is ABO blood type in humans.

Enrichment Activity
I. Answer the following problem and show your complete solution. (30 pts)
1. If pink gumamela (RW) are crossed, what is the chance that an offspring will be red?
2. A red flower (RR) is crossed with a white flower. What percentage of the offspring will be red?
3. If a red-hair cattle mates with white-hair cattle, what is the fraction that the offspring will have roan-
hair?
4. If two roan-hair cattle mates, what is the fraction that the offspring will have roan-hair cattle?
5. A woman with a blood type “AB” is married to a man with blood type “AB” blood. What are the
chances that their child will have type AB?
6. A couple has two children. One child has a blood type A, and the other child has blood type O. What are all
the possible blood types of the parents?

II. Identify what principles are showed up and explain its differences. (20 pts)
1.

Vs.

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