Nagarjuna's Letter

For centuries, Dharrna students have traditionally studied

Nagarju11a's Letter to a Friend, for it provides a concise and
thorough introduction to the entire Buddhist path practice.
By examining the Four Noble Truths and the Six Perfec-
tions, Nagarjuna describes logically and poetically the inter-
nal patterns of experience which leads a person to
buddhahood.
Nagarjuna wrote this letter to his friend KingSatavahana,
in order to alert him to the worldly impurities, especially in
discharging his royal activities, and to integrate spiritual
values into his daily life. In this respect, his advice is still of
special interest to those who wish to cultivate a religious
practice while continuing to live and work in society.
ThecomrnentaryaccompanyingNagarjuna'sepistlewas
composed by Venerable Rendawa, Zhon-nu Lo-dro. This
famous scholar hailed from the great "Sa-sKya" monastery
in north central Tibet. During the initial period of their
relationship, he served as a teacher to the renowned Tsong·
Khapa, later, they instructed each other. Rendawa's
commentary is quite clear and simple, and suitable for all
levels of students.
This book teaches the basics of Buddhist religious practice
for beginners and advanced students, both laymen and
monks.

ISBN: 81-85102-01-5
 Nagarjuna's Letter

Nagarjuna's Letter to a Friend

Commentary
by
Venerable Rendawa, Zho-nu Lo-dro

Translated
by
Geshe Lobsang Tharchin
- and
•
Artemus B. Engle

LIBRARY OF TIBETAN WORKS & ARCI-IIVES

 ) 1979: Library of Tibetan Works and Archives
..

l•1rst Print 1979

Reprint 1995, 2003, 2010, 2012 C ONTENTS

..
vu
Publisher's Note
.
IX
Preface
Xl
.
About the Translation
A Biography of Venerable Rendawa 1
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED A Biography of Acarya Nagarjuna s
No part of th.is publication may be reproduced, stored in retrieval The Elucidated Meaning (Sphutartha), a commentary
system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, on .Acarya Nagarjuna's The Letter ton Friend (Suhrllekha)
composed by the Sakya Lama Venerable Rendawa 13
mechanical, photo-copying, recording or otherwise, without the
prior permission of tlle publisher. Prefacing Verses 15

PART I: A Recommendation to H eed 17

PART II: The Actual Instruction 21

A. General Advice concerning Virtuous Practices 22
Chapter 1: General Advice for Both House-holders
and Those Departed from the Home Life 23
Chapter 2: Instruction Directed Primarily to
Householders 37
Chapter 3: Instruction for Both concerning the
ISBN: 81-85102-01-5 Pursuance of Higher States and Supreme
Beatitude 62
B. Development of A version for Sal'!'sara through
Contemplating its Defects 87
Chapter 4: Presentation in Brief and in Full 89
C. Pursuance of the Path, having Contemplated
Nirvana's
. Virtues 111
Chapter 5: That which is Co1nmon to all Vehicles 113
Chapter 6: Pursuing what is the Mahayana Path,
Published by the Library of Tibetan Works and Archives, togetl1er with its Results 129
Dharamsala, H.P. (India) and printed a t Indraprastha Press (CBT), 133
4 Bahadurshah Zafar Marg, New Delhi-110002. Notes to the Text
An Outline of the Text 143
•

PUBLISHER'S Non::

The Tibetan Tengyur (Collection of Translated Sastras) contains

more than a hundred titles accredited to the pen of Acarya
Nagarjuna. Many of these attained a high degree of popularity in
Tibet, serving as important foundations and guidelines in the
development of all the four great traditions of Tibetan Buddhism.
One of the most practical and yet profound works by the
Acarya is his Suhrllekha, or Letter to A Friend. Its importance in
the Tibetan tradition is indicated by the fact that several dozen
commentaries of varying lengths have been written to it over the
centuries by great lama-scholars of all the schools. These com-
mentaries ge~erally do not differ radically in their interpretation
of the actual root text; but rather, because the root text presents
the entire view, activity and meditation constituting the path to
enlightenment, they bring out and elucidate specific aspects of
the Letter.
The present volume contains the commentary of the master
Rendawa, one of the greatest lamas of the Sakya tradition teach-
ing during the late 14th and early 15th centuries. Because
Rendawa's commentary presents an interpretation generally ac-
ceptable to all Tibetan traditions, it is hoped that its publication in
English may be of particular value to all students and scholars of
Tibetan Buddhism. The translators Geshe Lobsang Tharchin and
Artemus B. Engle are to be congratulated both for the thorough-
ness of their efforts and the clarity and simplicity of their expres-
.
s1on.

Gyatsho Tshering
Director
LTWA, Dharamsala

Sept. 1995
 PREFACE

The surpassing instruction known as Letter to a Friend was

imparted to King Decho Zangpo by Arya Nagarjuna, that great
founder foretold earlier by the Buddha as one who would foster
the Mahayana teachings. These predictions are found in such
works as the Journey to Lanka Sutra and Basic Tantra of Mai'ijusri.
The present commentary to Arya Nagarjuna's work was
composed by the venerable master Zhon-nu Lo-dro, "Kumara
Mati," who grasped in their entirety the crucial points of the
Buddha's word and whose banner of fame then shone so brightly.
The commentary has been translated into English by Geshe
Lobsang Tharchin, who brought his studies to their fruition in
Tibet-learning from numerous master scholars while applying
himself assiduously to numerous major classics of Buddhism
over a period of many years spent at the sMad college of Sera, one
of Tibet's three greatest monastic universities.
This publication of the Letter and its explanation has been
prepared by the Library of Tibetan Works and Archives in the
interest of the general public, including here those people of other
nations who are taking an active interest in the Buddhist religion.
It is my prayer and belief that the work will foster widespread
matchless joy and peace and happiness both temporal and ulti-
mate; that it will help beings throughout the world, regardless of
nationality, to gain very clear eyes of wisdom, the excellent path
to the higher states and perfect good.

Dharamsala, August 1979

Lobsang Yeshe,
the Yongzin Trijang Trulku,
Junior Tutor to His Holiness
the Dalai Lama
 Aoour TiiE TRANSLATION

Two editions of the Tibetan bShes-pa'i springs-yig, accompanied

by Venerable Rendawa's commentary, were used for the transla-
tion. The first, printed from xylographs, consists of 66 folios and
lacks any publishing data. The second, published by Rang-dbang
Printers of Darjeeling, India, in 1961, is a bound paperback of 175
pages written in dbu-med script. Lharampa Geshe Lobsang
Tharchin and his A.merican student Artemus Engle have com-
pleted the translation into English and added Rev. Tharchin's
biographies of both Nagarjuna and Venerable Rendawa, com-
piled from traditional sources.
Geshe Lobsang Tharchin was born in Lhasa, Tibet, in the year
1921. At the age of eight he entered rGyal-rong House of sMad
College of the great Sera Monastery. He was ordained a monk by
the 13th Dalai Lama, and spent 24 years in exhaustive studies of
each branch of the Buddhist Sutra tradition. These occupations
culminated in his being one of the few members of his class to
receive the coveted title of dge-bshes (Geshe) after his final de-
bates and oral examinations. At the annual prayer festival in
Lhasa, Geshe Tharchin next distinguished himself among dGe-
bshes by winning one of the lah-ram-pa titles conferred by the
government of Tibet upon a handful of scholars who prove
themselves worthy in open debate and critical questioning by an
assembled group of the country's greatest pundits. Among the
lha-ram-pa dge-bshes's, he received highest honors and secured
a position in the class entering rGyud-smad Tantric College.
Excelling as well in his tantric studies, Geshe Tharchin was
selected to lead the college during certain rituals and completed
his course of study in five years. By this time he had been chosen
to enter the administrative succession leading to the highest
scholastic-monastic positions in Tibet.
Shortly thereafter, Geshe Tharchin escaped the Chinese Com-
munist takeover of Tibet during the fighting in Lhasa and crossed
over to India in 1959. flere, at the behest of His Holiness the Dalai
Lama, he assumed responsibility for the religious instruction of
students attending the Central Schools for Tibetans located in
Simla and Mussoorie. During this time Geshe Tharchin greatly
aided the spread of the Buddha's word by teaching a wide range
of subjects personally, by conferring novice's vows on young
 xii Niigarju11a' s Letter About the Tra11slatio11 xw
men wl10 now represe11t an important part of the Tibetan n1onas- in general, Abhidharma and Madhyamika philosophy, lo~ic, ~an­
teries relocated in India, and by composing treatises on m'a jor guage, and so on. Through his encouragement and direction,
points of the secular and religious sciences. These last have been students attending these classes have prepared finished transla-
published as classroom texts now used in Tibetan schools and- tions of Geshe Tharchin's word-by-word explanations of numer-
among other places-in the United States, by Geshe Tharchin's ous texts. Published works include Offering of the Mandala, The
students. Essence of Nectar, Guru Yoga of Tusita's Deity Host, and the
After entreaties to His Holiness the Dalai Lama by interested present Nagarjuna's Letter.
persons in the United States, Geshe Tharchin agreed to teach the The Letter, with its commentary by Venerable Rendawa, has
Dharma in America and arrived for a short teaclling stay in April been rendered into English by Artemus Engle. Mr. Engle has
1972. For three years he bestowed extensive oral teachings upon studied closely with Geshe Tharchin since the reverend's first
students in the eastern part of the country, preparing-with h is arrival in the· United States, and has m ade the teacher's words
translator Artemus Engle-English versions of Tibetan texts on available to a great number of Americans by serving as Geshe
subjects ranging from grammar (The Exquisite Pearl Garland, Tharchin's personal translator during four years of religious teach-
Necklace of Sages: an eiplanation of Sum-cu-pa and rTags-kyi ings and public appearances. Apart from his translations of the
'jug-pa) to philosophy (Acarya Vasubandhu's autocon11nentary works already mentioned-The Pearl Garland, autocommentary
to the Abhidharmakosa) and the ''six perfections" (the to the Abhidharmakosa, and Bodhicaryavatara-Mr. Engle has
I
Bodhicaryavatara of Santideva). undertaken extensive studies of numerous Buddhist scriptures in
As the date for Geshe Tharchin's return to India approached, addition to instructing Geshe Tharchin's newer students. More
a delegation from l(ashi Gempil Ling, the First Kalmuk Buddhist recently, he has taught Tibetan and Sanskrit language in classes at
Temple of Jiowell, New Jersey, presented the teac~er with a Rashi Gempil Ling, and is presently completing a doctoral
request to serve their congregation. After receiving H is Holiness programme involving philosophy and Buddhist studies at the
the Dalai Lama's permission to remain in the United States for University of Wisconsin.
the time being, Geshe Tharchin took up residence at the temple.
His presence there has proved to be a great benefit for both the
fam ilies of the congregation and individuals wishing to study the
Buddha's teaching in detail.
Geshe lnarchin's work in this field expanded in 1975 to
lectures at universities such as Columbia (where he taught the
Heart Sutra in a series of talks) and Princeton (where he gave
instruction on the Bod11i Mind). During this year he undertook to
learn English for the benefit of interested Westerners and after
four inonths at Georgetown University received ~ certificate of
proficiency in English as a foreign language. While in the area of
Washington, D.C., Geshe Tharchin began teaching a group of
professors, government officials and working persons who have
since continued their practice of the Dharma through personal
effort and intensive monthly sessions, as well as retreats, with
their teacher.
In recent years Gesl1e Tl1archin has widened his facilities at
Hashi Gempil Ling, maintaining his customary schedule of regu-
lar clt1sses in which he teaches such topics as the Mahayana l'ath
 A BIOGRAPHY OF VENERABLE RENDAWA

Venerable Rendawa, gZhon-nu blo-gros (Kumara Mati), took

birth in the Earth-Female-Bull year (1349) at a place called Renda
Khangso, near Sa-skya. He was born into the lineage of the
famous minister Gar; his father's name was bKra-shis rgyal-
mtsan, and his mother's dBang-phyug skyid. While he was still in
her womb, Venerable Rendawa's mother had many auspicious
dreams such as the rising of the sun and moon, the shining of
lamps, the raising of temples, and so on. Likewise, numerous
marvellous omens attended the birth itself.
As a child he was called bTzun-ne, and from the time he was
able to speak and reason for himself Venerable Rendawa showed
feelings of deep respect and devotion whenever he heard men-
tion of the Three Ratnas and the Holy Dharma, or saw religious
objects. Both his parents died while he was still at an early age, so
Venerable Rendawa was raised by a nun named bKra-shis 'bum .
One day he said to the nun: "Either I shall take the seal of a Sa-
skya governor and bring peace to the land of Tibet, or I shall enter
the gate of the Dharma and cause the Buddha's teaching to
shiune forth as brightly as the sun." To this the nun replied, "O
big-minded (blo-chen) bTzun-ne, I don't know if you shall be able
to do that," and henceforth he was referred to as bTzun-ne blo
chen.
By awakening the karmic propensities acquired through hav-
ing practised the Dharma over many previous lifetimes, he took
to the study of the Dharma as naturally as other children do to
nursing or playful behaviour, without need of being taught.
From the teacher 'Phags-chen chos-bzang dpal, the boy took
the vows of Refuge, of generating Bodhi Mind, and of upavasa
(bsnyen-gnas) . He heard, as well, many teachings about
MahakantI)ika (Arya Avalokitesvara). Then he thought to him-
self that if in his present life of great opportunity and fortune he
did not follow in the tradition of former n1asters and complete
the threefold training of listening, contemplation, and medita-
tion, his having acquired such opportunity wot1ld be rendered
meaningless: it would be as if he had returned empty-handed
from a land filled with treasures of wish-granting jewels. Perceiv-
ing also that to remain a householder would be a sourc~ of n1any
faults and mental afflictions (klesas), Venerable Rendawa thought
2 Nagiirjuna's Letter
to free himself quickly from that prison of great misery and
torment, and to carry out a pure practice of the Dharma.
'fhus, with a motivation of intense renunciation, he took the
vows of a novice monk (sramanera, dge-tsul) from Sa-bzang
panchen at the age of 18 and received the name gZhon-nu blo-
gros. Subsequent to this, he met the two great teachers Nya-dpon
kun-dga' dpal and mKhan-chen sangs-rgyas dpal, from whom he
studied the Pramanavarttika and learned- unerringly-the eight
topics of logic (rt~-ge'i tsig-don brgyad) according to the system
of the renowned Acarya Dharmakirti. He also composed his own
commentaries, both extensive and abbreviated, on the treatise.
From the great lama bSod-nams rgyal-mtsan and others,
Venerable Rendawa heard teachings on the Prajna paramita, and
studied carefully Arya Vimuktasena's Pancavirpsati Sahasrika
Aloka (Nyi-khri snang-ba)-through which he acquired an un-
derstanding of the exact meaning of these pundits' views. After-
wards he composed commentaries on the Praji\a paramita and
the "70 topics" (contained in the Abhisamayalarpkara).
Then, wanting to hear teachings of the Abhidharmapi!aka,
Venerable Rendawa went to the great lotzawa (translator) Byang-
chub rtze-mo and listened many times to the tenets of the higher
and lower Abhidharma systems, as well as to the Yogacara Bhumi
along with the eight Prakarana treatises and their commentaries.
He thus learned the writings of the brother acaryas Asanga and
Vasubandhu. Once again he composed his own commentaries:
here, on the various systems of Abhidhanna philosophy.
Next, Venerable Rendawa went to mKhan-chen kun-dga'
bzang-po and in the company of the prescribed number of addi-
tional monks took the vows of complete ordination as a bhiJ<.?u.
From this teacher he listened to a teaching on the Vinaya Sutra
('Dul-ba mdo rtza-ba), con1posed by Gurya Prabha. Afterwards
mI<han-chen said, "You are more kno1'vledgeable than f concern-
ing the Vinaya p ractices; now this teaching has been entrusted to
its righ tful Dharma master." At this same teacher's urging, Ven-
erable Rendawa also composed comn1entaries on the Vinaya
Sastra, maintaining the Vinaya practices as well by thereafter
keeping-unfailingly-the three observances of po~adha (gso-
sbyong), pravarita (dgag-dbye), and var~a (dbyar-gnas).
The bhiksu next studied Nagarjuna's six Madhyamika trea-
tises, as well ·as the Catut:sataka, Madhyamakavatara, etc., from
the teacher Chos-rje byang-sang-pa. By repeated and careful con-
A Biography of Vc11crnblc Rc11dntoo 3
templation of their meaning, as well as intense prayers to the
Three Ratnas for divine inspiration, he was able to gain true
insight into the views of Niigatjuna and his major disciples.
Venerable Rendawa composed commentaries on these
Madhyamika texts and taught them extensively to his own stu-
dents.
From such holy lamas as bSod-nams rgyal-mtsan, he heard
teachings on tantric texts such as the Guhya Samiija Pradipa
Uddyotana, thus learning all the profound aspects of the
Mantrayana. Having gained a complete understanding qf the
scriptures, along with their commentaries, Venerable Rendawa
composed works on Tantra including a commentary on the Guhya
Samaja root text. Moreover, he wrote commentaries on the
Uttaratantra, Suhrllekha, Sutrasamuccaya, etc. Finally, Venerable
Rendawa studied with rGyal-sras thogs-med bzang-po, concern-
ing himself with both the motivation and activities {for generat-
ing the Sodhi Mind) and listening many times to various topics of
the Dharma, including the "trainings for the mind" (blo-sbyong).
Having mastered all the significant points of Sutra and Tantra
texts, Venerable Rendawa then turned the Great Wheel of the
Dharma for many fortunate students, thus continuing the propa-
gation of the Buddha's precious teaching.
In particular, he taught the Abhidharmakosa, both word-by-
word and with logical analysis, to the great master Tzong-kha-
pa. Because Venerable Rendawa had given such an explanation
of the full meaning of the treatise as a whole, and not simply of
the text's wording, the Venerable Tzong-kha-pa felt great rever-
ence for Rendawa's teaching abilities. This was the first meeting
between these two great figures.
Later Venerable Rendawa, the holy lama Tzong-kha-pa, and
a large gathering of learned sar;igha assembled at Rva-sgreng
Monastery, where Venerable Ren,dawa gave instruction on the
Yukti $a~~i ka (Rigs-pa drug-cu-pa), Guhya Samaja, and other
scriptures. Venerable Tzong-kha-pa taught the overall stages of
the Mahayana Path as contained in the Mahayana Sutralamkara,
Madhyiinta Vibhaga, and Samuccaya. In particular, he gave a
complete and detailed explanation of the method of practising
samatha meditation: the nature of the state itself, the objects to be
meditated upon, and the order of practice. Then the assembly of
monks set themselves to meditation, after which a large number
4 Niigarjuna's Letter

of students attained true samatha, just as the state is described in

the Sastra texts. A BIOGRAPHY Of ACARYA N .AGARJUNA
Venerable Rendawa later heard teachings from Lama Tzong-
kha-pa on the Guhya Samaja Pradipa Uddyotana and Mula
Aca1!a Nagarjuna, as is widely known, founded the Madhyamika 1
Madhyamika Karikas. Likewise, Tzong-kha-pa heard detailed
t~_ad1tion of Buddhism. His appearance was prophesied in many
teachings from Rendawa about the Madhyamika view based on
sutr~s, among them the Lankavatara, Manjusrimulakalpa,
the Prasannapada commentary. Thus, each one became the other's
Mahamegha, and Mahabheri.
teacher and student. Their respective biographies declare that
Four hundred years after the nirvana of the Buddha
this also took place in many earlier lives, where the two carried
Sakyamuni, there was living in southern India-in a land called
out the Bodhisattva practices together, and that their appearance
Vidarbha (literally, the "Land of Palms")2- a prosperous Brah-
in this world was prophesied by both Mafijusri and Guhyapati
man who had no sons. A sign appeared to him in a dream
Vajrapal)i.
indicating that he would receive a son if he paid homage to 100
With a basis of pure morality, this great being Rendawa
Brahmans. He did so, praying earnestly that his deeply-held wish
attained realization of the Dharma, as explained by both Nagatjuna
might be fulfilled, and 10 months later a son was born.
and Asanga, and particularly of Nagatjtma's explanation of pro-
The newly-born child was taken to a soothsayer, who said
found Dependent Origination: the Madhyamika view of reality
t~at although the infant ~id indeed have the signs of an excep-
free from the extremes of nihilism and etemalism. Moreover,
tional person, he would hve only seven days. The anxious par-
based on the quintessential teaching of the most secret Vajrayana,
ents asked whether something couldn't be done to avert the fate.
the Sri Guhya Samaja Tantra with its Pradipa Uddyotana com-
The soothsayer replied that if they gave food to 100 persons, the
mentary, he propagated the instruction on the two stages of the
boy would hve for seven days and that-if they made offerings to
profound path. Thus did this unrivalled master of the Sutra and
100 monks-he would live for seven years. Nothing beyond that
Tantra teachings spread the untainted path of Salvation in the
could be done. The parents completed the second of the sug-
Land of Snow-mountains.
gested offerings. As the end of the seven years approached they
As Venerable Rendawa neared the end of his life and re-
sent th.e young boy, in the company of several attendants, on an
solved to pass on, he went to kLong-rtze bsam-gtan gling and
excursion-for they would not have been able to bear the sight of
turned the Wheel of the Dharma for the last time before 150
their son's corpse.
monks, giving teachings on the Madhyamakavatara. As he reached
While travell~g, the boy experienced a vision of the god
the line, "When reality is unoriginated and the minq is non-
originated," he gave the appearance of entering nirvarya and Khasarparya (a particular manifestation of Arya Loke5vara).3 Soon
afterwards, the party reached the great monastery of Nalanda.
departed to the Dharma Palace of Tusita Paradise. This was in the
While they were standing near the dwelling of one Brahman
year 1412.
...... Saraha, the boy uttered several verses of poetry. The Brahman
heard the lines and invited the party inside. He asked them about
This brief outline of Venerable Rendawa gZhon-nu blo-gros'
their journey and of how they had come to reach Naland<l. One of
activities of body, speech, and mind was collected from several
the attendants related the boy's history and told of his imminent
sources by Sera sMad Geshe Lobsang Tharchir1.
death. Saraha replied to this that, if the boy were to abandon the
wo~ldly life ~y taking a vow of renunciation, there was a way Lo
August 1977
avoid the phght. The boy agreed to do so and was firsl initiat<•d
into the " Mary<;Iala of Amitabha which Conquers the Lord ot
Death". Afterwards he was instructed to recite dharani 1n<1nt r.1~.
On the eve of his seventh birthday in particular he recited 111.111
6 Nagarjuna's Letter
tras through the night and thus overcame this encounter with the
Lord of Death.
Upon reaching the age of eight, the boy took the vow of
renunciation and began studies of the traditional sciences. He
studied as well scriptural texts of each of the major schools of
Buddhist thought. Sometime afterwards he again met his parents,
and later requested the very same Brahman Saraha to instruct
him in the esoteric teachings of Sri Guhya Samaja. He was taught
the appropriate tantras, together with their complete oral instruc-
tion. Next, after submitting a formal request to the monastery's
abbot, he took the full ordination of a monk and became known as
Bhiksu Srimanta.
Being one of those who are watched over by Mafijusri ~n all
their lives, the monk found opportunities for hearing, in its en-
tirety, the Dharma of both sutras and t.antra~ from the ~?dh!~att~a
teacher Ratna Mati-who was a manifestation of ManJuSr1 m hts
"divine youth" aspect. In this way Srimanta came to be a consum-
mate master of the Dharma.
At a later time a great famine arose, leaving the sax:igha of
Nalanda with no means of subsistence. The abbot, Sthavira Rahula
Bhadra, appointed Bhiklju Srimanta the sax:igha's steward.4 Al-
though the famine lasted 12 years and greatly redu ~ed ~e popu-
lation of the surrounding land of Magadha, the bh1klju was able
to sustain the sarygha by utilizing his knowledge of alchemical
science. He had acquired this knowledge from a Brahman versed
in alchemy, in the following way. The bhiklju first prepared two
sandalwood leaves as charms for the Siddhi of Swiftfootedness.'
Carrying one leaf in his hand and the other concealed in the sole
of his shoe he then proceeded to the distant island where the
Brahman Ji~ed and asked to be given the instruction of the "elixir
which transforms common metals to gold ." 7
The Brahman thought to himself that the stranger must have
had some special charm allowing him to come to the isle. Desir-
ous of acquiring it, he said to the bhik~u: "Knowledge must be
exchanged for knowledge, or compensated in gold." "Well then,"
replied Bhiksu Srimanta, "we must exchange knowledge," and
he gave the Brahman the charm he had been carrying i~ h is hand .
Thinking that the visitor could no longer leave the island, t~e
Brahman gave him the instruction. Using the leaf he had kept in
the sole of his shoe, the bhiklju then returned to Magadha. He was
thus able to provide Nalanda's sai:igha amply with all their essen-
A Biography of Acarya Niigiirjuna 7
tial needs, through transmuting great quantities of iron to gold
with the alchemical elixir.
Some time after this, Bhiklju Srimanta served as the abbot of
Nalanda. He paid great tribute to those members of the sai:igha
who observed the Three Trainings properly and expelled those
bhiksus and sramana~ who were morally corrupt. He is reputed
to ha.ve banished a~ many as 8,000 monks.
It was during this period as well that one Bhiklju Saf!lkara
composed a scripture entitled The Ornament of Knowledge. It was
written in 12,000 verses and represented an attempt to discredit
the Mahayana doctrine.' By means of logic, the Bhiklju Srimanta
was able to refute the argument completely. He also disproved
many other scriptures denying the validity of the Mahayana . On
one occasion, in a place called Jatasamghata, he defeated 500 non-
Buddhist scholars in debate and converted them to the Buddhist
religion by overcoming their false views.
During that time when the Acarya was teaching the Dharma
o f the Tripitaka widely to many followers, two youths who were
actually emanations of nagas9 came to him seeking the Dharma.
With their presence the entire area became filled with the fra-
grance of san~alwood. Upon their departure it disappeared and
when·they returned the fragrance reappeared as well. The Acarya
asked them the reason for this, and the youths replied that they
were sons of the naga king Tak~aka . They had anointed them-
selves with essence of sandalwood as imm unization against hu-
man impurities.
The Acarya then asked them to give him some of the sandal-
wood for an image of Tara and to assist him in constructing
temples as well. The two youths answered that they would have
to ask their father, and then left. They returned after two days to
tell the Acarya that only if he himself came to the Land of the
Nagas could they do as he bade. Aware C!f the benefit to all beings
that would result from his going, the Acarya journeyed to the
Land of the Nagas, where King Tak~aka and other righteous-
minded nagas presented him with innumerable offerings. 'fhe
mahatma preached the Dharma to the nagas in compliance with
their every supplication, bringing them so much satisfaction that
they entreated him to remain among them permanently. He
answered: " Because I have come here for the purpose of securing
the Sutra of Prajfia paramita 10 in 100,000 verses and ' naga clay'-
wh ich is needed for the construction of temples and stUpas-1
 8 Nagarjuna's Letter
have no opportunity now to stay. I shall perhaps be able to return
in the future."
When he had acquired the expanded version of the Mother of
the Jinas, several shorter texts_of the Prajfia paramita, and great
quantities of naga clay, the Acarya prepared to return to our
~orld of the Jambiidvipa. It is said that in order to ensure the
Acarya's return to their land, the nagas kept from him a small
portion at the end of the 100,000 verses. The missing portion-·the
last two chapters11 of the unabridged Sutra on the Prajfia
paramita-was therefore replaced by the corresponding chapters
of the Prajfia paramita Siitra in 8,000 verses. This is why the final
two chapters of each Siitra are identical.
After securing the Prajfia paramita siitras, the Acarya greatly
advanced the influence of the Mahayana tradition. When he
preached the Dharma in the m onastery park, 12 the nagas per-
formed acts of reverence such as six of the serpents forming a
parasol to shade him from the sun. Having thus become the Lord
of the Nagas, the Acarya was named "The Naga". Because his
skill at spreading the Mahayana Dharma resembled the shooting
speed and mastery of the famed archer Arjuna, he became known
as well as "The Arjuna". It is otherwise explained that he was
called "Nagarjuna" because, by practising the sadhanas of the
goddess Kurukulla, he gained -~uthority over such nagas as King
Taksaka
•
and others.
Nagarjuna later travelled to the area of Pundravardhana
where, utilizing the practice of alchemy, he perfo~~d many acts
of great generosity. In particular, he bestowed great quantities of
gold upon an elderly Brahman couple and thu~ instilled them with
great faith. The Brahman elder served Nagarjuna and listened to
the Dharma from him, and after his death he was reborn as the
Master Bodhinaga.
Nagiirjuna also constructed many temples. Once, when he
was preparing to transform a large, bell-shaped boulder into
gold, an emanation of Tara with the form of an old woman
appeared and said to him: "Instead of doing this, you should go
to the Mountain of Splendour13 and practise the Dharma." Later
he did go there to practice the siidhanas of Tara.
On another occasion, when he had accomplished the siidhanas
for ~voking the goddess Cat:l<;iika, the goddess herself carried
the Acarya into the sky and attempted to take him to the celestial
realms. "I have not exerted myself in order to travel to the
A Biography of Aciirya Niigiirji11111 9
celestial realms," he said to her. "I have invoked you in order to
provide support for the Mahayana sar:igha, for as long as the
Buddha's teaching remains." They returned, and the goddess
established herself to the near west of Nalanda, manifesting
herself in the form of a noblewoman of the royal caste. Nagarjuna
instructed her, saying: "A great stake of khadira wood, so large
that a man can barely lift it, has been driven into the wall of a
stone temple dedicated to Manjusri. Until that stake turns to
ashes, you must provide subsistence for the temple's sar:igha."
With articles of every sort, the noblewoman made offerings
to the sar:igha for 12 years. During this time the steward of the
monastery, a sramai:iera of evil nature, made continual promiscu-
ous advances to her. The noblewoman made no replies, until one
day she finally said: "If the khadira-wood stake ever turns to
ashes, we could be united." The wicked sramanera •
therefore set
the stake afire. When it had become ashes, the goddess herself
vanished.
There was another time when a number of elephants were
threatening to damage the Bodhi tree at Vajrasana (present-day
Bodhgaya). Nagarjuna erected two stone columns behind the
sacred tree which provided protection for many years. When the
elephants later returned, the Acarya erected two images of
Mahakala astride a lion, wielding a club. This was also effective
but the danger nonetheless reappeared and a stone fence was
built around the tree. Outside the enclosure, the Acarya con-
structed 108 stu1:>as. The stupas were huge and each one was
crowned by a smaller stupa containing sacred bone-relics1• of the
Buddha.
The Acarya further constructed many temples and stupas in
the six major cities of Magadha- Sriivasta, Saketa, Campaka,
Varai:iasi, Rajagrha and Vaisali-and provided preachers of the
Dharma with adequate subsistence.
Above all, Nagarjuna knew that virtually no one understood
the true 1neaning of the Prajna paramita basket of Sutra. He also
knew that without having realized this unerringly there was no
means for achieving liberation. He thus widely proclaimed the
Middle Path, which asserts that sunyata (the essential meaning of
Dependent Origination,15 that all things are totally void of a self-
existent nature) is totally consistent with principles expressing an
infallible relation between "black" and "white" karma and its
consequences. By means of his five-part collection of works on
10 Nagiirju11n's Letter
logic the Acarya clearly expounded the ultimate meaning of the
Buddha's wisdom. This collection consists of the major treatise,
the Mulamadhyamika Karika and its four limbs: the Yukti $a~tika,
Sunyata Saptati, Vaidalya Sutra, and Vigraha Vyavarttani.
After this period, Acarya Nagarjuna stayed for six months on
Mount Usira, to the north. He was accompanied by 1,000 dis-
ciples and sustained each one with a daily tablet of a quicksilver
rasayana he had prepared. One day a disciple, Siddha Singkhi,
respectfully touched the pill to his head but did not eat it. 1'he
Acarya asked why, and his follower answered: "I have no need of
the pill. If it pleases you, Acarya, please prepare a number of
vessels by filling them with water." Thus 1,000 large containers
were filled with water and placed there, in the forest. The siddha
then added a drop of urine to each of the vessels, which trans-
formed all the liquid into "elixir for gold". The Acarya took all
the vessels and concealed them in a secluded, inaccessible cave,
uttering a prayer that they might serve to benefit beings of the
future.
This Siddha Singkhi had not always been so adept. When he
first met the Acarya, he was so dull-witted that he could not learn
even a single verse over a period of many days. The Acarya then
told him, in a jesting tone, to meditate that a horn had grown on
top of his head. The disciple did so, maintaining his object of
meditation so sharply that he achieved the tangible and visible
sign of having grown a horn. He was therefore unable to leave the
cave in which he was meditating, for the horn got caught on the
walls. The siddha was then instructed to meditate that the horn
was no longer present, and it subsequently disappeared.
Realizing that his disciple's mental faculties had now become
sharply developed, the Acarya taught him several profound mean-
ings of the secret mantras. Nagarjuna then instructed him to
meditate once more, and the follower ultimately attained the
siddhi of the Mahamudra.
Later the Acarya travelled to the northern continent of Kurava·.
Along the way, in a city named Salamana, he encountered several
children playing in the road. Nagarjuna read the palm of one of
them, a boy named Jetaka, and prophesied that he would become
king. On the return journey, following the accomplishment of his
goal in Kui:ava, the Acarya met the former youth, who had since
become king. For three years Nagarjuna remained with the king,
A Biogrr1phy of Aciirya Nagarju11a 11
who bestowed upon the Acarya many jewels. In return he com-
posed for the king a jewel of the Dharma: namely, the Ratnavali.
It was then that he travelled south, as he had been advised by
the emanation of Tara, to practise meditation at the Mountain of
Splendour. Here Nagarjuna also turned the Wheel of the Dharma,
that of both sutras and tantras, extensively-and it was at this
time that he composed, in particular, the scripture Dharmadha~
Stava.
In general,. the Acarya's compositions are divided into three
collections:
1. the Collection of Discourses16-including such works as
the Ratnavali, Suhrllekha, Prajfia Sataka, Prajfia Dar:H;ia,
and Janapo~ar:ia Bindu;
2. the Collection of Tributes 17-the Dharmadhatu Stava,
Lokatita Stava, Acintya Stava, and Paramartha Stava;
and ·
3. the Collection of Logic Writings'H-the aforementioned
Mulamadhyamika Karika, etc.
In addition to these, he wrote other important treatises ex-
plaining the meanings of both sutras and tantras and, indeed,
performed activities as though the Buddha had returned again.
It is said that Nagarjuna made three "great proclamatio11s of
the Dharma". The first was his upholding the Vina ya discipline in
Nalanda, as previously explained. This was like the first turning
of the Wheel of the Dharma by the Bhagavan. The second was his
clear exposition of the Pure Middle View, through the composi-
tion of the collection of logic treatises and others. This was similar
to the Bhagavan's second turning of the Wheel. 1ne third great
proclamation constituted the Acarya's activities upon the Mount
of Splendour in the south, where he composed such works as the.
Dharmadhatu Stava. This was akin to the final turning of the
Wheel of the Dharrna by the Bhagavan.
Such extensive works on behalf of the Dharma and living
beings aroused great displeasure in ~ara and the forces of evil. A
boy, Kumara Saktiman, had earlier been born to the queen of
King Udayibhadra. Years later, the mother was presenting her
son with a rare, fin.e garment when the boy told her: "Put this
away for me. I shall wear it when it is time for me to rule th\•
kingdom." "You shall never rule," replied his mother, "for tht•
Acarya Nagarjuna ·h as brought it about that your father and ht•
12 Niigiirjuna's Letter

will not die unless the Acarya does." The boy was so overcome
with grief that his mother continued: "Don't cry so! The Acarya is
a Bodhisattva, and if you ask him for his head he will not refuse.
With that, your father will also die-and you shall acquire the
kingdom."
The child followed his mother's suggestion and Nagarjuna
did indeed agree to give his head. Yet however much effort the
b oy used, his sword could not cut Nagarjuna's neck. The Acarya
told the boy: " Long ago, while cutting some grass, I happened to
kill an insect. The force of that misdeed remains with me still, and
you can thus sever my head by using a blade of ku§a grass." This
the boy did, and so was able to cut off Nagarjuna's head. The
blood which flowed from the wound turned to milk, and the
following words issued from the dismembereq head: "From here
THE ELUCIDATED MEANING
I depart to Sukhavati heaven. In the future, I shall enter this body (SPHUTARTHA)
again."
The wicked prince cast the head away at several leagues'
distance, fearing that it would once more join the body. Since the
Acarya had attained the practice of rasayana, however, his head A
and body became stone-hard. The two are said to be coming commentary on
nearer and nearer, one to the other, every year-in the end to be ACARYA NAGARJUNA'S
joined once more. Nagarjuna will then again perform great works
for the benefit of the teaching and all living beings.
LE'I"I'ER TO A FRIEND (SUHRLLEKHA)
•
As is written in the Mafiju§rimulakalpa, the Acarya Nagarjuna composed by the Sakya Lama
lived for a total of 600 years: VENERABLE RENDAWA
After I, the Tathagata, have passed away
And 400 years have elapsed,
A bhiJ<l?u, "The Naga", shall appear, of
Great faith and benefit to the teaching.
He shall achieve the stage of Great Joy
And for 600 years remain living.'
 PREFACING VERSES
I

Obeisance to all the Jinas1 of the ten directions,

Together with their sons and disciples.
Endowed with a thousand white rays of pure activity,
Munindra,2 the Holder of the Hare,3
Dispels the seething agony of beings
Tormented by the sun of the mental afflictions
Just like a full autumn moon shedding
A thousand beams so cool-
Or Malaya breezes scented with the sweet fragrance
Of hari sandalwood.
His radiating even the smalJest portion of refreshing
beams
Which are the merit of being free from desire
Opens the utpala flower-with a pair of hovering
bees for eyes
And teeth of pistils so white-
And instantly shuts the forest of lotuses
That are the visages of celestial nymphs
Despatched as emissaries by the arrogant demons.
I bow to Munindra, the moon atnong teachers.
A thousand winged adversaries abiding
On a solid mountain of extreme views
Can surpass not even a slight measure of the blaziJ1g
Glory of tl1e position He asserts.
Free of extremes is ~unyata,4 the naga-crow.n jewel
Which dispels the darkness of the three spheres.
Nagarjuna, Lord of the Nagas, be you victorious--
Seated atop the heads of all beings.
In response to u rging from noble spi ritual friends,
I shall do my utmost to render explicit the following
verses,
Which render advice to a venerable acquaintance and
are,
Of Nagarjuna's writings, a treasure of excellent say-
.
1ngs.
16 Nagiirjuna's Letter

In the Lankavatara
•
Sutra, the Buddha states that
The one who is to maintain the way·s
After the sugata's nirviirya
Shall appear when some time has passed.
Know he shall be of great wisdom.
In the southern region, in the Land of Palms,
Is to appear Bhik~u Sriman, of great renown.
He'll be called "The Naga" and wiJl destroy
The extremes of existence and non-existence.
After expounding in the world my vehicle Part I
As the unexcelled Mahayana and A Recommendation to Heed
Achieving the stage of g reat joy he will
Depart to Sukhavati Paradise.
He whose appearance was foretold in many sutras-the great
Arya Nagatjuna-sent this letter, the Suhrllekha, to his friend
King Udayibhadra. In it are disclosed the unerring means for
attaining the higher states5 and Supreme Beatitude.6 The text is to
be understood as consisting, essentially, of two portions: a rec-
ommendation to heed the instruction (the first three verses) and
the instruction itself (the remainder of the poem).
 (1)
Virtuous One, worthy by nature of the good,
I've composed these "noble rhymes" to instill
Aspiration for merit derived from sugatas' teachings.
It is a short piece, which you should heed.
The king is addressed .as "Virtuous One, worthy by nature of the
good," so that he might heed the instruction. His relying upon
the instruction, and making it an habitual practice, would be a
virtue, a worthy deed. The nature of such virtues is that of being
a cause. By having formerly accumulated virtue-roots, the king
has now become a vessel fit for heari11g Holy Dhanna. Therefore,
he is "worthy of the good". The verse thus states, in essence: "By
having previously accumulated virtue-roots, 0 King, you have
become a fit vessel for the Holy Dharma-and hence should give
heed."
To what should the king give heed? He should heed these
verses con1posed in the metre called arya-giti ("noble rhythm").
What is the poem's length? To avoid the detriment of excessive
length, only a short piece has been composed; for the affairs of a
king are many, and he is unable to study a great nun1ber of
scriptures. Who has composed the work? "I," the Bhik~u
Nagarjuna. To what end has it been composed? "So that you, 0
Sovereign, and others 1night aspire for the merit which derives
from the teachings of the Holy Speech of the sugatas; 1 as that is
the means of attaining birth i.11 the higher states and of reaching,
ultimately, Supreme Beatitude."
The unerring means for attaining the higher states and Su-
preme Beatitude can be found nowhere but in the Buddha's
teaching. For instance, some outsiders (i.e., followers of a non-
Buddhist faith) mistakenly believe that the higher states and
liberation 2 can be attained by sacrificia l offerings of animals,
extreme practices such as tearing out one' s hair, or meditation
upon a "soul". This is the reason for tJ1e phrase: " .. .to instill
aspiration for merit derived from sugatas' Holy Speech," for the
author's underlying thought is that an individual will not achieve
his desired goal by aspiring for what, in other religious tradi··
tions, is taught as meritorious.
By means of a simile, the next verse iliustrates that one
sho'l.t!d not think: "I shall not listen to this poetry of yours, for d!>
form i.s inelegant." Because of the excellence of meaning, di:-;p,11·
agi.ng the poem for Jack of style would be improper.
20 Nng'iirj1111n's Letter

(2)

Wise men venerate figures of the sugatas made from

wood and such,
Whatever they be like. Just so, though this
Poetry of mine be poor, scorn it not, for it
Is based upon the sayings of the Holy Dharma.
Whether beautiful or not, figures of the sugatas made from
wood "and such"-which words refer to stone, clay; and so
forth- are venerated by the wise based on the qualities of what
they represent, regardless of the value of the material or artistry.
Simila rly, this poetry of mine merits the praise of wise n1en who
Part 11
confide not in the letter, but in the meaning of a statement. The Actual Instruction
Though they may be poor in style, the verses are based upon
sayings and Supreme Beatitude. Thus do not scorn it. In fact,
you should give heed. 'fhe second portion of the text, which deals with the actual
The fo llowing verse replies, also through simile, to the thought instruction, is divided into three parts: (1) general advice con-
one may have that "if the poetry is not elegant, then there is no cen1ing virtuous practices, (2) d evelopment of aversion towards
need for me to heed this instruction- for I have listened to many sarrsara through contemplating its defects, and (3) instruction on
of the sugata's scriptures in the past and thus already know its pursuance of the path after contemplating nirvarya's benefits.
meaning." Though there may be nothing new for you to learn, the
poem should be heard, to make more clear what you have al-
ready understood.
(3)

1·hough you may have even comprehended

All the exquisite speech of the Great Muni, doesn' t
That which is made of chalk plaster become
Whiter still in the winter moon's light?
He is called Muni3 for having protected the three gateways•
from non-virtuous acts. The Buddha is great in that He has
eliminated all traces of the mental afflictions and causes for
rebirth.
The Lord Buddha's speech is termed "exquisite" because it is
spoken with excellence. "Though you, 0 King, may have even
comprehended it all by means of listening, contemplat.ion and
n1cditation, still these verses should also be heard since they will
t>crve to make what you have already learned even more clear.
l)ocs not, for example, the striking of the winter moon's light
upon t1 white stuccoed mansion make it seem whiter still, despite
th.\I ht•ing its natural colour?"

(A) Genral Advice Concerning Virtttous Practices:
This division itself includes three chapters, of which the first is
general advice for botl1 ho11seholders and those who have de-
parted the home life.
CHAPTER 1
GENERAL ADVICE FOR 8oTH HOUSEHOLDERS AND THOSE
D EPARTED FROM THE H O ME LI FE
There are also three sections to Chapter 1, of which the first is
advice to maintain an abiding attitude of faith through the six
remembrances. The follo\\•ing verse illustrates that faith towards
the Buddha, etc., is the root of all virtue, and that one should
constantly bring the six remembrances to mind in order .to in-
crease this faith.
1. The Six Re111e111bra11ces
(4)
The Jina proclaimed the Six
Remembrances-Buddha, Pharma, Sangha,
Generosity, morality, and the deities.
Recall each of their several virtues.
The Jinas are those who have triumphed entirely over all evil.
The six ren1embrances-Buddha and the rest-which were pro-
claimed by Lord Buddha are to be recalled constantly each day.
How is this to be done? By remembering and calling to mind the
variety of good qualities pertaining to Buddha and the others as
they have been stated in the sutras.
Buddha
Of these six remembrances, the following are the virtues of the
Buddha: "The Buddha is the Bhagavan, TaU1agata,l Arhat,2 and
the Fully-Enlightened One.3 He is the one endowed with knowl-
edge and its foundation, sugata, knower of the world, unsur-
passed leader of the ones who are disciplined, and the teacher of
gods and men."
The Buddha is called Bhagavan (literally, "Blessed Lord")
because He has conquered the four demons and because He is
endowed with the highest of fortunes . He is called Tathagata
(literally, the "One Gone Thus") because He has attained realiza-
tio11 of "thusness,"4 or because everything is just as He has snid ii
24 Niigr11ju11a's Letter
to be, and not otherwise. And He is called Arhat ("Defeater of the
Enemy") because He has defeated the enemy of the mental afflic-
tions, or because He is worthy of being worshipped through
offerings and veneration.
"fhe Buddha is called "Fully Enlightened One" because He
has comprehended all things truly and unerringly. He is said to
be "endowed with knowledge" because He possesses wisdom,
which is "with its foundation" in that He possesses the morality
and mental concentration upon which knowledge is based. He is
called the sugata (the "One who has Fared Well") because He has
reached the sublime sta te, or else because He will not fall back
from it.
He is called "kno"ver of the \vorld" because, in realizing the
nature of the 12 limbs of Dependent Origination, He knows
exactly the world of living beings. And in understanding the
origin of the earth, n1ountains, and such-in kno\.ving all regions,
their dimensions, and so on-He knows exactly the external
physical world.
The driver of a cart will attach to his vehicle oxen which have
not been trained before, if they are fit for the task of drawing it.
Once the oxen arc yoked, he restrains those which draw the
wagon improperly and places those who have gone astray on the
right path. Those who travel too slowly the d river strikes with an
iron prod. The unruly ones, those which cannot be yoked to the
vehicle, he leaves undisturbed.
Likevvise, the Lord Buddha joins to the path of the Aryas
those disciples who are worthy of being joined to it. He restrains
those few who, once joined, act contrary to the holy doctrine. The
Buddha returns to the true path those who stray to a wrong one,
and encourages with the iron prod of strenuousness those who
are idle. l'hose unrt1ly ones who are unfit to be joined to the path
He leaves undisturbed. For these reasons He is called the "unsur-
passed leader of the ones \vho can be disciplined."
As stated in the Satapancasatika:
You admonish t11e stubborn and
Bring under control those who go \vrong,
Restore the dishonest to rightful •vays
And stir on those who move too slowly.
You join the subdued to the path
And leave alone the unruly-
Advice Co11ccr11i11g Virf11011s Pract ices 25
Hence You are the unsurpassed
Guide for those to be trained. [102,103]
The main body of disciples are gods and men, as they are
suitable vessels for the path of liberation; and because the Bud-
dha teaches them the Dharma in accord with their wishes, He is
the "teacher of gods and men". To indicate that the one possessed
of the foregoing qualities is the Lord Buddha, two more epithets
are mentioned. The Buddha is both the "awakened one," because
He has awakened from the sleep of ignorance, and the "hilly
developed one"-because His mind has expanded to where it
encompasses all objects of knowledge.
Dlzanna
The following are the virtues of the Dharma: "The Dharma of the
Bhagavan is well-proclaimed, rightly seen, free of malady, ever-
lasting, rightly conveying, worthy to behold, and to be realized
by the wise through personal experience." In brief, these qualities
indicate the twofold Dharma of doctrine5 and attainment.6 The
quality of being "well-proclaimed " refers to the Dharma of doc-
trine, which is virtuous at the beginning, the middle and the end
because it generates-successively-the three wisdoms of listen-
ing, contemplation and meditation.
The remaining qualities refer to the Dharma of attainment,
with the first five indicating the truth of the path. Furthermore,
they represent this truth in terms of its (1) essential nature and (2)
attributes. The expression "rightly conveying" indicates the
former, in the sense that the Dharma constitutes a path because it
conveys to the devotee the result of nirvai:ia.
Three attributes of the path are that it (1) is pure by nature, (2)
illuminates the true nature of all objects of knowledge, and (3)
overcomes all adverse things. The first of these is referred to in
the expression "worthy to behold" because, like a lamp, the path
radiates light by its very nature. The expression " rightly seen"
refers to the second attribute, for the path allows unerring sight
into the true nature of reality. The third is referred to in the
expression "free of malady" because (with the path's attainment)
all the latent potential of the mental afflictions (klesas) is elimi-
nated . Further, since the potential is eliminated for all time and
not a limited period the Dharma is said to be "everlasting" .
The phrase "to be realized by the wise through person.ii
 26 Nagarjuna' s Letter
experience" refers to the truth of cessation, which can neither be
determined by logical speculation nor explained through verbal
expression because it is the object of transcending awareness7
that is realized by each meditator for himself.
The followiI1g quotation from the scripture Uttaratantra (Ch.
1, v . 9) serves as a definition of the Dhanna:
Obeisance to that which cannot be examined with
regard to either its non-existing, existing, both exist-
ing and non-existing, or something other than existing
and non-existing; which has no verbal explanation, is
to be realized for oneself, and constitutes peace: the
Holy Dharma, that sun endowed with the radiance of
immaculate \visdom which overcomes attachment,
hatred and ignorance towards all objects.
SaJJgha
The following are the virtues of the sai:igha: "the sal)gha-those
who listen to the Bhagavan-are virtuous in conduct, upright in
conduct, proper in conduct, and decorous in conduct." These
expressions indicate the virtues of the sai:i.gha's practice. Because
they abide properly in the three trainings of superior morality,
superior meditative concentration and superior wisdom, the
sal)gha are said to be, respectively, "virtuous in conduct" and the
rest. Further, because every one of them conducts himself in a
like manner with regard to material things, morality, vie\vs and
rites, the sai:igha are said to be "decorous in conduct".
The following are the virtues which make the sal)gha worthy
of reverence: "The sal)gha-who listen to the Buddha-are al-
ways worthy of offerings, worthy of great offerings, worthy of
circumambulation and worthy of being addressed with joined
palms-and unsurpassed field of merit for all the world." The
sal)gha are described with lhe first two, middle two, and final
expressions bec.ause they are endowed with the virtues of each of
the Three Trainings, respectively.
Generosity
The following are the virtues of generosity:
Verily, the abilities I have acquired to dwell (with a
mind free of avarice) amongst beings corrupted by
Advice Co11ccr11i11g Virtuous Practices 27
the impurity of greed performing acts of offering and
liberality wholeheartedly, to take delight in extending
the hand and giving, as well as to induce others to
generosity, are qualities well acquired indeed.
This statement illustrates the following qualities of liberality to be
adopted in one's person: abandoning the impurity of greed,
being of a generous nature, initiating bodily effort, bestowing
objects, and doing so joyfully.
Morality
The virtues of morality are expressed as follows: "M y morality is
unbroken, unflawed, undefiled, unsoiled, self-controlled, praised
by sages, and leads to the atlainn1ents of samadhi." This state-
ment also illustrates qualities-here, of morality- to be adopted
into one's person. They will be further explained upon the occa-
sion of the lines: "You should practise a morality unJ?roken, not
debased, undefiled, untainted, uncorrupted."A
Deities
The virtues of the deities are expressed as follows: "There are
deities ranging from the class of the four divine monarchs (catur
manaraja kayika) and the thirty-three (trayastrimsa) to those
deities called 'those who control the emanations of others'
(paranirmita-vasa-vartin).9 The remembrance of deities consists
of bei11g mindful of the qualities which have caused them to be
born into these celestial states, and of emulating them in one's
moral and meditative practices, e tc.
2. The Ten Paths
Because the six remembrances make the mind :pure and are a
source of great merit,1° they are presented first. 'fhe following
verse in'dicates that one who possesses an attitude of sincere faith
towards these six objects of the Buddha, etc., should next exert
himself or herself in the performance of virtue.
(Sa)
Practise constantly the 10 paths of virtuous karma-
In body, speech, and mind. ,
28 Nlig'iirjunn' s Letter
The virtuous paths of karma 11 are called "virtuous" because
they yield many desirable results, "karma" because their essence
consists of action, and "paths" in that they lead to the favourable
states of existence. 12
They are, further, of 10 forms-ranging from the avoidance
of taking lives to the right view. Three of them (the avoidance of
taking lives, etc.) pertain to the body, four (the avoidance of
stating falsehoods, etc.) to speech, and three (the absence of
covetousness, etc.) to the mind. These lines of verse thus state
that one should constantly practise the 10-in body, speech, and
mind respectively.
The 10 paths of virtuous karma are practised by means of
eschewing the 10 paths of non-virtuous karma (taking lives, etc.).
One may, then, ask how these non-virtuous acts are defined. In
general, they are defined as the undertaking and consummation
of the particular act (of taking a life etc.) upon an appropriate
object and with an afflicted state of mind.
An "afflicted state of mind" is one in which an individual is
overcome by any of the three poisons-desire, hatred or igno-
rance. Even given the afflicted state of mind, however, an act not
undertaken with an intent that accurately recognizes the charac-
ter of the object constitutes no complete karmic path 13-notwith-
stand ing even its consummation-since the two limbs of intentH
and preparation 15 have not occurred.
If both an afflicted mind and intent occur but, through an
erring mind, it is carried out upon some other object, the act does
not constitute a complete karmic path, even should it become
consummated, because the intent and preparation are mistaken.
If both an afflicted mind and intent are present but the act is
neither undertaken nor consummated, it does not constitute a
complete karmic path because it has only been conceived of in the
mind-while the limbs of preparation and of the main stage (ie.
the actual perpetration of the act) 16 have not occurred.
lf an afflicted mind and intent are present and an attempt is
made to carry out the act but it does not reach finalization, the act
does not constitute a complete karmic path because the main-
stage limb has not occurred.
When both an afflicted mind and intent are present and the
attempt and finalization of a given act are perpetrated with
respect to a given object, a complete path of non-virtuous karma
exists. To be more specific, the definitions of the 10 paths of
Advice Concerning Virtuous Practices 29
karma are understood as having five parts: object, intent, prepa-
ration, mental affliction and finalization.
Of these, the "object" 17 is that entity upon which a given act,
such as the taking of life, is carried out: the thing, either animate
or inanimate, through which any of the 10 non-virtuous paths of
karma comes about,
"Intent" is twofold: conception18 and motivation. Concep-
tion, fur.ther, is itself of four types: (1) conceiving of the object
correctly-as being what it is, (2) conceiving. of what. is not the
object as being such, (3) conceiving of what 1s the ob!ect as not
being such, and (4) conceiving of what is not _the obie~t as not
being such. Only the first of these can comprise the hmb of a
karmic path, for no act will be complete through any of the other
three.
"Motivation" is the desire to carry out a particular act upon a
given object. "Preparation" is every effort of the three gateways
(whether one's own or another person's) initiated fo_r t~e f,~rpose
of accomplishing the particular deed. "Mental affliction is any
one of the three poisons of desire etc.
"Finalization" is the completion of the desired act through
the efforts associated with it, and may occur either at the same
moment that those efforts are made or at some subsequent time.
Thus it should be understood that the non-virtuous karmic paths
are defined in terms of these five aspects.
The Taking of Lives
The object for the act of taking lives19 is a living being. It is c~l~ed
an "unerring conception" when the person who does the kilhng
conceives of the being as a living thing and possesses, as well, an
urunistaken conception of it as the one (s)he desires to kill.
The arising of the thought, " I shall kill this creature"-on the
basis of the above conception-is the intent to kill the creature.
This person's being overcome by any of the 1!1ree_ root pois~ns of
desire, etc., and formulating his or her mind in this manner is the
"mental affliction".
If with such intent and afflicted n1ind, either this person or
(thro~gh his or her inducement) ar:o~er. att~mpts to kill the
particular being by such means as str1k1ng it with a ':'eapon a.nd
the creature should die immediately as a result of this effort (1.c.
upon being struck), the karmic path is completed at th,\t very
30 Niigiirj1111n's Letter
moment. [f the being should die at some later period through the
effect of the effort, the karmic path is completed at the lin1e of
death.
Taking What is Not Given · such. The intent is a desire to utter harsh words, and the mental
The object for the act of taking what is not given20 is property
retained by another person. The conception is to .recognize the
object as being such. The intent is the desire to appropriate it, the
mental affliction is any of the three poisons, and the finalization is
the removal of that property to another location.
Sexual Misconduct
The object for the act of sexual misconduct2 1 can be any of the
following: (1) a woman with whom it is improper to engage in
sexual activity; (2) a woman with whom sexual activity might
otherwise be permissible but where the part of the body, the
place, or the time is improper; and (3) another male or sexually
deficient person.
The conception is to recognize, unerringly, any of the men-
tioned objects as being such. The intent is the desire to have
sexual intercourse. The mental affliction is as before, and the
finalization is for two such individuals to make physical contact.
Speaking Fnlselioods
The object for the act of speaking falsehoods~ 2 is something which
has been seen, heard, discerned or cognized and its opposite. The
conception is to conceive the opposite of what was seen, etc. The
intent is lo state such a fabricated conception. The mental afflic-
tion is as before, and the finalization is when another person has
received a false understanding in response to his or her question.
Slander
The object for slander23 can be either persons in a state of mutual
harmony or persons who are not. The. conceptior1 is to recognize
them as such. The intent is a desire that they become alienated, or
that they not be reconciled. "fhe mental affliction is as before. The
finalization is the utterance of speech designed to cause alien-
ation, followed by its having been understood.
Advice Co11cer11i11g Virtuous Practices 31
Harsh Speeclz
The object for harsh speech 2~ is sentient beings who have engen-
dered hostile feelings. The conception is to recognize them as
affliction is as before. The finalization is the utterance of harsh
speech to those individuals.
Idle Speeclt
The object for idle speech~5 is a topic devoid of purpose. The
conception is to conceive of it, and the intent is the desire to talk
of it. The mental affliction is as before, and the finalization is to
utter such speech.
Covetousness
1'he object for covetousness26 is the wealth or property of another
person. The conception is to recognize it as such, and the intent is
to desire the same for oneself. The mental affliction is as before,
and the finalization is the resolve to appropriate the wealth or
property for oneself.
Malice
The object and conception for malice27 are the same as in the case
of harsh speech. The intent is to strike or otherwise inflict harm
upon the individuals, and the mental affliction is as before. The
finalization is to resolve to strike or otherwise injure them.
False View
1ne object for false view 2A is the Jaw of cause and effect, the Four
Truths, and other significations which are, in fact, true. The
conception is to conceive of them as untn.te. The intent is to
adhere to that belief. The mental affliction is as before, and the
fi nalization is resolving to blaspheme such truths.
For a more comprehensive explanation of the classification of
these 10 karmic paths one should refer to such scriptures as the
Nir~znyn Sa1/lgrnhn. I have not written more here for fear the
discussion would become too lengthy. Thus, it should be under-
stood that the 10 virtuous paths of karma, ie. the eschewal of the
taking of lives, etc., are nothing but the very avoidat1ce and
renunciil tion of the 10 paths of non-virtuous karma just explain(·d,
even when their objects are near at hand.
32 Niigiirju11a's Letter
Intoxicants are a cause for every sort of wrongdoing and are
thus of great detriment. Their consumption, being a misdemeanour
by decree,29 is not included in the karmic paths. For these reasons,
the eschewal of intoxicants is expressed in the context of pursu-
ing a right livelihood.
(Sb)
Abstain from intoxicants and likewise
Take delight in a virtuous livelihood.
Because they bring about heedlessness,30 one should abstain
from all forms of intoxicants, whether they are made from grain
or from a mixture of different substances. I~ is also added that one
should, further, take delight is a virtuous livelihood; that is,
partake of food, drink, and so forth in a way which neither harms
nor brings about heedlessness in others.
1'he next verse is stated in order to illustrate that one who
maintains the paths of virtuous karma sl1ould practise the giving
of gifts according to his or her means.
(6)
Recognizing wealth to be ephemeral and insubstan-
tial,
Exert yourself properly in liberal acts
Towards bhi~us, Brahmans, the poor, and friends.
For the future there's no better friend than liberality.
Material wealth, such as food and clothing, is called "ephem-
eral" because it is unstable. It is called "insubstantial" because it
provides no real or lasting satisfaction. Realizing this to be the
nature of material wealth, one should perform acts of generosity
properly-that is, respectfully-so as to derive genuine value
from such wealth.
With a desire either to honour or assist them, one should
n1ake gifts to bhik~us and Brahmans, who constitute the "field of
virtue" ,31 to the destitute and sick, who constitute the "field of
misery",32 and to such friends as preachers of the Dharma and
parents, who constitute the "field of assistance" .33
Since, in the future, great results will come about from such
g<'l'ICrosity, it is stated that there is no more helpful friend than
Advice Co11ccr11i11g Virtuous Prnctices 33
liberality for future lives. As the scripture Mndhyn111nkiivatiira
states:
A p~r~n who breaks the leg of morality, though
ga1rung
Wealth from some generosity, will fall into the infe-
rior states.34
And since the root generating the wealth becomes
Exhausted, he shall henceforth acquire no more.
[Ch. 2, v. 4]
Since the fruit of generosity detached from morality is en-
joyed as a being of an inferior state, no further liberality is devel-
oped for the benefit of future lives, and the condition of wealth
itself will therefore come to an end.
In the same scripture it is further stated:
When virtues are developed in the field of morality,
The enjoyment of their fruit will not be interrupted.
[Ch. 2, v. 6]
Generosity combined with morality will result in great wealth
enjoyed in a life as a deity or human. And since in that state one
practises still more liberality supported by morality, the enjoy-
ment of ample fruits in subsequent lives will be unending.
Therefore, so that such merit as liberality will not go to waste,
the following verse is stated as an injunction to observe morality.
(7)
You should practise a morality unbroken, not de-
based-
Undefiled, untainted, uncorrupted.
Morality •vas declared the foundation for all virtue
Just as the earth is for all things moving and unmov-
.
1ng.
In essence, the verse simply states that one should practise
morality. What qualities should one's moral practice possess? It
should be "unbroken" in that one docs not transgress even a
single one of the precepts which have been accepted. The moral-
ity should "not be debased" in that one does not transgress thc1n
in large number; "undefiled" in that it is not polluted by non·
34 Niigiirju11a's Letter
virtuous thoughts. It should be "untainted" in that its practice is
not dedicated towards the purpose of continued existence or
material \.vealth. Fit1ally, the morality should be "uncorrupted" in
that just such a moral practice does not change into any other
form.
Because a moral practice having such qualiti~s brings libera-
tion from the slavery of sa~saric existence, it constitute~ free-
dom. Such a moral practice is thus praised by the wise, the Aryas.
It also leads to the attainment of samadhi, because the mind
becomes composed when one is endowed with morality.
An explanation can also be given through a statement from
the Abhidhar11zako5a (Ch. 4, v. 123): " ...untainted by immorality or
its cause-based upon its antidote and peace."35 It is indicated by
this that one's moral practice should be endowed with four
qualities. The practice should be "unbroken" through not being
tainted by immoral conduct; viz., the mental afflictions. It should
be "und'efiled" through reliance upon such practices as medita-
tion upon the impurity)(> of the body, which constitute antidotes
to the mental afflictions. Finally, it should be "untainted" through
being maintained by the aspiration for the peace of nirvai:ia.
One may ask what value adhering to such morality has. The
Buddha has declared that, just as the earth is the foundation for
all things moving and unmovillg, morality is the foundation for
meditative concentration, wisdom and so forth: ie. for everything
of merit both worldly and transcendental. Since one endowed
with morality will be free from such hindrances as regret, etc.,
one can gradually attain samadhi. With the attainment of mental
composure, there can arise the true and exact vision of transcend-
ing awareness, and it is by means of this transcending awareness
that one ultimately attains deliverance37-the elimination of the
mental afflictions.
3. The Six Para1nitas
This is the instruction to abide in the ~v1ahayana Path of the Six
Paramitas.38 The following verse is stated to illustrate that after
having illitially purified oneself through practising the 10 virtu-
ous deeds, liberality and morality as explained above, one should
train oneself properly in the six paramitas of the Mahayana Path.
Advice Concerning Virtuous Practices 35
(8)
Liberality, morality, patience, effort, meditation and
Likewise wisdom: develop these immeasurable
Paramitas and-having crossed the sea of
Existence become the Lord of Victors.39
Giving away of all one's possessions-personal wealth ar1d
even one's body---constitutes liberality.4° Morality 1 consists of
abandoning non-virtuous deeds, together with their basis. The
ability to endure hardship is patience.42 Effort43 consists of the
willingness to perform virtuous deeds, and meditation44 is the
one-poillted fixing of the mind upon a virtuous object. True and
exact knowledge constitutes wisdom.45 Further, all these six prac-
tices are to be supported by the Bodhi Mind•6 and the wisdom
which does not conceptualize the Three Spheres.47 Being sup-
ported by the Bodhi Mind, they do not fall withill the purview of
the Sravakas and Pratyekas and are thus "immeasurable". So too
because the Three Spheres are not conceptualized, wisdom is
extended to its furthest limit; hence they are also called paramitas
("those which have reached the far side").
To "develop" these paramitas means that they should be
practised in such a manner that they become ever more highly
perfected. And once the other side of the ocean of existence has
been reached, one should attaill the Lordship of the Victors, ie.
Buddhahood, which conveys others there as well.
Of these six, the paramitas of liberality, morality and patience
constitute the merit-accumulation.48 This accumulatio11 of merit
provides Bodhisattvas with abundant well-beillg ill higher states
of existence while they remain ill sa~sara and, upon the achieve-
ment of perfect Buddhahood, serves as the cause for the Buddha's
"form body". This latter constitutes the perfection of others'
concem.s.'9 As the Madhyanu1kiivatiira states:
These three dharmas-liberality and so forth-were
recommended ·
Especially for householders by the sugatas.
These very same are called the merit-accumulation,
Cause of the Buddha's body of form.
[Ch. 3, v. 12]
36 Niigiirju11a's Letter
The knowledge-accumulation 50 is comprised of the paramitas
of meditation and wisdom. While the Bodhisattva remains in
samsara, it is a cause both of his remaining untainted by the
impurities of sa111sara and of his giving aid to others. Upon the
achievement of perfect Buddhahood, it is the cause for the
"Dharma body"51 of the Buddha. This body constitutes the
fulfilment of one's own concems.52 It is stated in the scripture
Rnt11nvnli that:
The form body of the Buddhas
Is born from the accumulation of merit.
The Dharma body, in brief, 0 King,
Is born from the knowledge-accumulation.
[Ch. 3, v. 121
Effort is a cause for both accumulations. The scripture
Mndltya111nk2ivntiirn states:
All that is of virtue follows effort and is
The cause of both the merit and knowledge
Accumulations. The level where effort comes
Ablaze is the fourth, called "radiant light".
[Ch. 4, v. 1)
Thus the six paramitas encompass the two accumulations;
and, since these two produce all the well-being of Bodhisattvas
both during their presence in sa111sara and in their attainment of
nirvarya, it is determined that the entire Mahayana Path is con-
tained in these six paramitas.
CHAPTER2
I NsTRUCTioN D IRECTED P RIMARILY To H ousEHOULDERS
Chapter 2 has nine sections. The first concerns the honouring of
one's father and mother.
1. Respecti1ig 01,ie's Father a1id Mother
(9)
Any family revering father and mother
Will be attended by Brahma and religious teachers.
Its members will be renowned for venerating them
And later enter the higher states.
The family which respectfully honours its father and mother
will be free of both human and non-human harm. That they will
be "attended by Brahma" means they will receive the blessings of
the gods; and "attended by spiritual teachers" means they will
also receive the blessings acquired through the special virtues of
holy men.
An immediate benefit of such reverence is that, in this very
life, it will give rise to a good reputation. As for the future, it will
enable the attainment of birth in the higher states. Hence, those
who live as householders sh ould take great care to honour father
and mother.
2. Observirig Upnviisa 1
Since it is difficult for those who dwell as householders to follow
a religious way of life at all times, the following two verses
present the rite of po~adha,2 which consists of eight precepts, so
that such persons might do so-if only for the period of one full
day.
(10, 11)
When one eschews harm, thievery,
Sexual intercourse, falsehood, liquor,
The desire for untimely food, delight in a high seat,
Song, dance, various forms of jewellery-

38 Niigiirjuna's Letter
And takes on these eight precepts,
In emulation of the arhats' moral practice,
That is po~adha-which bestows on both men and
women
The appealing body of a desire-realm deity.
The observance of eight precepts, emulating the moral prac-
tice of former arhats for the period of one full day, is called
"po~adha". These eight precepts are the eschewal of: (1) harm-
meaning the taking of lives; (2) thievery-meaning the act of
taking what is not given; (3) sexual intercourse; (4) stating false-
hoods; (5) alcoholic spirits and all intoxicants-which are the
source of heedlessness; (6) untimely food; (7) a high seat-one
which is more than a cubit in height; (8) singing, dancing, all
unguents (except those used for treating disease), and any form
of jewellery. The fruit of observing these is that, in a future life,
one is provided with the appealing body of one of the six classes
of desire-realm 3 deities.
One may ask for whom this will occur. It will come about for
any man or woman of the three continents who has maintained
the above-mentioned practice. It will not occur for others because
they are unable to acquire the pratimo~ vows.4
The upavasa vow is subsumed within five limbs; (1) under-
taking the eschewal of harm towards other, (2) undertaking the
eschewal of harm towards oneself and others, (3) preserving
one's precepts from corruption, (4) remaining mindful and aware
so as to eschew harming others' lives and property, and to pre-
vent one's precepts from becoming corrupted, and (5) preventing
the memory from becoming clouded.
The first of these limbs consists of eschewing harm to the life
and property of others. The second is comprised of eschewing
sexual intercourse, for by abstaining from sexual relations with
one's own spouse a person avoids harm to himself and by ab-
staining from sexual relations with the wife of another he avoids
harm to others.
The third limb consists of eschewing the staement of false-
hoods. The fourth consists of the remaining three precepts-with
the exception of eschewing intoxicants-for when individuals
who constantly indulge in dance, song, music, o intments,
jewellery, high seats and untimely food temporarily refrain from
i>UCh practices they will at all times remain in a state of attentive
Advice Co11cer11i11g Virtuous Practices 39
recollection, reflecting that they are nurturing themselves by the
observance 'Of po~dha.
The fifth limb is the eschewal of intoxicants, for the reckless-
ness and confusion brought about by alcoholic spirits will induce
one to violate the precepts unwittingly, despite any intention to
remain mindful and aware.
You may ask why the eschewal of accepting gold and silver,
though included among the precepts of the sramanera 5, is not
made part of the upavasa precepts. The reason is that a sramanera
takes up the state of a homeless ascetic, for whom two activities
are extremely improper and unbefitting: (1) over-indulgence in
sensory pleasures-such as delighting in games and behaving
wantonly-and (2) hoarding wealth. In this regard, the renuncia-
tions ranging from the eschewing of dance, song, music and so
forth up to the eschewing of untimely food are accepted in order
to avoid the first impropriety (over-indulging in sensory plea-
sures). Renouncing the practice of accepting gold and silver is
accepted in order to avoid the second impropriety, insofar as
gold and silver are both the root and substance of hoarding. This
latter, however, is neither a grave offence nor an impropriety for
householders, so that renouncing the acceptance of gold and
silver is not included among the upavasa precepts.
One may ask why indulging in dance, song, music, perfumes,
jewellery, and ointments forms the basis of a single precept of the
upavasa vows, whereas in the case of a sramanera they are made
into two precepts. This is so that, if a householder should indulge
in all of them, he would need to make absolution for but a single
offence rather than two. Thus they ~re included within a single
precept in order to be more lenient. These activi ties, however, are
most unbefitting for those who have left the home life. For greater
strictness, they are made into two precepts so that two offences-
not just one-would have to be absolved in the event of their
violation.
3. Escher.ving Wrong Attitudes
Through their attachment to base activities, householders give
rise to a large number of wrong attitudes such as greed and so
forth. Since these attitudes cause one to take birth in the lower
sta tes of existence, the following verse is stated so that they might
be rejected.
40 Niigiirju11a's Letter
(12)
View as enemies greed, cunning and deceit,
Attachment, idleness, haughtiness,
Lust and hatred, conceit from greatness of
Family, physical appearance, learning, health and
authority.
Greed6 is a strong clinging to one's possessions, and opposes
generosity. Cunning7 is the adherence to methods of concealing
one's faults. DeceitR is the displaying of false attributes for the
purpose of deceiving others, and attachment9 is desire for the
body and material wealth. ldleness10 is the aversion to virtuous
endeavours, and haughtiness11 is the inflated feeling that devel-
ops from believing one possesses extraordinary qualities which,
in truth, one does not. Lust12 is the desire for sexual intercourse,
and hatred 13 a feeling of malice towards another being.
These eight attitudes and conceitu-the inflated feeling caused
by attachment to the five objects mentioned (family of high social
standing, etc.)-are 13 non-virtuous dharmas which steal the life-
spirit 9f virtu~. One should thus regard them as enemies, not
giving way to them even for an instant.
Pride is defined as the inflated attitude which comes about
through comparing the status of one's family or whatever one has
with that of others. Conceit, on the other hand, is defined as the
inflated attitude which develops from considering the status of
one's family etc. irrespective of others'. The Al?hidha1:11iakosa ex-
plains:
Pride is inflatedness, whereas conceit is a
Suspension of mental activity brought about through
Attachment to one's own attributes.
[Ch. 2, v. 33)
4. Practising Mindfulrzess
Mindfulness is the root of all virtuous things. Since even house-
holders are able to be mindful, the following verse is stated with
the aim of establishing them in that attitude.
(13)
The Muni declared mindfulness the way
Of immortality and heedlessness the way of death.
Advice Concerning Virtuous Practices 41
Thus constantly practise mindfulness with respect,
In order to develop virtuous dharmas.
Mindfulness15 is the state of intently devoting the mind to
virtuous dharmas·and guarding it from impure ones. It is the way
which leads to the nectar of immortality, the d~athless state of
Nirvat:ta. Its opposite, heedlessness,16 is the way which leads to
experiencing the misery of birth and death in samsara. The Muni
declared this in the following way:
Mindfulness is the way of immortality-
Heedlessness the way of death.
The mindful will not die-
The heed?ess are perpetually dead.
Always exert yourself, therefore, in mindfulness-the prac-
tice of habituating oneself to virtuous dharmas-in order to give
rise to those virtuous dharmas as yet ungenerated and develop
further those which are.
'
The next verse responds to the thought one may have of, "if
you wanted to help me, why didn't you state this instruction at
the very outset? As I have already in the past been remiss, what
can I do now?"
(14)
Beautiful as the moon freed of clouds
Is the formerly heedless one become mindful-
Akin to Nanda, Ailgulimala,
Ajata§atru and Udayana.
One may have formerly committed non-virtuous acts wan-
tonly, either through being overcome with mental afflictions or
through the influence of evil companions, and hence already been
remiss. However, if such a person later should meet with a
spiritual friend 17 and, through diligently undertaking to adopt
correct ways, become mindful, (s)he will then become very beau-
tiful-like a moon freed from obscuring clouds.
The following examples are given in answer to the query
whether there have ever been instances of such persons. Nanda
was a lustful Sakya youth, and younger half-brother to Lord
Bt1ddha. Ordained by the Tathagata at a time when he could not
bear even an instant's separation from his wife, day and night he
thougl1t only of her-never of practising virtue. Then the Bhagaviin
42 Nagarju11a's Letter
revealed the dreadful condition of the hells to him, and Nanda
became terrified. Directed to meditate upon the path, he attained
the stage of an arhat and w~s declared the mos t restrained of the
Buddha's disciples.
Angulimala was the son of a Brahman. Being rather dull-
witted, he was d eceived by a teacher who directed him upon a
wicked path, telling him that by killing 1,000 human beings and
making a garland of their fingers he would be carrying out a true
p ractice of the Dharma. When Angulimala had killed all but one
of the 1,000, he met and was ordained by the Tathagata. Later, he
attained the stage of a n arhat.
"Through his association with the evil Devad.~ tta, Ajata§atru 1 ~
committed numerous sins including the murder of his own fa-
ther, the pious King Bimbisara. Later, having acquire~ faith in the
Buddha, he was able to escape the consequences of qis s ins and
was declared by the Bhagavan to be the most faithful of the
upasakas. 19 Udayana murdered his own mother because sh e had
prevented him from s leeping with another man's wife. Though
ordained as a bhik~u, he was banished by the sal)gha when it was
learned he had committed one of the "immediate" sins.20 Settling
in a remote area, he constructed a temple where a large number
of devout monks eventually took up residence-with Udayana
serving as the elder. After his death Udayana was born in hell as
a consequence of his immediate sin; however, because of his
exemplary supp ort of the sal)gha, he remained there only a very
short time and quickly escaped, in the manner of a rebounding
ball. After leaving hell he was born as a deity and attained the
fruit of stream-enterer' at the side of the Bhagavan.
5. Practising Patience
When many undesirable things befall them, householders are
often angered; to deter them from such a reaction, the following
verse presents the merits of patience.
(15)
There is no austerity like patience-
So do not g ive way to anger.
By overcoming anger, the Buddha acknowledged,
One attains the stage of non-returning.
Advice Concer11i11g Virtuous Practices 43
In this case, patience means not to become angered if injured
and, should anger arise, not to continue to harbour the feeling .
Because there is no austerity at all to equal that of patience, it
represents the highest form of aus terity. Casting oneself into fire
or water, eating roots and fruit, wearing leaves and bark as
clothing and such are nothing m ore than acts of bodily torture.
Since they do not lead even to the higher states of existence, what
mention need there be of nirvana? •
Hence they are not true aus-
terities. •
Because patience is of such great benefit, one should not
allow oneself the slightest opportunity of becoming angered; for
anger is the direct opponent of this highest austerity. The Buddha
acknowledged that by eliminating anger through the practice of
patience one attains the state of not returning to the desire realm.
A Sutra states: "Abandon anger, 0 monks. I am your witness to
the stage of non-returning."
Anger and the desire for sense objects are both causes for
having to take birth in the desire realm. Yet since one cannot
abandon anger without also overcoming the desire for sense
objects, it is declared that one can transcend the desire realm by
abandoning anger.
With this instruction that one should not yield to anger at the
outset, the following verse states that-in the event it does arise--
one should quell anger immediately and not harbour resentment.
(16)
"This person insulted me, this one struck or
Overwhelmed me, that one stole my wealth."
Such resentment generates conflict; he
Who abandons resentment sleeps easily.
For the same reason that one sh ould allow oneself no occa-
sion to be angered, one should also avoid resentment. Resent-
ment22 is the deep adhering to a notion that one has been harmed,
such as when one reflects to oneself; "This person insulted me
with offensive words," "This person s truck me with a stick (or
the like)," "This person overwhelmed me by force," or "This
person stole my wealth." Such resentment not only gives rise to
s trife, consisting of verbal misconduct, but also makes one feel
miserable. By abandoning the resentment, one is able to sleep
comfortably, or one's n\ind becomes free of misery. Thus ont'
 44 Nagarjuna' s Letter
should exert oneself, with great diligence, in abandoning resent-
ment. The Bodhicaryavatara states:
In short, no one of an angry nature can enjoy well-
being.
(Ch.6, v .5)
and:
He who with perseverance overcomes anger
Will be happy in this life, and in others.
(Ch. 6, v. 6)
6. Eschewing Indecent Conduct
Since the ordinary person usually gives rise to the above virtuous
and non-virtuous attitudes promiscuously, the following verse is
stated with the aim of strengthening virtuous states of mind and
weakening non-virtuous 011es.
(17)
Understand thoughts as being like figures
Drawn in water, earth and stone.
For an afflicted state of mind the first is best;
With an aspiration for the Dharma, the last.
A person's mental activity can be of varying degrees of firm-
ness, to be understood in three basic types: (1) like a figure drawn
upon water, (2) like a figure drawn in the dirt, and (3) like a figure
etched in stone.
In the case of an afflicted mind, it is best for one's thoughts to
be unfirm, that is, like a figure drawn upon water. But \Yith
virtuous states of mind, such as aspiration for the Dharma, it is
best for them to be firm like a figure etched in stone. Therefore,
one .should exert oneself in accordance with these examples.
Just as one's thoughts are of three types, so also is one's
speech. The following verse is stated to illustrate how one should
conduct oneself verbally.
(18)
The Jina declared a person's speech as being
Of three types-pleasing, truthful,
And improper: like honey, a flower, and
Filth. The last should be abandoned.
Advice Co11cer11i11g Virtuous Practices 45
The Jina ("Victor"), the one who has conquered all evil,
declared a person's speech to be of three types. What are these
three? They are (1) speech which is pleasing and agreeable, (2) the
truth, and (3) improper speech.
The first of these is like honey because it causes delight, while
the second is like a flower in its beauty and praiseworthiness. The
third, due to its baseness, is like filth. Abandon, therefore, the last
type and practise the first two.
The conduct of sentient beings who abide in saf!lsara is of
four types. The following verse is stated to illustrate that one
should maintain the highest of them .
(19)
Persons are of four types-those who go
From light and reach an end of light, from darkhess
To an end of darkness, from light to darkness and
Darkness to light. Be like the first of them.
It is stated in a Siitra that there are four types of persons,
beir1g t11ose who go from light to light and so forth. This is
explained in the following manner.
Persons who have taken birth among deities or humans of
great fortune and then are reborn again in the very same circum-
stances are the kind who go from light and reach an end of light.
Those who have taken birth in the lower states of existence or as
humans of little fortune and then are reborn in the same circum-
stances are the kind who go from darkness and reach an end of
darkness.
People who have taken birth among deities or humans of
great fortune and are then reborn in one of the thr~e lower states
or as humans of little fortune are the kind who go from hght and
reach an end of darkness. Those who have been born in one of the
three lower states or as humans of little fortune and the11 are born
among deities or humans of great fortune are the kind who go
from darkness and reach an end of light. Of these one should be
like the first type, who go from light to light.
7. Findirig Proper Associates
Next is learning the proper qualities that one's associates should
possess. A householder must associate with many persons, anJ
46 Nagarjuna's Letter
the following verse is stated in order to illustrate the appropriate
manner of doing so.
(20)
People should be understood as being
Like the mango fruit: there are unripe ones
Which seem ripe, ripe ones which seem unripe,
Unripe which appear unripe and ripe appearing
ripe.
Peoplerlike the mango fruit, are of four types, so once one has
learned what the different qualities are one should folJow the
proper course of action.
Some mangoes are unripe on the inside but seem ripe from
the outside, while others are ripe on the inside but seem unripe
from the outside. 1nird are those which are inwardly unripe and
appear unripe from the outside too; finally there are those which
are ripe on the inside and also appear ripe from the outside.
Persons are of four similar types. The first are vulgar in
thoughts, but their actions are good. The second type are the
opposite of this. The third type both think and act in a base
manner, while the fourth are excellent in both attitude and action.
8. Eschewing Desire for Another's Wife
This section has two parts, the first dealing with a method through
which one suppresses desire. This first part has three further
divisions. The first reveals the practice of altering one's concep-
tions and regarding the body as impure.
THE METHOD OF SUPPRESSION
-Altering One's Conception-
Sexual misconduct is something to which householders are par-
ticularly susceptible; since it is a serious offence, the following
verse is stated towards diverting them from it.
(21)
Gaze not upon another's wife; but if you should
take
Advice Co11cen1i11g Virtuous Practices 47
Notice, formulate a conception of mother, daughter or
Sister according to her age. If lust should arise
Contemplate the impure state of her body.
A Siitra states:
Reverend One, how should one conduct oneself
towards women?
Ananda, by n ot gazing upon them.
Thus one sho_uld, from the very outset, not gaze upon the
wife of another man. If one should, nonetheless, still take notice,
formulate one of the following conceptions, depending on the
woman's age: that of a mother towards one who is older, of a
daughter towards one who is younger, and of a sister towards
one of the same age.
If one reflects in this manner but still becomes lustful, one
should contemplate tl"te impurity of her body: its foul odours, it
being composed of nine apertures, and so forth-as will be ex-
plained below.
-Guarding the Mind and Restraining the Senses-
The following verse is stated as advice to keep watch over the
mind in the event that, after contemplating its impurity, one still
considers the body clean.
(22)
Keep watch over the fleeting mind as though it were
great
Leaming, a son, a treasure, or your life force.
Recoil from sensory pleasures, for they are like
A snake, poison, a weapon, an enemy and fire.
The mind, which moves from one object to another without a
montent's rest, should always be guarded from those objects that
favour the rise of the mental afflictions.
How is this to be done? One should keep watch over the
mind with the same care one would exercise in trying to prevent
the loss of \vhat instructions and learning one has acquired. One
should care as one would for a beloved son, a treasure-trove of
great riches, or one's own precious life.
48 Nagnrju11n's Letter
One should, in addition, develop aversion towards sensory
pleasures. H ow is this done'? By turning away from them with
dread , just as one would from a poisonous snake because of its
repugnan ce, poison because of its lethal effect, weapons because
they produce suffering, an enemy for his obstruction to one's
well-being, and fire because of its burning heat.
One may ask: "Why should one feel aversion-as for a sna ke
etc.-towards sensory pleasures, when they constitute an experi-
ence of something attractive in form?"
(23a)
Sensory objec ts produce ruination. The Jinendra
Declared them to be like the kimpaka fruit and
To be abandoned.
At the time they are experienced, sensory objects do give
pleasure. However, because they produce ruin in the end, they
are shunned by the wise. For this reason the Jinendra 23 declared
sensory objects, delightful at first but ultimately causit1g anguish,
to be like the kimpa ka fruit, which is bad on the inside though the
ou ter skill by itself is agreeable to the taste.
The following lines furthe r illustrate that sensory objects
should be abandoned because they are a cause for one's being
bound to samsara.
(23b)
By its s hackles the world is
Bound in the p rison of samsara.
Sense objects should also be abandoned because they a re the
shackles which bind alJ the world tightly in the prison of samsara.
That being so, it is necessary to subdue the sense faculties, in
order to guard the mind from improper objects. The following
verse is sta ted in praise of those who have controlled their senses,
so that one might generate perseverance in this same endeavour.
(24)
Of those who triumph over the six ever-unstable
and
Wavering senses and those who triumph over a
host of
Advice Co11ccr11i11g Virtuous Prnctices 49
Enemies in the face of battle, the first are viewed
By the wise as being the greater heroes.
The six senses of the eye, etc., are uns table in that they are
forever coming in contact with objects and then changing. They
waver out of great desire for objects. Some individuals are able to
subdue the sense faculties by means of the proper antidote. There
are, on the other hand, persons who triumph over a great host of
brave and stalwa rt enemies in the face of battle. Wise men view
the former, those who triumph over the sense faculties, as being
the greater heroes; for many are seen to triumph in physical
combat, even such beasts as lions and so forth, who are yet unable
to gain control of the senses.
-Co11te111plati11g the Faults of the Desired Object a1·1d the
Desiring Mi11d-
It was previously stated that one should "contemplate the im-
pure state of the body". The following verse answers the question
of how this is to be done.
(25)
A young maiden's body- foul of odour,
Comprised of nine apertures, similar to a container of
Every filth, difficult to fill and cloaked in
Skin-should be viewed apart from its adornments.
A young maiden's body is of a foul odour and comprised of
nine apertures exuding various impurities. Filled with many
kinds of impure substances, excrement, urine, and so forth, it is
like a container of every filth .
It is difficult to fill because, regardless of how much food and
drink are consumed, the body is not satiated. Lacking any inher-
ent essence, it is as well merely an object which is cloaked in skin.
For these reasons, it is not an object worthy of desire.
If one should, however, lust after a woman's body because it
is adorned with perfumes and ornaments, one should view it as
just described-separate from the ornaments. Then lust will not
arise. As the Bodhican;avatiira states:
If perr.imes applied to the body are nothing but
Sandalwood or the like, why should
50 Nagarjuna's Letter
One become desirous of one thing
Because of another's fragrance?
[Ch. 8, v. 65]
The faults of the object having been presented, the following
verse is stated in order to illustrate the fault of a lustful or
desiring mind, to s how that however much one partakes of
sensory objects, one can never gain complete satisfaction.
(26)
Understand the desire for sense objects as being
Like a leper's craving for comfort when,
Tormented by maggots, he exposes his
Body to fire but is not soothed.
•
A leper who is tormented by maggots eating at his wounds
might expose his body to fire so as to gain comfort; yet his
anguish, instead of becoming soothed, is but further increased.
Just so, one must realize, the foolish person who craves after
sense objects might also give hi1nself up to their enjoyment in
order to relieve the torment of his desire. Yet this desire, rather
than being relieved by such action, is but further increased. The
Ratniivali states:
There may be pleasure in scratching an irritation-
yet more
Pleasurable is its absence. Just so the
World of d esire gives pleasure, yet absence of
Desire is a greater pleasure still
[Ch. 2, v. 69]
THE ESCHEWAL OF 1HE SEEDS OF DESIRE
·~ . "...
There are six divisions to the second part, which deals with the
method involving the total elimination of desire, together with its
seeds. The first division addresses itself to the actual method.
-The Actual Method-
The practices of meditating upon the body's impurity and so
forth, as described above, serve only to suppress desire tempo-
Advice Co11cer11i11g Virtuous Practices 51
rarily; they do not eradicate it. The next verse thus states that,
since one wishes to remove desire-along with its seeds en-
tirely, one should meditate upon the path as presented below.
(27)
In order to see the highest
Meaning, exercise proper
Attention towards all entities. There is
No other dharma so virtuous.
This meaning is the "highest" because it is what the highest
wisdom perceives. To see this unerring nature of all things with
the eye of transcendent wisdom, one must exercise proper atten-
tion towards all inner and outer entities24-such as form25 and the
rest. "Proper attention" means an examination of these ,objects
with correct wisdom (prajna), followed by the practice of habitu-
ating oneself to the understanding so gained; that is, repeatedly
bringing it to the conscious mind. The value of doing so is that no
other dharma in the entire world has such a quality of being able
to destroy the n1ental afflictions and give rise to their antidote.
One may ask: "What is this highest meaning like? How does
one meditate upon it with proper mental attention?" It is the
"suchness" (tattva)26 constituting the true nature of all dharmas
which is called the "highest meaning".
It may further be asked what this "suchness" is like. The
Mltln11tiidhyn11wka Kari/ca states:
Not ascertainable from others, quiescent,
Beyond description through verbal expression,
A conceptual and undifferentiated
Is the definition of tattva.
[Ch. 18, v.9]
Tattva cannot be directly cognized by means of language and
concepts, nor can one be made aware of it through the disclosures
of another person. Rather, it is realized by the yogi, in an ineffable
manner, by means of a transcendent awareness intelligible only
to the individual himself or herself.
Moreover, one need not search for tattva anywhere other
than in the true nature of the dharmas of form and so forth, which
are subject to the law of Dependent Origination.27 This is because
there is no higher object than Dependent Origination since-as is
52 Nngnrju11a's Letter
not the case with the "atman"2A or "parkrti" 29 postulated in non-
C3uddhist schools-its realization provides deliverance, while lack
of its realization causes continued bondage to existence. The "in-
fantile" person30 is fettered because (s)he has not accurately real-
ized the true nature of form, etc.-those entities whose existence
is dependent. Clinging to the belief that all outer and inner forms,
etc., are real entities, (s)he adheres to the notion of a personal soul
(pudgala atmag raha) and the idea that all dharmas possess an
inherent essence (dharma atmagraha).31 From these, in tum, (s)he
gives rise to all the mental afflictions and conceptualizations that
are his or her fetters. The Ratnnvali states:
So long as there's clinging to (the real existence of)
the aggregates
Will there also remain the belief in a self.
With the belief in a self there occurs
Karma and from that, in tum, rebirth.
[Ch. 1, v. 35)
With the ineffable realization of the above-mentioned sunyata
encompassing the dependent entities of form etc., all the mental
afflictions and conceptualizations are eliminated and deliverance
attained. This same scripture states again:
When one's determined that it (samsara) does not
arise from
Itself, something different, both of these,
Or the three times, the belief in a self
Ceases-and thereby both karma and birth as well.
[Ch. 1, v. 37}
The same "suchness" of dharmas described earlier is also
called "no-self" (anatman).33 There is no way of achieving libera-
tion other than through realizing its meaning; and since this
realization destroys all extreme ':iews it is the Middle Path. No
one but the Buddha-not even Isvara or Yil?1:lu-is capable of
revealing the true meaning of anatman. Thus Catuhsataka ex-
presses this in the following words:
The sole gateway to peace,
The destroyer of all wrong views,
The apprehension of all the
Buddhas is called anatman.
[Ch. 12, v. 13)
Advice Co11ccr11i11g Virtuous Practices 53
Further, the process for realizing this sunyata involves gain-
ing the understanding that the nature of form etc.,-those dharmas
which constitute the illusory world-is such that their utter exist-
ence is totally dependent upon appropriate conditioning factors;
for any other view would constitute falling into either the ex-
treme of etemalism (sasvatanta) or that of nihilism (ucchedanta).
This is expressed in a Sutra in the following manner:
That which arises from conditioning factors has not
.
arisen;
It does not possess a nature of arising.
That ':Vhich depends upon conditioning factors is
called "void";
He who knows voidness has acquired mindfulness.
Moreover, Dependent Origination can be understood through
the reasoning known as "negation of the four extremes in respect
to arising". The Acarya himself has stated, in the Lokiititastava:
Dialecticians have variously claimed that misery is
produced
By (a cause of) the same nature or one which is
different;
That it is produced by both or does not have a cause.
You,~ however, have declared it to be Dependent
Origination.
[v. 19)
And, further,
A sprout does not come into being from
Either a seed which has perished or not perished.
You have stated that all origination
Is like the arising of an illusion.
[v. 16)
As for the proof of this doctrine, entities are determined not
to arise from a cause of the same nature (1) because it would be
inconsistent for an object already existing to produce itself, (2)
because the arising of the object would then be without any
purpose, and (3) because the process of arising would result in an
infinite regress.
These same entities are determined not to arise from a cause
54 Niigiirjtt11n's Letter
of an essentially different nature for, if they did, it would follow
that (1.) everything could arise from everything and (2) incompat-
ible entities could possess· a relationship of cause and effect.
Entities are determined not to arise from a cause which is
both of the same and different nature (1) because the fallacies
pertain ing to each separate hypothesis would again obtain and
(2) because the two hypotheses are contrary.
It is further determined that entities do not arise without a
cau se (1) because they would either be eternally existent or eter-
nally non-existent and (2) because it would be useless to s trive for
a particular result or goal by means of applying oneself to those
things which cause it to come about.
Since entities d o not arise through any of these four extremes,
it is established that their occurrence is totally dependent upon
appropriate conditioning factors. This is the meaning of Depen-
dent Origil1ation, which is the antidote for all extreme views and
is called the Middle Path.
The scripture Miiln111adhya11uikn Kiirikii states:
What arises in dependence we term "Emptiness".
"Emptiness" means that conventionally
Designated things (prajnap ti) are contingen t
(upadaya),
And is itself the Middle Path.
[Ch. 24, v . 18)
There is no mental outlook whatsoever higher than the real-
ization of Dependent Origination. Because it is so difficult to
understand, one must study the Madhyamika texts over a long
period of time before its full meaning can be grasped.
The procedure for meditating with proper mental attention is
first to make a thorough analysis of entities by means of the
wisdom acquired from listening and contemplation, so as to
determine that their nature is one of Dependent Origination-
free from all extremes of conceptual over-elaboration. One should
thereupon meditate upon this understanding through giving it
repeated consideration.
The scripture Yukti~a~fikii states that:
Those whose minds transcend and remain not
Jn the extremes of existence and non-existence
Are meditating upon the profound meaning
Of conditionality and non-conception.
Advice Co11ccr11i11g Virtuous Practices 55
Thus, meditation which consists of merely obstructing the
conceptual processes or adhering to an extreme view concerning
existence or non-existence, meditation lacking in the wisdom that
seeks to determine the nature of Dependent Origination, is not
true meditation. One the other hand, meditation that is sus tained
by a wisdom which seeks out the meaning of Dependent Origina-
tion as described above is "proper attention of the mind" and
constitutes practising Prajna paramita.35
Next is a verse which parenthetically praises wisdom and
morality.
-Praise of Wisdo111 a11d MoralihJ-
The following verse of praise is expressed in order to generate
respect for the mind which has the just-explained correct view as
its object.
(28)
Though of high family, handsome features and much
Leaming, a person is not worthy of honour if he
lacks
Wisdom and morality. Thus one who possesses these
two
Qualities-though lacking in others should be ven -
erated .
Persons from eminent families, handsome in physique, and
who possess learning gained from scriptures covering a wide
range of subjects but who are, however, lacking in the two quali-
ties of wisdom (which realizes the true nature of reality) and
morality (which refrains from wrongdoing) are unworthy of
honour and respect because they do not p ossess the qualities of a
noble person.36
On the other hand, anyone possessing the two qualities of
wisdom and morality should be honoured and venerated- though
perhaps lacking in other qualities of high birth, handsome fea-
tures and such-because (s)he possesses the true qualities of a
noble person. A moral person d oes not engage in non-virtue, and
a wise one does u.n dertake virtue; and it is the avoidance of
ignoble or non-virtuous actions, along with the undertaking of
noble or virtuous ones, which allows one to enter the ranks of the
noble.
 56 Niigarjuna's Letter
-Turning Back fro1n Worldly Dhar1nas-
The Arya 37 path will not arise for one who pursues the eight
worldly dharmas;38 thus, the following verse states that one should
be indifferent to the eight worldly dharmas in order to dispose
oneself to the arising of the Arya path.
(29)
Knower of the World! Gain and
Loss, well-being and misery, fame and disrepute,
Praise and censure; be indifferent to these eight
worldly
Dharmas and let them not enter your mind.
The king is addressed as "knower of the world" because of
his familiarity with the ways of the world.
To become, alternately, pleased and displeased with regard
to (1) gaining and losing material wealth, (2) well-being charac-
terized by pleasurable experiences and misery characterized by
painful ones, (3) hearing of one's fame and disrepute, and (4)
praise expressed to one's face and scorn spoken in secret are
attitudes typifying the ways of worldly-minded persons; hence
they are termed the "eight worldly dharmas".
So as to transcend such a worldly nature, one should adopt
an attitude of indifference to\.vards these objects and not allow
oneself to feel displeasure over loss, etc., and pleasure at gain and
the rest.
It is the attitudes of pleasure towards gain, etc., which consti-
tute the worldly dharmas, not n1erely the gains and such them-
selves, since these conditions are experienced by the Aryas as
well. The eight worldly dharmas are, thus, formulated in the
sense of the attitude one adopts towards them.
It is a widely-held belief among the worldly-minded that evil
committed for the sake of a guru or a Brahman, etc., is not
wrongful; thus the following verse is stated-to reverse an opin-
ion so contrary to the true meaning of the Dharma.
(30)
Do not commit evil, not even for the sake of a
Brahman,
A bhi~u, deity or guest, father or mother,
Advice Co11cer11i11g Virtuous Practices 57
Son, queen, or retinue. They w ill not share
Any part of its infernal fruition.
One should commit no evil, not for the sake of any person
whether he be a Brahman or any of the other persons mentioned.
This is because the result of that evil reaches fruition in the hells,
which one alone must experience; no portion whatsoever of the
misery is shared by the Brahman, etc.
One may wonder why the maturation result-19 of evil action
which is supposed to be something of a most unpleasant nature
doesn't come about right after the act has been committed. The
reply is that karma•0 is of three types: that which is experienced in
the present lifetime (d r~~adha rmavedaniya)/ 1 that which is expe-
rienced in the next birth (upapadyavedaniya),•2 and that which is
experienced in some other lifetime (aparaparyayavedaniya).•3
The first of the three is karma with a resu lt which comes to
maturation in the very same birth as the one in which it was
performed. This is illustrated by the jataka storiesH of the bear
and the ru-ru deer. The second type is karma coming to matura-
tion in the next life, and is exemplified by the karma of the five
"immediate" sins!5 The third is karma which reaches maturation
some time after the birth immediately following the one in which
the karma was performed. Of these three, .karma to be experi-
enced in the next birth provides the context for the next verse.
(31)
Though no performance of evil karn1a
Will cut instantly like a sword,
The result of evil deeds will become
Apparent when the time of death arrives.
The performance of evil deeds does not cut-t}lat is, produce
suffering-immediately, as something like a sharp sword does
when touched. Nevertheless, one will at the time of death experi-
ence varied signs, such as great regret and harassment by Yama's• 6
dreadful messengers, which a re indications of the result one's
evil actions will take. As the Bodhicarynvatiirn states:
Gazing at close ones whose hope is gone, v1hose
Eyes are red and swollen from grief as tears streak
Down their faces; and peering as well at the
Countenances of Yama's heralds,
 58 Niigiirjuna's Letter
"
Tormented by recollecting your sins and hearing the
Sounds of the hells, with the body sullied in
Its own filth from fear, in total
Dismay, what will you do then? ·
[Ch. 7, vs. 9-10]
-The Seven Riches-
Having thus abandoned the worldly dharmas, one is directed by
the following verse to acquire the qualities possessed by the
Aryas.
(32)
f"he Muni declared as the seven riches faith, morality,
Generosity, and untainted learning-as well as
shamefulness, · ·
Modesty and wisdom. Recognize other
Riches as common and devoid of meaning.
Fa.ith (sraddha) consists of belief in and purity of mind to-
wards the law of karma and its results, the Truths,'8 and the
Three l{atnas.49 Morality (sila) 50 consists of the proper undertak.-
ing to abandon what is reproachful. The giving of one's posses::..
sions, either as an act of veneration or through a desire to be of
assistanc·e , constitutes generosity (tyaga).51 Leaming (sruta) 52 is
listening to the Holy Dharma, which brings one closer to libera-
tion, with the aim of acquiring knowledge, and should be un-·
tainted by a desire for such things as wealth, honour or fame.
Shamefulness (hri) 53 is the avoiding of anything reproachful,
for reasons relating to oneself; such as in 'the thought: "It is
improper for one such as myself, possessed of learning, morality,
and so forth, to commit evil acts." Modesty (apatrapya)54 is the
avoiding of anything reproachful for reasons relating to others-
as in thinking to oneself: "The performance of evil is disdained by
-._t he worldly as well as the religious, so if people should hear that
I have done such, I will be scorned." '
Wisdom (prajfla)55 is the discernment of the gen'eral and
specific attributes of dharmas. · The teacher of gods and men, the Buddha Bhagavan, de-
Because of their rarity, and the fact that they produce,tran-
scendent bliss, the Muni declared these virtues to be the seven
"riches of the Aryas". Gold and other such ordinary riches are
.-
l(dvice Concerning Virtuous Practices .59
neither so rare nor functional as causes for quelling the mental
afflictions; thus, one should realize that they are meaningless-
like chaff, hollow and empty.
-Eschewing Hindrances to the Riches of the Aryas-
It having been stated that one should accumulate the riches of the
Aryas, the following verse is expressed to illustrate the means for
preventing their waste.
(33)
Gambling, joining in crowds, idleness and
Evil company, liquor and going about at
Night lead to the lower states and loss of
Reputation. Abandon these six activities.
Gambling (such as playing dice, etc.), joining in large crowds
of people (as for entertainment), idleness (consisting of an aver-
sion to virtue) and evil company (whose association brings an
increase in non-virtue), drinking liquor, and going about at night-
to another person's home or from one town to another-are six
activities which will cause one to take birth in the lower states of
existence in future lives and harm one's reputation in this life.
Thus they should be abandoned, as detrimental to wealth, health
and virtue.
-Abiding in a State of Satisfaction-
Next is instr>.iction in a favourable quality-that of maintaining
an attitude of satisfaction.
(34)
The teacher of gods and men declared that being
satisfied
Was the greatest of all riches. Remain
Satisfied always. One knowing satisfaction is
Truly wealthy, even without material possessions.
clared that of all the various riches of gold and the like, the very
best .was an attitude of satisfaction56 whose nature consists of not
savouring past experiences of wealth, not longing for suclt wealth
in the future, and not being attached to it in the present.
 60 Nlignrju11a's Letter
A Si:itra states that:
He who remains willing to give while
Lacking even a morsel of food is
Called a man of great wealth
By those with right vision.
Therefore always maintain an attitude of satisfaction; for if
one does, one will be truly wealthy, though lacking any material
riches such as gold and the like. The reason one is "wealthy" is
that one is able to remain satisfied.
The merits of satisfaction having been thus described, the
following verse is stated to indicate the detriments of being
dissatisfied.
(35)
Gentle Sir! 1nose having few desires
Lack the misery of those with many possessions.
However many the heads of the foremost nagas,
Just so is the misery obtained from them.
The king is addressed as "gentle sir" because he is a person
with whom it is pleasant to associate.
The misery of many possessions, such as gold and so forth, is
stated in the Bodllicarynvntara in the following way:
From the misery of accumulating, guarding and
losing
It, wealth should be known as endless misfortune.
[Ch. 8, v. 79]
Thus the person having many possessions is tormented first
while trying to accumulate wealth, then in having to guard it, and
lastly through losing it. Persons of few desires, however, are not
troubled in this way.
It is like, for example, the foremost of the nagas-the naga
kings-who experience a degree of misery equal to the number of
their heads. It can be otherwise explained that the naga kings
possess as many crown jewels as they do heads; hence, the
greater the number of crow11 jewels, the greater is the misery in
having to safeguard them.
The next two verses indicate the manner of choosing a proper
spouse after learning various pertinent faults and qualities.
Advice Co11ccr11i11g Virtuous Practices 61
9. Taki11g a Proper Wife
(36)
Shun the three kinds of wives who are like a murderess,
By nature associating w ith your enemies; a
Tyrant, scornful of her husband; and a
Thief, who steals even small articles.
One should avoid the following three kinds of wives: (1) one
who by nature becomes involved with her husband's enemies
and thus is like a murderess in that-through associating with
other men-she wishes to kill her spouse; (2) one who is like a
tyrant in that she does not honour her husband and acts disdain-
fully towards him; and (3) one who is like a thief in that she steals
even small articles, not to mention things of great value.
The following verse indicates what sort of woman one should
espouse.
(37)
One who is compliant as a sister,
Dear to the heart like a friend, wishing to help
Like a mother and obedient as a servant
Should be honoured as the family deity.
Adopt a wife compliant as a sister who accords with her
brother and is not contemptuous of his word. Take a wife who is
dear to the heart, like a beloved and courteous friend who is ever
pleasing. Marry a woman as desirous of helping her husband as a
mother wishing to help her son by freeing him from all physical
and mental suffering. Adopt a wife who is obedient, like a ser-
vant in the sense of doing what one bids. As such women will
preserve one's family lineage, they should be treated with honour,
in the same manner as the family goddess.

CHAPl'ER3
INSTRUCTION, TO BoTH HOUSEHOLDERS AND THOSE DEPARTED
FROM A HOME LIFE, CONCERNING THE.PURSUANCE OF lfIGHER
STATES AND SUPREME BEATTITUDE
In this chapter there are three sections, dealing with the following
subjects: (1) the practice of the Dharma common to both goals, (2)
the practice of the Dhanna devoted to Supreme Beatitude in
particular, and (3) the advisability of making full use of the
human body.
1. The Dhar1na Co1n1non to Both Goals
The first of the six points in this section is regulating the quantity
of one's food properly.
Regulating the Quantity of One's Food
In order to further one towards the attainment of samiidhi (medi-
tative composure),1 the following preparatory exercises are pre-
sented .
Two things are of critical importance for the practice of
meclitation: (1) regulating the amount of food one eats and (2)
avoiding excessive sleep.2 This next verse is stated in regard to
the former.
(38)
Food should be taken properly, as though it were
Medicine, without desire or hatred;
Not for conceit, arrogance or
Robustness, but only to maintain the body.
Medicine taken as a cure for illness will benefit when taken in
the proper amount (that is, neither in excessive nor insufficient
quantities). Just so should food be eaten as a remedy for the
affliclion of hunger; with good judgement so as to avoid taking
too much or too little.
Food should, in addition, be eaten without motivations of
desire or hatred. One should not, for example, partake of food
through a feeling of vain conceit: meaning that one should not eat
Advice Co11cen1i11g Virtuous Practices 63
with the intention of breeding an afflicted state of mind such as
that characterized by a hedonistic delight which produces unre-
strained behavior in body and speech.
One should not take food because of arrogance. This means
eating without such thoughts as, "When I have developed bodily
strength, I will inflict harm upon my enemies." Neither should
one eat for the purpose of becoming robust in body, an intention
reflected in thoughts like, "Through eating, I shall increase the
size of my body and limbs," and so forth.
One should, rather, eat with the sole purpose of maintaining
the human body as the basis for striving after virtue. Eating with
conceit or the wish to become robust is done through desire,
whereas taking food through arrogance is done in hatred.
The next verse enjoins one not to sleep during the first and
the last periods of the night.
Sleeping Only in the Middle Period of tlte Nigltt
(39)
Righteous One! Occupy yourself during the entire
Day, and the first and last periods of the night.
Then, so that even your time of repose is not fruit-
less,
Recline attentively between those two periods.
Spend, O Righteous One, the entire day and the first and last
of the night's three periods in activities of a virtuous nature; then,
recline during the night's middle period.
And so that even the period of sleep might not be fruitless-
that is, may not be empty of value one should recline with a
state of mind imbued with recollection3 and vigilance,• as re-
flected in the thought: "I shall sleep for a short time. Once my
body and mind have become refreshed, I will quickly arise to go
and accomplish virtue." In doing this, even sleep-through the
strength of one's motivation-becomes virtue and thereby mean-
ingful.
1ne Bhagaviin declared:
During the first period of the night, while engaged in
walking or sitting, you should practise ridding the
mind of those dharmas which are obscurations. In the
middle period of the night, having finished this prac-
64 Niigiirju11a's Letter
tice, wash your feet outside the temple building. Re-
turning to the temple, lie down on your right side,
p lacing one leg upon the other, and recline with recol-
lection and vigilance in the sleeping-lion pose. In the
final period of the night, rise promptly and practise,
while you walk or sit, ridding the mind of dharmas
which are obscurations.
Meditating upon the Four I111measurables
When versatility (karmanya) of body and mind has been d evel-
oped through these practices, one should then practise medita-
tion upon the Four lmmeasurables5- as further preparation for
the attainment of the composed states (dhyana).6 This is illus-
trated in the following verse.
(40)
Practise constant meditation upon loving-kindness,
Compassion, joyfulness, equanimity.
· Even though you may not attain the highest goal,
You will acquire the bliss of the Brahma Realm.
Loving-kindness (maitri)7 is the desire that all sentient beings
should come to acquire happiness. Compassion (karui:ta)8 is the
desire that they should come to be freed from suffering. Joyful-
ness (mudita) is the gladness felt at the happiness they have
acquired, and equanimity (upe~a) 10 an even-mindedness con-
sisting of absence of either desire or hatred, also directed towards
all beings.
These fow attitudes are called "immeasurable" (apramar;ta),
both because their object is an immeasurable number of sentient
beings and because the person who meditates upon them ac-
quires immeasurable merit. One is thus advised to meditate, in a
right 1nanner, upon the Four Immeasurables.
This meditation can, further, be of three types-dep ending
upon the manner in which one directs the mind's attention. It can
have sentient beings as its object, have dharmas as its object; or be
without an object.11
In the first of these, beings are apprehended as being substan-
tially real and existing independently of the aggregates. 12 Ac-
cordingly, one develops the desire that they be freed from suffering
and the rest.
Advice Co11cer11i11g Virtuous Practices 65
With the realization of th~'no-self nature of the individual"
(pudgala nairatmya), 13bei ngs-in~the second case-are viewed as
entities merely ascribed to the dharmas which comprise the heaps.
One then develops the desire that they be freed from suffering. In
the third case, beings are viewed as illusory in nature through the
realization of the "no-self nature o f dharmas" (dharma
nairatmya), 14 and one develops the desire thnt they be freed from
suffering and so on. The first meditation is the one practised by
"common persons" (prthagjana). 15 According to one school1 6 of
Buddhist thought, the second type is practised by the Sravaka
and Pratyeka 11 Aryas and the third by Mahayana Aryas alone;
whereas another schooJIR holds that the Sravakas and Pratyekas
also attain realization of the no-self nature of dharmas and that
both the latter two types of meditation are therefore practised by
all the Aryas of the 'Three Vehicles.
Concerning the actual method of practice, in developing the
first three attitudes one dis tinguishes three types of persons: a
friend, a neutral person and an enemy. First one directs the
attention towards such individuals as one's mother or father, etc.
(who constitute the category of "friends") and meditates upon
the desire that they meet with happiness, etc.
Then, the attention is directed toward individuals of the
"neutral" category and, finally, towards an enemy. When the
desires that one's friends meet with happiness and that one's
enemies meet with happiness are of equal intensity, the medita-
tion is completed.
In the case of equanimity, one first meditates upon the cat-
egory of neutral persons. One subsequently meditates upon an
attitude of equanimity towards all: both those dear to one and
those towards whom one feels animosity.
In answer to the question of what the fruits of this practice
are, the outcome of meditation upon loving-kindness, etc., s u s-
tained by the wisdom apprehending the two types of no-self
nature is the attainment of nirvana •
. Yet even if one does not
acquire this highest goal, one will acquire a happiness which lies
beyond the sensory realm-that is, the happiness of the Brahma
realm set in the first dhyana of the form realm. The reason for this
is that the above meditations wilJ bring one an experience of the
peace of flawless dhyana, free from the tqrment of anger . Iience,
the text-here indicates that loving-kindness and so forth are prepa-
ratory exercises leading to the attainment of the dhyana states.
 66 Nagarjuna' s Letter
The Four Dhyanas
Granting that meditation upon loving-kindness and so forth en-
ables one to attain the Four Dhyanas, a person might well ask
what sort of results follow from that.
(41)
The Fur Dhayanas-total abandonment of sensory
Experience, joy, ease, and discomfort-
Enable one to attain t.h e same fortune as
Brahma, Abhasvara, Subha-kftsna and Vrhat-phala.
The First Dhyana is one-pointedness of mind characterized
by the joy (priti)19 and ease (saukhya) 20 arisi~g through . the es-
chewal of and withdrawal from sensory experience (particularly
the desire for sense objects and malice). This is accomplished by
means of the two antidotes of reflection (vitarka) 21 and delibera-
tion (vicara). 22
The Second Dhyana is one-pointedness of mind character-
ized by the joy and ease arising from samadhi and the eschewal
of the above-mentioned deliberation. The latter is accomplished
through the antidote referred to as "inner clarity" (adhyat-
masamprasada).23 . .
The Third Dhyana is one-pointedness of mind charactenzed
by ease and the eschewal of joy; the la.tter being ~cco~~lished
through the antidotes of recollection (smrt1), v1g1lance
(samprajanya) and equanimity (upek~a). 24 • •
The Fourth Dhyana is one-pointedness of mind characterized
by the sensation of equanimity an~ the total eschewal of both ease
and discomfort. This eschewal is brought about through the
antidotes of pure recollection (smrti-parisuddhi) and equanimity
(upeksaparisuddhi). _ constitutes karma of great magnitude due to the basis fa ctor,
The verse states that by meditating upon the Four Dhyanas
(also referred to as the "causal states of composure"25), one at-
tains the same birth as, respectively, ti)e deities Mahabrahma,
Abhasvara, Subha-krtsna and Vrhat-phala. This is, however, meant
in a broad sense. More precisely, it should be understood that,
through meditations upon the lesser, medium and gre~ter stages
of the Third Dhyana one takes birth among the Par1tta-subha,
~
Apramana-subha and ;:iubha- kr. tsna d e1hes,
. . etc.27
Next is. the manner of adopting virtue and rejecting evil
through understanding several types of heavy karma.
Advice Co11cer11i11g Virtuous Practices 67
The Relative Gravity of Kanna
(42)
The five types of great virtuous and non-virtuous
karma are
Those which are done constantly, with a strong
inclination,
Lacking a remedy or towards (the basis of assis-
tance or) the basis of foremost virtue.
Exert yourself hence in the performance of virtue.
Karma-be it virtuous or non-virtuous-having any of the
five conditions explained here is said to be of great n1agnitude
because it is certain to yield results, and to do so in great number.
The five conditions are included within the factors of prepara-
tion, intention, remedy and basis.2R
The factor of preparation is that a particular act is performed
constantly.
The factor of intention refers to an act performed with a great
willingness, \·v hether prompted by mental afflictions o r pure
thoughts. The remedy factor refers to karma which one is unable
to counteract.
The factor of basis is twofold. The "basis of assistance" 29
includes one's mother and father, preachers of the Dharma, and
individuals providing assistance in specific instances such as
those found in the jataka stories about the bear and the monkey,
etc.
The "basis of foremost virtue" 30 includes the Three Ratnas,
one who has just arisen from the cessation state of composu re, 31
and the like. The effects of any aid or injury to such persons
hence, one should avoid non-virtuous acts of great magnitude
and exert oneself in performing virtuous ones.
The following verse is stated to illustrate that one should not
remain undaunted if one has performed many acts of non-virtue
and only few of virtue; whereas if the opposite is true, one need
not have great fear.
(43)
A few grains of salt can change the taste of a small
Quantity of water, though not that of the Ganges;
68 Nagiirjuna's Letter
Understand that even small evil karma
Will do the same for light rudiments of virtue.
Even as little as a few grains of salt will change the taste of a
small quantity of water, causing it to become salty. It ·cannot,
however, change the taste of a vei:y large body of water like the
Ganges River. One should understand that, similarly, even minor
evil karma can yield results if one's rudiments oJ virtue are light
-'
(i.e. small and few in number). If these rudiments are large and
numerous, however, it is unable to do so. There~ore, strive con-
tinuously for virtue of great force.
The Five Obstacles
The following verse is stated to indicate that one should endeavour
to eschew the five dharmas of "excitement" etc., because they are
obstacles to the attain.m ent of dhyana, and lib'e ration.
(44)
Excitement and regret, malice, languor and
Sleep, sense-desires, and doubt:
Recognize these five obstacles as
Thieves who steal the riches of \firtue.
Excitement (auddhatya)32 is the state in which the mind is
diverted to attractive objects, and regret (kaukrtya)33 the remorse
which arises at having done something wrong. Malice (vyapada)3 '
is the deep feeling of animosity towards objects which one views
with a hostile disposition, while languor (styana)35 produces un-
fitness of body and mind through enervating the mind .
Sleep causes the uncontrollable drawing-in of the mind's
attention, and sense-desires (kamacchanda)36 are the desire for
sense objects-particularly food and sexual intercourse. Doubt
(vicikitsa)37 is the state of mind divided in its attitude towards
liberation and the path which leads to it.
These five are called "obstacles" (nivaral)a) 3~ because they
obstruct one's attaining the dhyanas, liberation, and so forth, or
because they obstruct one's practice of the Three Trainings.39 One
should think of them as the thieves which steal the riches of
virtue, and which must therefore be abandoned.
Excitement and regret are similar in that they both constitute
an instability of mind. Languor and sleep are alike in that they are
both a dullness of mind. Each pair is therefore classified as a
single obstacle.
Advice Co11cer11i11g Virtuous Practices 69
Alternately, as stated in the Abltidltnr11U1ko5n:
The obstacles occur in the desire realm.
Because their opposition, sustenance
And action are the same, two
Are combined into one.
[Ch. 5, v. 59)
'
The first pair (excitement and regret) are thus grouped as a
single obstacle because (1) they are both derived from similar
causes, such as reflecting upon family relatives (jfiati vitarka); (2)
they both cause the mind to become distracted; and (3) they are
both overcome by 5amatha.'0
The second pair (sleep and languor) are, as well, grouped as a
single obstacle because (1) they are both derived from similar
causes-such as an excessive amount of food; (2) they both cause
the mind to become enervated; and (3) they are both overcome by
the id~ation of luminosity.
Why are they called the "Five Obstacles"? It is because they
are detrimental to the Three Trainings. The attitudes of sense-
desires and malice are detrimental to superior morality (adhisila)'1
in that the craving for sense objects prevents one from adopting
the practice of morality in the first place and, where morality has
been adopted, animosity prevents one from putting into practice
those instructions which are given by another person.
Languor and sleep are detrimental to superior concentration
(adhicitta)'2 for they cause the mind to become enervated while
one is meditating to achieve samatha. Excitement and regret are a
detriment to superior wisdom (adhiprajfia),'3 because they cause
the mind to become diverted outward when one is engaged in
meditation that involves deep reasoning.
Doubt is detrimental to both the last two trainings mentioned
for, without resolving any uncertainty that may arise while medi-
tating, one cannot remain fixed in the state of equipoise which is
the union of samatha and vipasyana.''
2. The Pursita1ice of Suprenie Beatitude
The first of the three points in this division concerns meditation
upon the Five Powers and the Five Strengths which occur in the
Path of Preparation.
70 Nagarju11a's Letter
The Five Poivers and t11e Five Strengths
Those entities which are hindrances and to be abandoned having
been presented , the next verse presents dharmas to be adopted-
those which are favourable for the attainment of liberation.
(45)
One should strive in earnest after faith,
Vigour, recollection, samadhi and wisdom-
The five supreme dharmas also
Known as the strengths, the po.wers, and the sum-
mits.
Faith is a sincere belief in the Truths, while vigour (virya) 45 is
the delight in bringing them forth. The state of mind which dos
not forget the Truths and their aspects is recollection (smrti).
Sami'idhi is the one-pointedness. of mind directed towards the
various aspects of the Truths, and wisdom (praj:fia) the true
discernment of those aspects. One should exert oneself earnestly
in developing these five qualities, and should practise them con-
tinually.
When they serve as·the immediate cause for the attainment of
the Arya Path, the five are called the supreme dharmas
(agradharma).46 During the patience (~anti) stage of the Path of
Preparation (prayoga marga)47 they are referred to as the strengths
(bala),4A for they can no longer be overcome by their negative
counterparts. At the time of the warn1th (u~ma) stage of the same
path, they are called the powers (indriya),49 because they exert a
great influence towards bringing about the realization of the
Truths. And when these five have been developed to a point
where the rudiments of virtue are no longer subject to retrogres-
sion, they are as well called the summits (murdhana).50
Next is the eschewal of conceit, a detrimental factor.
Conceit
(46)
Conceit's arising is prevented by its antidote,
Which is the repeated contemplation of one's own
Non-exemption from sickness, aging, death,
Separation from the desirable and subjection to one's
karma.
'
Advice Co11cerning Virtuous Practices 71
One should, quite properly, reflect: "I am not exempt from
the conditions of sickness, aging, death and separation from the
desirable. Likewise, I am not exempt from being subject to karma,
which is to say that my personal well-being depends upon the
karma I have performed in the past and is therefore not under my
control." Pondering over this again and again prevents one from
becoming conceited, by virtue of the fact that it functions as the
antidote for that attitude.
Next is the beneficial factor of meditation upon the right
.
view.
The Right View
There are two parts to this topic: a brief presentation and an
expanded explanation of right view.
Brief Prese11tation
Right view (sarpyak d~~i)51 produces the arising of the five
spiritual faculties52 of faith and so forth; hence, the following
verse is stated in order to illustrate the proper method of meditat-
ing upon this view.
(47)
If you desire the higher realms and liberation,
Meditate upon the right view.
Even good deeds by a person with wrong view
All have dreadful fruition.
Here, reference is made to two right views: one having the
ordinary world53 as its object and one having the ultimateS4 as its
object. The first is the belief in the relationship between karma
and its future results, and the second is the wisdom which real-
izes the true nature (tattva) of all dharmas.
The first view is the cause which enables one to take birth in
the higher states of existence, while the second view enables one
to attain liberation. Thus, if one is desirous of either the tempo-
rary well-being of the higher states or of the ultimate bliss of
liberation one should meditate, continually, upon the two right
views just stated: the one with the ordinary world as its object
and the other having the ultimate as its object.
One might wonder what consequences would result from not
practising these views. If a person performs even good deeds-
72 Nagarjuna's Letter
acts of generosity and such-with the wrong view (mithyadrl?!i)55
which discredits the cause and effect of karma (this is, if deeds
are performed in absence of the right view having the ordinary
world as its object), all his or her karma will yield dreadful
maturations. The maturations are dreadful in that they are harsh,
for the wrong view eradicates the rudiments of virtue.
Further, if a person performs even good deeds-such as
giving and so forth-with the wrong view which apprehends
entities as having a real and independent nature (that is, if the
deeds are performed in the absence of the right view having the
ultimate as its object), the maturation of all such karma is said to
be dreadful, for it casts that person into sarpsara.
The Expanded Explanation
The first of this part's five subdivisions is the meditation upon the
four well-established recollections (smrtyupasthana).5 ~
n. Meditnti11g 11po11 the Four Well-Estnb/ished Recollcctio11s
(48)
Understand humans as being, in actuality, miser-
able,
Impermanent, having no self and impure. Those
In whom recollection has not been well established
give heed to the
Four delusions-the source of ruination.
The human being is to be understood as being, "in actuality"
(ie. when examined with wisdom), "miserable" in that he pos-
sesses the three forms of suffering. He is "impermanent" in that
he exists for no more than an instant, and "without a self nature"
since there is no absolute person who is the controller of his own
being. And, because his nature is one of being a mass of bone,
flesh, blood and so forth, understand that the human being is
"impure".
Those who have not "established" their recollection "well" in
this manner-that is, who have not examined themselves with
wisdom-regard the impure body as being pure, sensations that
are miserable in nature as being pleasurable, the impermanent
mind as permanent and dharmas lacking a self as possessing
such. These four beliefs are called the four delusions (viparyasa).57
Advice Co11cen1i11g Virtuous Practices 73
Since they are a cause for sarpsara and the inferior states of
existence, they should be considered the source of all ruin. Hence,
one should make one's recollection "well-established".
Next is meditation, in particular, upon the well-established
recollection of dharmas (dharmasmrtyupasthana).
'
b. Rccollccti1fg Selflessness
One may well assent to the statemcitt about the conditions of
being miserable, etc., yet still wonder how the condition of hav-
ing no self is to be understood. If there is no self, then who is it
that experiences the results of virtuous and non-virtuous karma?
The following verse replies.
(49)
It was declared that "form is not the self, the self
does not
Possess form, the self is not seated in form and
Form is not seated in the self." Understand the
rema1n1ng
Four aggregates as similarly empty.
If there is a self, it must either be of the same nature of the
aggregates-form, etc.-or something distinct from them.
The first of these possibilities is refuted by the statement in
the sutras ranging from, "form is not the self..." up to " ...con-
sciousness is not the self." This constitutes scriptural evidence.
One may ask what reasoning there is to establish this point.
The self is not of the same essence as form, etc., because these
fallacies would follow: (1) as with form, etc., the self would also
have to be impermanent and multiple in number; (2) since form
etc., has substance, the self would also have to possess sub-
stance;5~ and (3) since the perception of a self5 9 would then appre-
hend an object possessing substance, the seeds of such a view, by
virtue of its correctness, could never be eliminated by the appro-
priate antidote.
The scripture Mndhya111akiivatara expresses this reasoning in
the following words:
If the aggregates were the self-theyj:>eing many-it
Too would become multiple; the self would
 74 Nagarjuna's Letter
Possess substance; and since its perception would
Be of a substance, it would not be erroneous.
[Ch. 6, v. 127]
Secondly, if the self were of a nature different from that of
form and so forth it would take on the attributes of (1) possessing
form and so forth in the way that Devadatta possesses an ox; (2)
being grounded in form and the rest as Devadatta is seated upon
a mat; or (3) having form, etc., grounded in it, like a vine is
grounded in the earth.
The first thesis is incorrect because of statements in the siitras
ranging from, "the self does not possess form ..." up to, "the self
does not possess consciousness." This constitutes scriptural evi-
dence. The reasoning is as follows. Devadatta is said to "possess"
an ox in the sense that the ox is an object controlled by him. The
self possesses no such control over form, etc., for form and the
rest are seen to undergo both change from one condition to
another and, ultimately, destruction-even though that is un-
wanted.
The second thesis is incorrect because of statements in the
sutras ranging from, "The self is not seated upon form .." up to,
" ...the self is not seated upon consciousness." This is the scrip-
tural evidence. The reasoning is as follows. Devadatta is said to
be "seated" upon a mat in the sense that it serves as his support.
The self is not so seated upon form, etc., because the form and so
forth acting as its support are impermanent-all this would ne-
cessitate the self's being impermanent as well.
The third thesis is also incorrect, because of statements from
the si:itras ranging from, "Form is not seated upon the self..." up
to, " .. .form is not seated upon consciousness." This is the scrip-
tural evidence. As for the reasoning, the aggregates of form, etc.,
are not grounded in the self in the manner that a vine is grounded
in the earth {l) because form and the rest based upon a perma-
nent self would never undergo destruction; (2) in such a case, too,
the processes of arising and undergoirtg destruction pertaining to
the aggregates would depend upon the self, yet this would be
incorrect; for the processes of arising and undergoing destruction
pertaining to external forms can be seen to occur in the absence of
any self.
It should be understood, through the same scriptural evi-
dences and reasonings used in exan1ining the aggregate of form,
that the other four-sensation60 and so forth-are likewise void
Advice Co11cer11i11g Virtuous Practices 75
of a self which is either of the same essence as, or a separate entity
from, the aggregates themselves.
The views opposing this explanation which regard each of
the five aggregates in four different aspects (such as the view that
form is the self, etc.,) are called "20 extremes of the 'view of the
perishable assemblage' (satkayadf!?ti)."61 TI1e remedies for these
views are the declarations, "Form is not the self..." and so forth.
The following verse is stated in order to illustrate that the
aggregates arise from compatibl~ c~uses and con_d_itioning fac-
tors. This is done through the rejection of the positions that the
aggregates have no causes or that they arise from incompatible
causes.
(50)
The aggregates do not arise at random, not frorn
time, ,
A primordial substance, their own essence, isvara,
Nor without a cause. One should understand that
They arise through ignorance, karma and desire.
The aggregates of form and the rest do not fall from the sky at
random, without dependence on anything else, for it can b_e
observed that they are contingent upon the presence of appropri-
ate causes62 and conditioning factors.63
One erroneous view is this position:
Time matures the elements,
Time encompasses the individual,
Time brings on sleep and awakens;
Time is difficult to transcend.
Yet t11e belief that the aggregates arise from a " time" which is
a permanent substance is incorrect because (1) time cannot be
observed apart from the entities of form and the rest and. (2) all
entities arising from a permanent "time" would have to arise and
perish at the same instant. .
The Saf!1.khya64 claim that the aggregates evolve from a pri-
mordial substance (prakfti) 65 which is per1nanent, and are c?m-
prised of an equilibrium of the t~ree at.tributes of force (raias),
n1 ass (tamas) and purity (sattva)fi6 1s also incorrect, because (1) for
the primordial substance and its manifestations.to be of the sa~e
essential nature would require that the primordial substance, like
 76 Niigarjuna's Letter
its manifestations, be impermanent and (2) for them to be of a
different nature would contradict the basic premise that every-
thing possessed the same essence as the primordial substance.
Neither do the aggregates arise from their own essential
nature,67 because {l) it would follow that they do not depend
upon causes and conditioning factors and (2) it is incorrect for the
essential nature of things to depend upon something else.
The Nyaya school~ claims that entities originate from an
eternal, divine creator called fsvara,~9 who is endowed with vari-
ous other qualities expressed in the following quotation.
Subtly and inconceivably pervasive, the omniscient
creator of all,
The wisdom achievea ~y yoga, the object of one's
dhyana meditation;
He who embodies the sun, moon, earth, air, water,
fire, direction and space;
Those desiring blissftl-1 peace should ever meditate
upon fsvara.
This doctrine is, however, in~rrect: (1) because creation of
entities by a permanent substance would not depend on anything
else and hence those entities would arise all at once and (2) if
things arose in sequential order by the will 70 of isvara then they
would depend on a cause which was different from fsvara, thereby
contradicting the basic premise that everything was produced by
Him.
If, in rebuttal, it is claimed that the various wills of fsvara
originate in Him, then it follows that all of the different wills arise
at the same instant; whereas, if the initial wills are said to have a
sequential order, that condition must depend upon another will
{different from fsvara). Hence the doctrine incurs the fallacy of an
infinite regress.
Thus it is determined that the aggregates arise neither from
an imcompatible cause nor without cause; the latter case because
the aggregates would then either exist eternally or never exist at
all.
If one asks from what the aggregates do originate, the reply is
as follows: an undamaged seed, covered with earth and fertilizer
and subsequently moistened with water, produces a sprout. Jn
the same way, potent karma-enveloped with ignorance and
moistened by desire-produces the sprout of a future existence.
Advice Co11ccnzi11g Virtuous Practices 77
Thus the verse states, "one should understand that they (the
aggregates) arise through ignorance, karma and desire."
c. Eschewing the Three Bonds
One who is desirous of deliverance from future existences must
abandon the causes of birth just mentioned. The followiryg verse
answers the question of how this is done.
(51)
Misunderstanding of ascetic practices,
A perverted view of one's being, and doubt;
Know these as three bonds which block
The gate to the city of liberation.
"Misu.n derstanding of ascetic practices" (silavrataparamarsa)71
refers to the belief that moral and ascetic practices which have
developed from erroneous philosophical conceptions will pro-
vide purification and deliverance. The "perverted view of one's
being", more commonly known as the "view of the perishable
assemblage" (satkayadn;~i),72 is the false belief that the five" closely
grasping" (upadana)73 aggregates either constitute a self or per-
tain to a self. "Doubt" is the state of mind in which one is divided
in one's attitude toward liberation and the path leading to it.
The three bonds (saJ:!lyojana)74 are, by analogy, like obstacles
to one's travelling to a desired region in that they correspond to
the conditions of (1) not wanting to go, (2) resorting to a wrong
path and (3) having doubt with respect to what is in fact the right
path.
Because of the false belief in a self due to- the view of the
perishing assemblage, one does not wish to attain a liberation
where no self is present. Believing in the supremacy of erroneous
moral and ascetic practices, one relies upon a false path-one
which does not lead to liberation. Doubt, in tum, causes one to
give rise to skepticism concerning that which is the true path.
These three attitudes should hence be understood as obstacles
that block the gate of the city of liberation and must be aban-
doned.
d. Practising the Three Trai11i11gs
One might feel that a person can be led to freedom from these
obstacles through relying on others. The following verse, how-
 78 Nagiirju11n's Letter
ever, illustrates that in this endeavour there is no need whatso- ''
ever for associating with others; that it rather depends solely
upon one's O\vn mind.
(52)
Liberation depends upon the individual himself.
In this endeavour there's no need whatsoever
To associate with others. Thus exert yourself
In pursuit of the Four Truths through listening, mo-
rality and dhyana.
Liberation is nothing other than the deliverance of the mind
from the bonds of the mental afflictions, a pursuit which depends
u~on one's own practice of the method for attaining it. And since
this does not require being accompanied by others, "exert your-
self alone".
What is the method for attaining liberation? The scriptures
state:
By abiding in m orality, learning and dhyana.
Apply yourself earnestly to meditation.
. Fir~t one should abide in the foundation-a moral practice
ma1nta1ned by a mind intent upon deliverance and consisting of
~ny ~ne of the seven types of pratimo~a 7s vows. Then, after
listening to and properly contemplating scriptures that explain
th~ Four Truths, one should-with a dhyana practice fixed one-
po1ntedly upon their meaning-exert oneself in meditation both
~pon the Four Truths' relative nature-that is, the 16 aspects of
1~perz:ianence and so forth-and upon their ultimate nature; ie.,
sunyata, which is free from all extren1es.
. 'fh.is e~planation shows that the sole means for attaining
liber~hon 1s the Three Precious Trainings. The following verse
then illustrates that every aspect of discipline is included in these
Three Trainings.
(53)
1' rain yourself always in superior morality,
Superior wisdom and superior concentration.
'rhese Three 'frainings include the more
1'han 250 precepts.
The essence of superior morality 7 ~ is the seven eschewals77
Advice Concerning Virtuous Practices 79
dedicated to the attainment of nirvai:ia . The essence of superior
contemplation7~ is the four d hyanas as they relate to the arising of
the Arya Path . Superior wisdom79 is the realization of the two-
fold no-self nature.
One should train oneself in their practice continually because
these Three Trainings are the complete and unerring means for
the attainment of liberation. Moral discipline ripens the imma-
ture being, samadhi suppresses the mental afflictions, and wis-
dom-in completely eradicating the mental afflictions-brings
liberation to the mature being.
Furthermore, the Three Trainings include every form .of dis-
cipline. This is because the 253 precepts stated in the pratimok!?a
scriptures (the four parajika, 13 avase!?a, 30 naiJ:isargika payattika,
90 suddha prayascittika, four pratidesaniya and 112 du!?krta)~O
constitute superior morality and morality, in tum, includes the
Three Trainings. One should therefore train oneself assiduously
in their practice.
e. Rccollecti11g Bodily Circu111stn11ces
A condition essential to the practice of the Three Trainings is the
observance of recollecting bodily circumstances.A'
(54)
Oh Lord, the sugata taught recollection of
Bodily circumstances as the single way of the path.
Apply yourself and observe it earnestly.
Losing recollection destroys all Dharma.
"Oh Lord " is addressed to the king. "Recollection of bodily
circu1nstances" is the examination of all circumstances of the
body, as in standing, sitting, or the like. The sugata taught this as
being the "single way'' insofar as it is the path which leads easily
to the attainment of the Ultimate.
This is stated in the Sutras:
Monks, the path which purifies all beings, delivers
them from misery and sadness, produces the realiza-
tion of correct Dharma and brings forth nirvai:ia is the
recollection of bodily circumstances.
Since the recollection of bodily circumstances is of such great
in1portance, one should apply oneself and observe it earnestly. If
80 Niigiirjuna's Letter
the loss of this recollection destroys every other dhanna, what
need is there to speak of the attainment of nirvar:ia?
3. Utilizing the Hu1nan Fonn Fully
There are three points to this division. The first is the removal of
attachment for the body through contemplating its imperma-
nence and lack of substance.
Removal of Attachment for the Body
(55)
Life, being susceptible to many harms, is more im-
permanent
Than a wind-blown bubble of water. Most won-
drous
Is the leisure of inhaling one breath, having
Exhaled another, and awakening from sleep.
As the scriptures state:
The three states of existence are impermanent, like
an autumn cloud,
The birth and death of beings like watching a drama
performance.
The passing of a person's life is like lightning in the
sky:
It goes by ever so quickly, like a waterfall down a
steep mountain.
The life of a person is susceptible to many injurious condi-
tions. Externally, one can be harmed by both human and non-
human beings, and internally by such things as an imbalance of
the body elements and ~ forth. Thus life is even more imperma-
nent than a bubble of water that is blown in the wind.
The opportunity of exhaling one's breath once it has been
inhaled and awakening once more from sleep-that is, that we go
on living at .all-is indeed a great wonder and matter of sheer
chance.
The following verse is also stated to show that life is imper-
manent, and there is no value in becoming attached to one's
body.
Advice Co11cer11i11g Virtuous Practices 81
(56)
The body's end is to become dust, to dry up, rot, or
Finally become filth. Understand it as Jacking
Essence and -by nature-as having to undergo
Destruction, desiccation, putrefaction or dissection.
The Bhagavan declared:
Monks, the body of one whose time has passed and
who has died is burned, cast in the water, or buried
beneath the earth by relatives. The sun and wind may
dry it up, or it may be eaten by various creatures of
the animal birth-state.
The body may become ashes through burning, or may in the
end be dried up by the sun and wind. It may finally rot, having
been cast into water, or-if eaten by other creatures-eventually
become filth. Thus this body is lacking in essence, and one should
realize that it possesses the nature of having to undergo destruc-
tion by fire, .desiccation by sand and wind, putrefaction, or dis-
section through being tom into many bits by other creatures. •
The following verse is stated to illustrate that, if the ultimate
destruction of extremely stable things is certain, it will obviously
be so for the human body.
(57)
The earth, Meru, and the oceans even these physical
Bodies are to be consumed by seven blazing
Suns, leaving not even dust. What need to
Speak of such a frail thing as the human body?
When the world is destroyed by fire, even such firm and
solid physical bodies as the earth, Mt. Meru~2-together wit.h the
seven gold mountains and the inner and outer seas-will be
totally destroyed.
A scripture states:
This very sun will bum all the forests a~d vegeta_ti?n.
The smaller streams will be dried up with the arising
of a second sun, and a third sun will dry up Lake
Anavatapta83 and its four great rivers. Every drop of
water in the oceans will be dried up by the fourth and
fifth suns.
, 82 Nngiirju11a's Letter
'
With the arising of the sixth sun, no drop of water
will remain anywhere, and the great earth, along with
Mt. Meru, will begin to emit smoke. When the seventh
sun arises, the flames of all the suns will converge into
a single fire and not even dust will remain.
If even physical bodies of such solidity as these are to be
completely annihilated by the force of seven suns blazing as a
single flame, what need is there to say so for the ever-so-frail
human body? Due to its impermanence, there is no time at which
it could not be destroyed.
1'he following verse is stated to illustrate that, since life is so
impermanent and since one's body Jacks any substance, one
should relinquish all interest in sa~sara.
(58)
Thus all being is impermanent, lacking any self-
nature .•
It is without a saviour, guardian or resting place. ',
Hence, Great One, develop aversion for sa~sara­
Which like the plantain has no substance.
Not only all physical things, but every one of the five "closely
grasping" heaps~• as well is impermanent and without any self-
nature-as previously explained. They are without any saviour
to protect them from suffering, without any guardian to aid
them, and are even without any opportunity of finding an ordi-
nary place of rest. Therefore, "Oh, Great One," develop an aver-
sion for- that is, become disgusted by-this sa~ra, which like
the plantain tree has no substance.
Next is advice to put this human life of opportunity and
fortune to full use after having contemplated the difficulty of
finding it.
Corite11·iplation 01i the Difficulty of Attaining a Life of
Opportunity and Fortune
(59)
..
More difficult than a turtle's finding a single yoke
In the ocean is an animal's acquiring a human
Advice Co11ccr11i11g Virtuous Prncticcs 83
Life; thus, with the power of being human
Make such a life fruitful through practising the Holy
Dharma.
Suppose the entire world were a great ocean, in which there lived
a blind turtle which rose to the surface only once every 100 years;
and on the surface of that ocean were a yoke, with a single
opening, driven about in every direction by the wind. Difficult
indeed would it be for the turtle's neck to meet with the opening
of that yoke and become secured there. However, even more
difficult than that is it for an animal to acquire birth as a human
since animals, due to their stupidity, are unable to generate
powerful good karma.
This point is stated in a Sutra as follows:
Monks, if there were a blind, long-lived turtle dwell-
ing in an ocean the size of the entire world who rose to
the surface a single time with the passing of every 100
years; and if there were upon such a great ocean a
yoke with a single opening which, when driven by the
eastern wind, moved to the west and so forth; monks,
there could come a time when, as he rose to the
surface, the blind turtle's neck would enter into the
opening of that yoke. Yet I, monks, declare that attain-
ing birth as a human is of much greater difficulty.
Therefore, with the power that a human being possesses,
practise the Holy Dharrna and bring fruitfulness ~o such a birth
by making this pursuit the essence of the human hf~. . .
The following verse is stated to illustrate that since a~ta.1rung
a human life is so difficult, to waste it would be real stup1d1ty.
(60)
Even more stupid than one who fills a
Jewel-embellished, gold vessel with
Excrement is he who, having been born a
Human, performs evil deeds.
A person who filled a gold vessel embellished by many kinds
of precious jewels with filth such as urine and e~crement .W?uld,
in the world, most certainly be scorned for having used it in a~
unsuitable manner. Yet those who, born as humans, perform evil
deeds are even more stupid; for the life of a human is very muC'h
84 Niigarju11r.~ Letter
more difficult to acquire than a gold vessel and-in that they
yield dreadful consequences-evil acts are much more deserving
of reproach than excrement.
Next, the king in particular is advised to exert himself be-
cause he has acquired an exceptional human form.
Advice to the Ki1ig iii Particular
(61)
Dwelling in a favourable region, relying
Upon holy men, prayerful in
Nature and also having performed merit previously,
You possess the Four Great Wheels.
(1) Dwelling in a region which favours the Arya path's aris-
ing, (2) relying upon holy men, association with whom reduces
one's faults and increases virtuous qualities, (3) being of a prayer-
ful nature (which includes carrying out in practice one's good
attitudes), and (4) being mature in character through having
previously performed meritorious deeds: these four conditions
are called "wheels", for they are similar to the wheels of a car-
.
r1age.
Just as a carriage fitted with suitable wheels enables one to
travel with great ease to a desired region, so does being endowed
with the above qualities enable a follower of the path to reach
liberation with .facility. Endowed with the four great wheels, Ms
you (the king) possess all the conditions necessary for the pursuit
of the path and are therefore urged to exert yourself in that
endeavour.
The following verse is stated to illustrate that!eliance upon
the wise is the primary factor in giving rise to the Arya path.
(62)
The Muni declared reliance upon a spiritual teacher
To be the fulfilment of a religious life.
Hence, rely upon the wise, as did the
Many who attained peace through the Jina.
In pursuing the Path, one should first rely upon a spiritual
teacher (kalyai:ia mitra). This reliance was said by the Muni to
Advice Co11ccr11i11g Virtuous Prnctices 85
bring about the fulfillment of a religious way of life.AA As a Sutra
states:
Ananda, it is thus; spiritual teachersA7 and virtuous
companionsA~ are the fulfilment of the religious way of
life. The reason for this, if you should ask, Ananda, is
that every good quality that arises does so on the basis
of a spiritual teacher-and it is through their arising
that one achieves liberation.
Therefore one should always rely upon wise persons, as did
the numerous individuals who attained peace through relying
upon the Jina.
In this instance, a "religious way of life" (brahmacarya) is
meant as the Path to Liberation, in the sense that one's conduct
(carya) in this direction constitutes an endeavor to accomplish to
eradication (brdha, related to brahma) of all the defects of exist-
ence-that is, to attain nirvana. •
What qualities define a person as wise? The scripture
Mn'1iiyii11n Sutrii/n1!1kiirn says:
Rely on a spiritual teacher subdued, tranquil, quiet,
abundant in
Virtue, earnest, and rich in scriptural learning; who
has
Understood reality (tavva), is a skilful teacher,
Has a nature compassionate and never tires.
[Ch 17, v. 10)
'J'his states that a wise person should be one who abides in the
1'hree Precious Trainings~q and is rich in knowledge of the scrip-
tures of the Three Baskets.90 He should have realized the true
nature of reality, and be skilled in explaining its mea:iing, as he
h<1s understood it, to others. The wise person should be one who
feels compassion for his pupils and does not tire of giving them
teaching and instruction.
The following two verses are stated to illustrate that, since
one's life is free of the conditions detr imenta l to pursuing the
path which leads to liberation, one should put forth great effort.
(63,64)
To be born as one •vho adheres to the false view,
As an animal, preta, or hell-being;
 '
86 Nag'iirjuna' s Letter

In a land lacking the Jina's word, as a barbarian in

some
Remote area; to be born as an imbecile or an idiot,
Or as a long-life deity are the eight
Defects of inopportunity. Having
Found the leisure of being free from these,
Exert yourself to tum back birth.
There are eight inopportune forms of birth. Three of them are
to be born in the inferior states of existence-as (1) as animal, (2)
preta,91 or (3) hell-being. Four cases apply to a human birth: (4) to
be born in a region where the world of the Jina is not present (i.e., (B) Development of Aversion for Sa1?1siira
a world where ·a Buddha has not appeared); or, even if He has through Contemplating its Defects
appeared, (5) to take birth as a barbarian in a remote area where
His word is not heard; or, (6) even if born in a central land, to be This division is presented through brief and fuller explanations,
born as an imbecile or idiot; or (7) birth as one who adheres to the with a final verse of summary.
false view which discredits the law of karma and its results,
nirvai:ta, and the path leading to it. The final inopportune form is
(8) a birth as a deity of long life, such as those called the "beings
without conception" (asa~jnika).92 Taking birth in any of these
eight forms is said to be a state of inopportunity, for such a one
has no occasion for pursuing liberation.
0 King, you have found an exceptional human form free of
these eight defects and are able to pursue liberation; therefore,
exert yourself in practising the path, so that you might succeed in
turning back the endless round of birth.
 CHAPTER4

PRESENTATION IN BRIEF AND IN F ULL

(65)
Gentle Sir! Become disgusted with sn1!1siirn,
Source of so much suffering: material privation,
Death, illness, aging and the like.
Hear now further a few of its faults.
The king is addressed as "Gentle Sir". Because it is the source
of so much suffering-the lack of material goods (food, clothing,
and so forth), an ultimate death, occasional occurrences of illness,
aging (the disappearance of youthful vigour) and such forms of
misery as grief and outcries of anguish-one must develop aver-
sion for sn111siira. If one does not turn away from this sa111siira, the
desire for liberation' will not arise. The author indicates that he
will mention a few of the defects of sa111snra-only a partial
explanation-to aid the arising of this attitude of renunciation;
therefore, one should give heed. The faults of sn1!1snrn could
never be stated in their entirety, yet the hearing of even a portion
of them is enough to cause the mind to renounce it. Thus a part of
the faults is next presented, in seven divisions.

1. The Defect of Bei1ig Witho1.it Certai11ty2

(66)
One's father becomes a son, one's mother a wife.
Enemies become friends. The reverse of
This occurs as well. Thus, in sn111siirn
There is no certainty whatever.
As one takes birth again and again, sometimes he who was
011e's father may become one's son, a former mother one's wife,
or an enemy in one life a friend in another. The reverse n1ay
occur, where one's son becomes his father and son. Thus, since in
saf!1sara there is no certainty as regards who is one's enemy and
who is a friend, one should abandon the bias of attachment
towards friends and d islike of enemies.
90 Niigiirj1111n's Letter
2. The Defect of Never Beco1ni1zg Satisfied3
{67)
Each has drunk more milk than the four
Oceans, while in the succeeding
Sn111siirn of the common person much more than
That is still to be drunk.
Each and every living being has, in the past, imbibed more
milk than there is water in the four oceans of the four directions;
for the births in which one has drunk milk are without beginning.
Nevertheless, much more milk than before still remains to be
drunk in the succeeding sa111siira of the common person
(prthagjn11n.), i.e., in the time until he enters the Arya path. This is
because there is no end to sn111siira for these infantile beings• who
have failed to give rise to virtue that "coincides with liberation".5
·3. The Defect of Discarding Orie' s Body
Again and Again ..
(68a)
The heap of bones belonging to each person
Would equal or even surpass that of Meru.
The size of the heap of bones from the bodies of all the
previous births in saqisara taken by each living being would
equal or even surpass that of Mt. Meru. Further, if one does not
exert oneself in the path, one shall still have to discard even more
skeletons than all those of the past.
· 4. The Defect of Being Cortceived6
Again and Again
(68b)
The earth would not suffice if one counted one's
maternal lineage
With pellets of soil the size of juniper berries.
If one tried to count the number of times that each living
being had been one's mother, mother's mother, and so on by
Aversion for Sa111sara 91
making an earthen pellet the size of a juniper berry f9r each time,
all the soil of the earth would be exhausted without one reaching
the end. One would, in fact, not even reach the number of times
that a single being had been one's mother. Moreover, if one does
not exert oneself in the path, this number will become even
greater.
This is expressed in a Sutra as follows:
Monks! Suppose that a person were to take pellets of
soil-each the size of a juniper berry-from this great
earth and throw them to the side one by one, saying,
'This is my mother, this is my mother's mother...' The
soil of this great earth, 0 monks, would very soon be
exhausted; yet I declare that it would not be so for the
lineage of a human being's mothers.
5. The Defect of Continually Vacillating between
Eminent and Lowly States7
(69)
Having been Sakra, worthy of the world's venera-
tion,
One falls again to the earth, through the force of
karma;
Or having been a Cakravartin monarch,
One assumes again in sarpsara a servant's status.
Since even deities venerate Sakra, needless to say he is vener-
ated by others. Yet after being even such a figure, worthy of the
world's veneration, one falls once again to the earth as a common
person-or even into the lower states-by the force of former
karma of the type to be experienced in other lifetimes. One may
even have been a wheel-wielding monarch (cakravartin)8, en-
dowed with the seven precious fortunes9 and ruler of the four
continents; yet in the everchanging circumstances of sarpsara one
falls back through karma's force to the status of a menial servant,
or even into the lower states.
That great power is unreliable, as has just been s~at~~, the
purpose of the following verse is to indicate the unrehab1hty of
sense pleasures.
92 N1ignrju11n's Letter
(70)
Having long experienced the pleasure of fondling
the
Breasts and hips of celestial maidens, one
Then undergoes unbearable contact with crushing,
Cutting and slashing processes in the hells.
Having been born as a deity, one may experience over a great
length of time the pleasures of fondling the breasts and hips of
celestial maidens. Then through the force of evil karma one takes
birth in the hells, where one is crushed between the tremendous
iron mountains of the Sacrghata hell,1° cut to pieces by swords in
Kala Siitra hell, and slashed by weapons or the beaks and claws
of terrible creatures in the Tapana and Mahatapana hells. More-
over, one must undergo the harsh suffering of these devastating
processes for an even longer period than the former pleasures.
The following verse indicates that the pleasures derived from
one's habitat are unreliable.
(71)
Contemplate that after the pleasant experience of
the
G round's depressing at the touch of your feet while
dwelling long on
Meru's peak, the terrible suffering of the Firepit and
the
Swamp of Filth will strike you once again.
Contemplate and bear in mind the following. One may dwell,
for the period of a thousand celestial years, upon the peak of Mt.
Meru-which is 1nade of the four types of precious materials11
and has tJ-1e wonderful quality of sofily sinking under the pres-
sure of one's step and rising again as the foot is raised. Yet after
even this pleasure one must again experience the miseries of
moving about up to one's knees in the burning embers of the
Fi rep it (Kukiila), and of travelling in the Swamp of Filth (Kur:apa),
n putrid mire of excrement.
"fhe purpose of the following verse is to inspire one to re-
nounce the pleasures experienced in the pleasure groves.
Avcrsio11 for Sn111sarn 93
(72)
Having frolicked while dwelling in lovely and pleas-
ant gardens,
Regaled by celestial maidens, again one's
Arms, legs, ears and nose are cut in the
Forest of Trees with sword-like leaves.
One may dwell in beautiful pleasure groves, where one is
"regaled by celestial maidens", waited upon and surrounded by
a great number of these maidens. However, after frolicking there
at great length enjoying sense pleasures, one goes to the hells o'f
the Forest of Trees with sword-like leaves (Asipattravana). These
leaves, shaped like many kinds of sharp swords, fall when stirred
by the wind-cutting one's arms, legs, ears and nose. One thus
incurs the misery of having the body and all its limbs cut and
pierced. Furthermore,
(73)
After resting in the Gently Flowing Stream, with
Golden lotuses and celestial maidens of beautiful
countenance,
Again one falls into the unbearably caustic, boiling
Water of the infernal River of No Ford.
Encircled by lovely celestial maidens, one may bathe in the
celestial stream called "Gently Flowing" (Manda Kini), which is
filled with water of eight qualities12 and golden lotuses. But after
enjoying such pleasures at great length, one will_fall. into _the
alkaline waters of the infernal River of No Ford (Nad1Va1tara1:u)-
a river filled with unbearably caustic, boiling water.
It having been illustrated that the pleasures of the two lower
classes of desire-gods are unreliable, the following verse is stated
to indicate the unreliability of pleasures pertaining to the other
desire-realm gods such as Yama,u etc., as well as those of the
upper two realms.
(74)
Having attained the extremely great pleasures of ce-
lestial
Realms, and even Brahma's bliss of non-attachment,
 94 Niigarjuna' s Letter
Again one undergoes incessant suffering as
Kindling for the fires of A vici.
The sense pleasures of the Yama class of deities, and of the
higher celestial beings, far excel those of the lower gods'; and in
Brahma's realm there is the bliss of having transcended attach-
ment for sense objects. Yet even after attaining such states, through
the force of non-virtuous karma of the type to be experienced in
another lifetime one is again forced to become kindling for the
fires of Avici 14 hell: meaning that one is burned incessantly, and
without respite, by unbearably hot fires.
Further: '
(75)
When one has attained the state of sun and moon,
The ltght of one's body illumines the entire world.
Yet returning again to the darkness, not even
One's outstretched hand is visible. · Five Types of Beirzgs
The statement about one's attaining a birth as the celestial
beings of the sun and moon and illuminating the world with
one's body follows popular speech without distinguishing be-
tween habitat (sun and moon as physical bodies) and inhabitant
(sun and moon as celestial beings). More properly, it is the light
from the base of the celestial mansions of the sun and moon
which illuminates the entire world.
Having then taken rebirth in some dark region lying between
world systems, where the light of the sun and moon do not reach,
one cannot even see one's own hand stretched out before one.
6. The Defect of Being Co111paniotzless
(76)
As such are the ·defects (of sa111siira), take the
lamplight
Of the "three types of merit; for alone one
Enters the infinite darkness which is
Unaffected by sun or moon.
Realizing that life is impermanent, that it consists of such a
variety of eminent and lowly states and is defective in that death
ond its consequences are inevitable, one must grasp the lamplight
Avcrsio11 for Sa111sarn 95
which dispels the great darkness of the evil states of being. That
light is the threefold merit, either of liberality, morality and
meditation or of body, speech and mind.
If one is without merit's light, one is companionless and must
enter all alone into the infinite darkness of the three evil states
which are "unaffected"-that is, undispelled-by the light of s un
or moon. In such a darkness, only virtue can serve as companion,
saviour or lamplight. The Lnlita Vistara expresses this in the
followit1g words:
Except for virtuous karma performed, which
Comes followi ng after, there is no
Companion for composed things. They lack
Saviour, family, friend or retinue.
7. The Specific Miseries Experienced by the
•
'
This' section has five parts, the first of which is:
..
Tlie Suffering of tlie Hells
The following verse is stated to indicate the number of hells
in general.
(77)
For beings who perform evil deeds tQere will be
Perpetual suffering in the hells of Saf!ljiva,
Kala Sutra, Mahatapana, SaJ!lghata,
Raurava, Avici and so forth .
Beings who perform wrongful deeds of the tpree gateways
come to experience, perpetually, the misery of the hells of Saf!ljiva,
Kala Sutra, Saxrighata, Raurava, Maharaurava, Tapana,
Mahatapana, Avici, and "so forth": the remaining hells, the par-
tial hells (Pratyeka Naraka) 15 and the cold hells.
Those born in Saxrijiva become frightened at the si&ht of each
other . 1'hen, whatever they lay hold of becomes a sharp weapon
which they hurl at one another-severing limbs and other ap-
pendages. They fall unconscious to the ground, whereupon a
voice from the sky declares: "Be you revived." Rising again, they
repeat their former actions. Because these beings experience suf-
96 Niigiirju11a's Letter
fering against this background for a long duration, they are called
sn111jiva: 1 ~ "those who are again revived".
The bodies of those born in Kala Sutra are marked by the
guards of that hell with four, eight, or more black streaks, then
sliced and cut to pieces with many varieties of sharp weapons.
Because they experience suffering against this background for a
long duration, these beings are called kiila sutra: 17 "those with
black streaks".
The guards of Sarrghata assemble the beings born there,
driving them between mountains shaped like the heads of goats,
sheep and the like. Crushed by the mountains, they are then
reassembled and placed in an iron mechanism which crushes
them like sugar cane, blood gushing forth from every body aper-
ture. Still again they are assembled, to suffer excruciating pain as
they are pelted by a shower of iron boulders. Because they experi-
ence suffering against this background for a long dur'!tion, these
beings are called sa111ghiita: 1R "those who are crushed".
Beings in Raurava, searching for a place of rest, enter an iron
dwelling. Once inside, a fire erupts-and burned by the tremen-
dous blaze, they scream in desperation. Because they experience
suffering against this background for a long duration, these be-
ings are named raizrava: 19 "those who cry out".
It is to be understood that, in the Maharaurava 20 hell, beings
find themselves in a dwelling similar to that mentioned above but
having two compartments.
The guards of Tapana boil the beings there in iron cauldrons
filled with blazing molten metal and roast them in glowing iron
pans. 'fhey pound them upon a blazing iron surface with metal
hammers and pierce them with spears, which stick out from the
top of the head and cause flames to issue from every pore of the
body. Because they experience suffering against this background
for a long duration, the beings here are called "those who burn":
tiipana. 21
In Mahatapana, beings experience the suffering just men-
tioned with the addition of being pierced by three-pronged spears
which protrude from the top of the head and both shoulders,
flames issuing from every pore of the body. They are, as well,
wrapped with flaming sheets of iron and pierced-on a blazing
steel surface-by a hundred spikes and so on. Because they
experience suffering against this background for a long duration,
these beings are called 111nhiitiipa11n:22 "those who bum intensely".
Avcrsio11 for Sa111snra 97
Masses of fire from all four directions converge upon the
beings of Avici, turning to a single blaze within their bodies. But
for the cries of misery, one is unable to dis tinguish between the
beings and the flames. Because the suffering in this region is
constant and without respite, it is ca lled avid:23 "unremitting
torture". Because they experience suffering against this back-
ground for a long duration, these beings are called those "tor-
tured unremittingly".
The Circumjacent Regions24 are located on the four sides of
each of the eight great hells. Each of these sides has a gateway,
beyond which four additional types of suffering are situated. The
first one, Kukulam-Firepit2 5-lies immediately outside the gate-
ways and consists of knee-deep fiery embers. Here one's skin and
flesh are consumed as one steps down and then grow back as one
raises one's legs.
Next to that is Kul).apa-Swamp of Filth26-a mire of excre-
ment extremely putrid in odour. Arriving there, one falls in and
sinks up to one's head. Within. the mire are creatures that pjerce
the flesh with extremely sharp beaks. Adjacent to this is
K~uramarga, the Razor-filled Path, 27 where the flesh is destroyed
as one steps down and regenerated with the foot's being raised.
Neighbouring this region is Asipattravana, the Forest of Trees
with sword-like leaves.28 One comes here to enjoy the refreshing
shade but instead falls to the ground as the leaves drop off,
cutting one's limbs and minor appendages. Wild dogs then seize
one's flesh and proceed to devour it. In the adjoining
Ayarysalmalivana, the Forest of Iron Salmali Trees,29 one is forced
to climb up and down the trees. While ascending, great thorns
point downwards, piercing and slashing the flesh; as one de-
scends, they tum and face upwards. Here also there are iron-
beaked crows which pluck out one's eyes and eat them. Due to
the similarity of the types of harm located in the1n, the Razor-
filled Path is counted along with the other two areas as a single
region.
Next to these is the Nadi Vaitarani,
•
the River with No Ford,30
filled with boiling water. Having fallen into it, one is prevented
from emerging by spear-wielding guards situated on both sides.
If one does manage to get out, one is forced on to one's back upon
a flaming iron surface. The mouth is prised open with an iron
instrument, and one is compelled to consume a flaming iron ball,
 98 Niigiirju11a's Letter
or molten copper. One experi~nces suffering against such a back-
ground for a long duration.
As there are four to each side, these regions total 16 in
number. The Abhidhar11111ko5a states:
To all eight there are 16 additional (regions):
The Fiery Embers, Excrement Mire,
Razor-filled Path, etc., and the River.
[Ch. 3, 58-9)
Beings who are born in the cold hells experience the misery of
cold in the following manner. Those bon1 in Arbuda ("having
great sores") 31 are stricken by a great cold wind. The entire body
contracts as it becomes covered with sores. The sores burst open
in Nirarbuda ("where the sores burst open"),-) 2 and one's body
shrinks still further.
Huhuva 3
~ are
The names of those in Atata, . . Hahava and
ascribed on the basis of the sounds these beings emit while
tormented by the cold.
A great wind strikes the beings in Utpala ("blue lotus"),
causing their skin to tum blue and split open into five or six
sections. In Padma ("lotus"), the skin changes from blue to red in
colour, splitting open into 10 or more sections. In Mahapadma
("great lotus"), one's skin becomes extremely red in colour and
splits open into 100 or more sections.
The suffering of the partial hells is described as follows. A
butcher of cows from Rajagrha took birth in the form of a horse
whose cries of grief filled the air, while his apprentice took birth
in the form of a heap of foul-smelling bones picked at by crows.
Other, similar experiences can be found in the nvadii11a of
Sar:ighara~ita. One is that of a man named Sroi:ia/• who lost his
way near the ocean. After wandering about in a desert for some
time, he came across a person who by night experienced the joys
of a celestial mansion filled with heavenly riches. With the com-
ing of day, the mansion would vanish and the man fall to the
ground, where he experienced the great suffering of being slashed
and eaten by frightful beasts. As night fell he would once again
experience the heavenly riches. Sroi:ta inquired of the person
about this and received the following reply:
"By day I took the lives of others,
•
Observing by night morality's virtues.
Aversio11 for Sa111snrn 99
From those deeds I now experience
These good and evil fruits."
Proceeding further he saw another man, who by day experi-
enced heavenly riches and at night was enwrapped by an im-
mense ogress who would consume the man in stages-beginning
with the head. He would thus suffer unbearable misery, then
enjoy by day the same experiences as before. Sroi:ia asked about
this, as before, and received this reply:
"By night I lusted for immoral sex,
By day observing morality's virtues.
From those deeds I now experience
These good and evil fruits ."
This is how the scriptures describe the suffering of the Partial
Hells.
The next few verses are presented with the intention of illus-
trating several of the particular types of suffering in the Hot
Heil·s.
(78)
Some are pressed like sesamum and others are
Likewise ground up like fine flour.
Some are cut to pieces with saws-still others are
Split with dreadful, sharp-bladed axes.
Some of the beings in Saf!lghata are crushed, like sesame
seeds, in an iron press-with streams of blood gushing forth.
Similarly, others are ground by blazing iron millstones into a
powder resembling in fineness the flour of rice and other grains.
In Kala Sutra, some beings are cut up with blazing saws while
others are split by flaming axes of very sharp blades.
(79)
Others are likewise poured full of a
Flaming liquid of molten ii:on.
Some are impaled on barbed
And flaming iron spears.
Likewise, the beings in Tapana and those on the banks of the
l{iver of No Ford constantly have their mouths forced open and
are filled up completely with molten iron aglow with sparks and
 100 Niigiirjuna's Letter
boiling. Others in Tapana are impaled upon barbed iron spears
ablaze with fire.
(80)
Slashed by ferocious iron-fanged dogs, some
Wave their arms to the sky while other
Helpless beings are pecked by ravens with
Sharp iron beaks and terrible claws.
These are several of the experiences of the regions circumjacent
to the hells. In the Forest of Trees with sword-like leaves, fero-
cious dogs snarl loudly as they rip one's body apart with their
iron fangs. As they proceed to eat one's body, one raises o~e's
arms to the sky, uttering cries of anguish. Other helpless bemgs
perched on salmali trees have their ey~s and. flesh .pecked at by a
flock of ravens and other birds-all with pointed iron beaks and
dreadfully sharp iron claws.
(81)
Some cannot bear it when worms and insects
Of all kinds, thousands of blue-bottles and black
bees
Touch them, and they writhe and wail
When those that inflict grave wounds devour·then1.
Some cannot bear the sensation of being touched by the
w~rms inside their bodies and, on the outside, by beetles o;f all
kinds, shape and colours and by ma11y thousands of blue-bottles
and black bees. They are devoured by those that inflict grave
wounds and, unable to remain still, writhe and wail. This is the
sufferings of Neighbouring Hell.
(82)
Some in a heap of blazing slag are
Inces,santly burned, their mouths gaping open.
Some are boiled, head-first in great
Cauldrons, like rice-dumplings.
' ioned from clay, and so forth, cause one to become frightened,
__ The guards of Tapana bum the creatures there incessantly,
for a great length of time, in a heap of blazing iron slag: These
beings are burned so badly that their mot1ths gape open; indeed,
they have no strength but to open their mouths.
Avcrsio11 for Sa111sara 101
Some are boiled, head first, in blazing cauldrons filled with
caustic water. Tossed up and down, they look like dumplings-
balls of pressed rice in a pot of boiling water.
The suffering of the great hells having thus been described
roughly and in brief, the following verse is stated to instil fear in
those who live in a manner that will cause them to be born there.
(83)
They have a diamond-hard nature, those evil doers
who-
Being kept from the hells only till the breath's
Ceasing-are not frightened in a thousand ways
after
Hearing of the hells' immeasurable suffering.
Those evildoers who have performed karma certain to bring
about the experience of th.e hells ate separated from that suffering
by only the time it takes for the process of breathing to stop; since
immediately after the final breath one enters the next state of
existence. Thus any person who, despite having heard about the
hells' immeasurable suffering as described above, does not be-
come frightened in a thousand-ie., a great many-ways such
that his mind. is not terrified and body seems ready to burst,
unquestionably has a body and mind of a diamond-like nature.
Otherwise he would surely become terrified.
The reason for this is stated in the next verse.
(84)
If even seeing drawings of statues,
Recalling, reading or hearing of the hells.
Engender fear, what need to speak of
Experiencing this dreadful maturation?
If seeing drawings of the hells, recalling one's former experi-
ences, or hearing of them from others; if reading about such
experiences in the scriptures or viewing figures of them fash-
then there is no need to speak of the fear which comes with
actually experiencing these dreadful maturations.
The suffering in all the hells is not the same; hence, the
following verse is stated to show that the lower hells contain
102 Niignrju11a's Letter
suffering of progressively greater intensity-and that the greatest
of all is in A vici.
(85)
Jus t as the extinction of craving is the
Lord of all pleasures, so too is the
Suffering of Avici hell the most
Terrible of all sufferings.
Of all pleasures, there is none higher than the bliss of libera-
tion-which is the total extinction of desire of the Three Realms.
Thus this bliss is the lord, which is to say it is supreme . In the
same way, the Avici hell is the g reates t and most dreadful of all
the sufferings that result from non-virtue.
How great is this hell's suffering? The foJJ owing verse is
stated to demonstrate that there is nothing among humans to
compare with it.
(86)
The suffering here, of being jabbed for a single
Day, by 300 spears at full force does not
Approach or equal even a minute p ortion
Of the least suffering of the hells.
The suffering here, in the human realm, of lying naked and
being jabbed, with the greatest of force, by 300 sp ears all at once
and for the period of one full day does not even roughly approxi-
mate the lightest of the hells' sufferings, such as that of the Partial
Hells; nor does it equal even a minute portion, such as a hun-
dredth or thousandth part, of it.
How long must such s ufferings be experienced? The
Abhidhnr111nkosn sets forth the lifespans of beings in each of the
hells as follows:
Jn the six (hells) of SaJ'!ljiva, etc., a
Full day is equal to the lives of the desire
Gods, respectively; thus their lives are
Similar to t11ose of the desire gods. '
In Mahatapana it is a half;
Jn Avici, an intermediate kalpa.
[Ch. 3, v. 82-3]
This general statement having been made,
Aversio11 for Sa111snrn 103
(87)
Though so very unbearable suffering be
Experienced for even a billion years, one \'Jill
Never be freed from that life as long as
The non-virtue is not exhausted.
One may experience the mos t terrible suffering, in ways just
described, for as long as a billion years. Yet until the cause, non-
virtue, is exhausted one will never be freed from tl1at life because
karma to be experienced in hells is of g reat force.
The following verse states that, since suffering in the hells as
d~scribed originates from non-virtue, this cause should be aban-
doned.
(88)
The seeds of these, the fruits of non-virtue, are
Wrongdoing of body, speech, and mind. You must
Exert your every strength to prevent, by any
Means, even their slightest occurrence.
The seeds of the h ell's sufferings-results of non-virtue are
wrongful deeds of body (such as taking lives}, speech (like stating
falsehoods), and mind (as when coveting). You, 0 King, should
prevent yourself, through every possible means, from perform-
ing in even the slightest degree these three types of wrongdoing.
To that end, exert yourself with all the strength you have.
The Suffering of Animals
The following ver:se is stated in a general sense.
(89)
An animal birth-state has suffering of many kinds:
Those of being killed, bound, beaten and such.
The most dreadful lot of eating each other awaits
Those who've abandoned peace-bringing virtue.
Since animals, unlike humans, do not travel upright but
rather in a bent-over fashion, they are called "those who travel
bent over" (tiryak). Beings in that birth state are killed by humans
and other creatures, bound w ith ropes and such, beaten with
whips are the like, and generally experience endless harm from
both human and non-human beings.
104 Niigiirju11n's Letter
Animals have eschewed. the virtue that brings peace (ie.,
nirvarya), such as that which "coincides with absolute discern-
ment" (nirvedha bhagiya);3 ~ meaning that they are unfit to give
rise to such virtues. And because in their environment animals
inevitably prey on one another, this lot is said to be "most dread-
ful".
The next verse is stated with regard to specific types of
animal suffering.
(90)
Some die for the sake of pearls or wool,
Bones, flesh, or s kin. Other helpless
Ones are exploited with the blows of kicking,
Fists, whips, hooks, and prods.
Some animals are killed for pearls, some for wool, and some-
such as elephants-for their bones. Some-wild deer, for ex-
ample-are killed for their flesh and son1e, such as leopards, for
skins. Other animals-the helpless property of gods and n1en
such as the horse, buffalo, donkey, elephant, and ox-suffer the
1nisery of exploitation, being struck with kicks, fists, whips, hooks
and prods.
The Suffering of Hungry Ghosts (pretas)
In general,
(91)
Among the prctns there is constant suffering caused
by
Lack of material things. They undergo most
Terrible misery created by fear, anguish,
Hunger, thirst, cold, and heat.
In short, one who is born a preta must undergo incessant
misery caused by a total Jack of material things. The term "inces-
sant" means, specifically, that since there is no opportunity of
obta ining material things, such suffering cannot be alleviated.
One may ask what particular n1anner of suffering this is. It is
the extremely terrib le misery created by hunger, thirst, cold in
winter and heat in summer. It is the anguish brought on by
rushing about in search of food and drink, and the fear inspired
at the sight of persons wielding svvords and the like.
Aversion for Sn111snrn 105
Now, in demonstration of the specific types of suffering, the
fallowing verse addresses those of hunger and thirst.
' (92)
Some, with needle-eye mouths and stomachs the
Size of mountains, are tortured by hunger but
Unable to eat even the smallest
Quantity of discarded filth.
· It being so difficult to fill a stomach the size of a mountain
when one has a mouth as small as the eye of a needle, these pretas
are tormented by hunger. Even should they find the slightest
<1mount of filth which someone has discarded-like urine or
excren1ent- they are powerless to eat it because their n1ouths are
so sma ll.
The following verse describes the unattractiveness of pretas'
bodies and the fact that their mouths blaze with fire.
(93)
•
Some are naked, mere skin and hones like the dried
top
Of a palm tree. Others have n1ouths which
Blaze at night-for food they eat
Sand which falls into their mouths.
The bodies of some prctns have no flesh, and are thus merely
s kin and bones. They have no clothing, so are naked; and their
appearance is like that of the top of a palm tree, dried up and
s tripped of its bark.
Some emit fire from their mouths ench night, though not
during the day; and hot sand, which falls into their mouths,
serves as food.
The next verse illustrates the particular sufferings of the
lowlier classes of prctns.
(94)
Several Jowly classes cannot find even such
Filth as pus, excrement, blood or the like. They
Attack one another, eating pus from festered
Goitres growing in the throat.
106 Niigiirjuna's Letter
Some pretas are of an inferior class, which is to say that they
have extremely poor fortune. They are unable to find even pus,
excrement, blood, or other such kinds of filth, much less some-
thing appetizing. Yet when they catch sight of one another, each
becomes angered and attacks the other, striking him with a club.
They contract goitres of the throat which become festered, and
then for sustenance eat the pus which oozes from them.
The following verse is stated to illustrate several additional
types of suffering these pretas experience.
(95)
In summer even the moon feels hot for
Them, while in winter the sun feels cold.
Under their mere gaze trees turn empty of
Fruit, and rivers become dry.
,
/ If born a human, then as a pauper.
In the summer season, even the moon causes a feeling of
burning heat for this lowly class of pretas, while in the winter,
even the sun makes them feel cold. Such is their misery of heat
and cold. Further, even trees filled with ripe and luscious fruit-
their branches drooping beneath the weight-appear to be dry
and empty of fruit at their mere gaze. Rivers, though filled with
waters having the eight excellent qualities, appear dry or filled
instead with burning slag and great quantities of worm-infested
filth.
How long do they experience this suffering?
(96)
Undergoing incessant suffering and
Tightly bound by the karmic fetters of
Misdeeds, some do not die for 5,000 or
Even 10,000 years.
"Incessant"'means that these beings undergo constant suffer-
ing. So1ne, who live out their lives fully, do not die for 5,000 or
even 10,000 human years-despite being unable to acquire food
and drink, etc.,-because they are tightly bound by the karmic
fetters of wrongdoing.
You may ask what causes one's experience of this suffering.
Aversion for Sn111snrn 107
(97)
The case for the pretas' single taste of
Such diverse suffering is a being's delight in
Parsimony. Buddha declared
Miserliness to be ignoble.
All the various typ'es of misery which pretas experience, the
above-mentioned hunger, thirst and so on, are identical in that
they constitute suffering. Thus they are said to be of a "sin gle
taste" (eka rasa). Their cause is a delight in parsimony-habitual
stinginess. Moreover, the Buddha has declared this miserliness to
be ignoble, meaning that it is a powerful non-virtue. The Sn111caya
Giithn states:
A miser will be born in the preta state or,
The Suffering of Deities.
(98)
Greater than the pleasures of celestial
Beings is the suffering of their passing away.
Having considered that, the rig hteous do not
Crav;e for the transitory celestial realms.
Although there is great pleasure consisting of delights of
the senses-in the celestial realms of the desire gods, the suffer-
ing which occurs on the occasion of their passing away surpasses
this pleasure by far. As a scripture explains:
"Alas! The Garden of Varied Chariots3~­
Alas! The Gently Flowing l{iver-
Alas! Deities so beautiful of mind!"
I
Crying thus, they fall to earth.
With such contemplation the righteous, those with insight
and understanding, do not crave for the pleasures of the celestial
realms; because even this pleasure ulti1nately comes to an end-
therefore having no lasting value.
"How is it," one may ask, "that deities experience suffering at
the tin1e of death if they take birth 1niraculously and do not suffer
any mortal injury?" The following verse illustrates that although
108 Niigiirj1111n's Letter
there is no physical suffering, deities experience extren1ely great
mental suffering when confronted with premonitions of their
death.
(99, 100)
'lne body's complexion turns unattractive, one
Feels dislike for one's seat, garlands
Wilt, clothing assumes an odour,
And the body is soiled-as never before.
l'hese are the five premonitions attending death in
the
Celestial realms. They arise for deities in a
Way similar to signs of death attending
Humans on earth who are about to die.
As a deity approaches the time of death, his body's beautiful
complexion fades and becomes unattractive. He begins to dislike
sitting upon his divan, and his decorative flower garlands start to
wilt. His clothing assumes an odour and the body becomes
soiled-which had never occurred before. These five events are
premonitions of signs accompanying the death of deities in the
celestial realms, and their occurrence brings great unhappiness.
They are like the signs of the nose contracting and the "smell of
Yama", which attend the deatJ1 of humans on the earth.
Suffering of this kind, accompanying their passing away, is
not the only suffering that deities experience. The following verse
states that subsequent to their deaths they are faced witl1 the
suffering of the evil states.
(101)
If after passing away from the
Divine realm there is no remaining
Virtue, one will helplessly enter the
State of an animal, preta, or hell-being.
If one who passes away from the celestial realms has no
remaining virtue for taking birth in the higher states, powerless
to remain in these states one shall thereafter fall into one of the
three states of animal, preta, or hell-being-and experience its
suffering.
A vcrsio11 for Sn111snrn 109
The Suffering o.f Deinigods (asuras)
(102)
Asuras, through their natural hostility towards the
Deities' glory, have great mental suffering.
'fhough intelligent, they cannot sec the truth
Due to the obstruction of their state of being.
Because of their great pride, asuras~ 7 by nature have a great
animosity towards the glory of the deities. ·rhis intolerance causes
them great mental suffering, since je<ilousy is very discomforting
lo the mind.
These asuras also suffer from doing battle with the deities, at
which time tl1eir bodies are cut and slcished. And although able to
distinguish virtue from evil, they are un<1ble to gain realization of
the truth-an obstruction pertaining to all beings of this birth
state which is a unique maturation of their karn1a.
_ ~ome ~ommentaries s~ate that the nsurn birth is one projected
(ak~1pta) by a non-virtuous karma and consun1mated
(paripun:ia)39 by virtuous ones. Arya Asanga, however, has de-
clared that-because asuras are beings of a godly form-this
state of existence is one projected by a virtuous karma.
Sarpsara's faults having thus been explained, the following
concluding verse is stated to engender a fC'cling of dislike for it.
The Co11cl11sio11
(103)
Sarpsara being so, there is no favourable
Birth-whether among deities, hurnans,
rlell-beings, pretas, or animals. Birth should be
Known as a vessel of 111uch harm.
Because sarpsarci is comprised of the faults explained above,
there is no birth among any type of beings-whether deities or
humans, etc.,-which is favourable. 13irth should be understood
as tJ1e vessel, or basis, of 1nany types of harm-such as the "harn1
of close relations"~0 and so forth.
 .
' (C) Pursuance of the Path, Having
Contemplated Nirvana's Virtues

This division subsumes two chapters, the first being that which is
common to all vehicles.
 CHAPTERS

THAT WHICH IS COMMON TO ALL VEHICLES

The first of this chapter's two sections illustrates that nirvai:ta has
virtues that make it an object which ought to be attained.

1. Illustratio1·i of the Virtues Mnki1ig Nirvn~zn

a1z Object to be Attni1zed

The following verse is stated as inspiration to strive for nirvarya

once one has generated, as explained above, a genuine dissatis-
faction for the world.
(104)
Even if one's head or clothing should suddenly catch
Fire one should forgo extinguishing it and
Exert oneself rather in putting an end to
l{ebirth. No aim is more exalted than that.
If one's head or clothing were st1ddenly to catch fire, one
would quickly attempt to put out the blaze- as it would destroy
both life. and limb. Yet a wise man, knowing sal!lsi:ira's faults,
would abandon any effort to extinguish the fire and would in-
stead, without regard for life or limb, strive to put an end to
rebirth. This is because there is no higher purpose for an indi-
vidual than bringing an end to rebirth.
How can the termination of rebirth be achieved? The follow-
ing verse is stated to illustrate that it is achieved b.y means of the
'fhree Precious Trainings.
(105)
Through morality, wisdom and dhyi:ina one must
achieve
Nirvai:ta-the immaculate state of peace and
subdual:
Ageless, deathless, eternal and free of earth,
Water, fire, air, sun and moon.
114 Nngi'irju11n' s Letter
In short, nirvai:ia ia aGhieved by means of the Three Trainings:
the morality, wisdom and dhyana previously mentioned.
Nirvana. is twofold: that . which is "without remainder"
(niravase~a) 1 and that which "has remainder" (savase~a). The
2
first of them is called "peace" because all the impure aggregates
have terminated. The second is called "subdual" because it con-
stitutes the subdual of the facilities. Since they are both free of the
turbidness of the mental afflictions, they are "immaculate". One
becomes "ageless" because the process of aging no longer occurs,
and "deathless" because one's vital force is no longer subject to
change. Nirvai:ia is "eternal" because it is forever interminable.
So as to distinguish this liberation from what several non-
Buddhists claim has the colour of snow, cf a conch shell, curds,
fog, or a pearl and the shape of a white parasol, the verse states
that one should achieve the state "free of earth, water, fire, air,
and the sun and moon."
2. I11structio1i for the Pztrs1ta11ce of the Collectio11 of
Causes for Nirvii1,ia
This section has, moreover, seven parts-of which the first
concerns the Seven Limbs of Enlightenment (saptabodhyanga).
The following verse is stated to demonstrate the dharmas which,
when achieved, produce the attainment of nirvai:ia.
111e Seve11 Limbs of Enlightenment
(106)
Recollection, the discernment of dharmas, effort,
. essential nature of the path of seeing. Wisdom is like the elephant
JOY,
Extreme agility, samadhi, and equanimity: these
Seven are the Limbs of Enlightenment, the collection
Of virtues bringing about nirvat~a's attainment.
"Recollection" (smrti) means not forgetting the objects of
attention: the truths. "Wisdom" (prajna) is a thorough discern-
ment of dharmas. "Effort" (virya) is delight in virtue, while "joy"
(priti) is a state of mental satisfaction towards the same. "Ex-
treme agility" (prasrabdhi) 3 is a fitness of body and mind. Sixth is
samadhi. "Equanimity" (upek~a) is a natural and relaxed state in
which mental "dimness"4 and "excitation"5 are absent. Further-
Pursuance of the Path 115
more, all of these should be understood as occurring upon the
occasion of the path of seeing (darsanamarga).
They are called the "Limbs of Enlightenment"~ because they
are the limbs of that enlightenment consisting of the path of
. /
seeing. .
In what sense do they constitute the Limbs of Enlighten.m ent
of the path of seeing? The scripture Mahiiya11a Sutriila11ikiira ex-
plains it as follows:
Th.e essence limb, the support limb, and
Third the perseverance limb.
Fourth is the benefit limb, while
Three are limbs of non-affliction.
[Ch. 18, v. 63)
Recollection
Recollection is the support limb (nisraya) for the enlighten-
ment of the seeing path because by maintaining a state of recollec-
tion virtuous dharrnas are prevented from degenerating, in that
they are constantly reiterated in the mind. Be<:ause it enables one
to realize those objects not yet realized, recollection is also like the
precious wheel (cakraratna),7 which enables one to conquer un-
conquered lands. Again, in the Sutra/a11ikiira:
In order to conquer unconquered objects of
Knowledge, practise recollection always..
[Ch. 18, v. 58)
The Discernment of Dhannas
Wisdom is the essence limb (svabhava) because that is the
(hastiratna) who destroys his foe, in that it overcomes the
conceptualizations which falsely apprehend the existence of a
real self and real entities:
By 't his discernment all signs of
Conceptualization are destroyed.
[Ch. 18, v. 18)
Effort
Effort is the perseverance limb (niryai:ia) because it enables
one to carry on until the goal is reached. It is· like the supreme
116 Niigarju11a s Letter
1

. Pursuance of the Path 117

horse (asvaratna)/ which carries one to the land surrounded by
the great ocean, in that it quickly brings about the attainment of
supernormal knowledge (abhijna).9
This effort set out
For speedy realization.
[Ch. 18, v . 59]
Joy
Joy is the benefit limb (anusaqisa) because it brings ease to
the mind. It causes delight j'ust as the brightness of jewels
(mai;iiratna) 10 does for a king.
...and with the increase of the Dharma's light,
Joy brings constant development.
[Ch. 18, v. 59]
Extre1ne Agility
Extreme agility is the " limb through which one assumes no
state of mental affliction" because it destroys the cause of the
mental afflictions; namely, any deleterious state (dau~~lya) of
body, speech, or mind. This agility is like the queen (striratna), 11
who causes a king to experience bliss:
Because it frees from all obstacles,
One attains bliss through extreme agility.
[Ch. 18, v. 60)
Samiidhi
Samadhi is the "limb in which n o mental affliction arises," for
in this state one becomes free of such afflictions. Samadhi is like
the king's minister (grhapati),' 2 for it accomplishes all desired
goals.
Samadhi causes one
To attain desired results.
[Ch . 18, v. 60]
Eq11ani111ity
Equanimity is by nature a state of being without mental
affliction because its essence is that of being free of all afflictions
such as covetousness and mental suffering. Equanimity is like the
military com~~nder (parir)ayaka ratna) 13 arranging the four
branches of m1htary force, which remain d eployed as he wishes.
By equanimity one remains
Everywhere as one wishes.
[Ch. 18, v. 61]
These seven are the collection of virtuous causes which pro-
duce the attainment of nirval'.la and must therefore be pursued.
The Union of Saniatlia and Vipa5yana
The following verse is stated to d emonstrate that nirvana is
attained through the union of samathau and vipasyana .'s ·
(107)
There can be no dhyana without wisdom;
There can be no wisdom without dhyana.
He who has both red uces the ocean of existence
To the size of an ox's hoofprint.
Without the w isdom correctly understanding the individual
and general attributes of dharmas, one cannot give rise to the
dhyanas.'~ This is because wisdom that is free of doubt severs all
su.perfl~ous ideas concerning objects of knowledge and fixes the
mind with ease upon the object of meditation.
Further, there is no wisdom which is true and exact knowl-
edge without dhyana, for it has been stated that true and exact
knowledge c~mes when the mind is perfectly composed .
. An~ yogi who possesses both dhyana-one-pointedness of
m ind directed towards a particular object of meditation-and
wisdom-which is true and exact knowledge-reduces the ocean
of existence. to ~he amount of water in an ox's hoofprint. This is
because he is either able to dry it up quickly or is able to cross
over it speedily.
In this instance, "wisdom " is m eant as being the realiza-
tion of the no-self nature of person and of dharma: for no other
wisdom has the power to sever the roots of existence. Wisdom
without dhyana is not firm and is thus powerless to erdicate the
mental afflictions. Likewise, dhyana without wisdom can sup-
press only the actual m anifestation of mental afflictions but can-
not eradicate their seeds. Therefore it is the path of samatha
118 Niigiirjuna's Letter
(quiescence) and vipasyana (insight), in u.nion, which brings the
achievement of nirviit)a. Of these, vipasyana is more crucial than
samatha, for the following is stated in a stotra (hymn of praise):
For the person disinclined to your teaching,
Blinded by ignorance, suffering will
Arise again and existence be prolonged
Though he reach the peak of existence (bhavagra).
And further,
Though a follower of your teaching has yet to
Achieve the actual stage of dhyana,
He still turns back future existences-
Even as the devils look on.
Thus, those desirous of liberation should first strive to attain
the mental fitness of S<;lmatha and then exert themselves, with
discriminating wisdom, in the yoga of ~editation upon the two
aspects of no-self nature; the latter beginning with the practice of
"well-established recollection" (smrtyupasthana). Meditation dis-
a5sociated from discriminative wisdom is merely a stilling of the
mind, serving not even to free one from worldly attachments--
much less to bring orie to liberation.
The Eschewal of the Topics not Worthy of Consideration,
and the Pursuance ofan Understanding of
Dependent Origi11ation
The following ver5e is stated to divert one from contemplat-
ing topics unworthy of consideration-which are obstacles to. the
right view and the path leading to nirvar:ia. ·
(108)
One should not contemplate what the
Kinsman of the Sun declared to
Be the 14 Unexpounded (Views); for the
Mind will not be pacified through them. -
The 14 Unexpounded Views (avyakrtad~ti), 17 as stated in the
Dirghiiga1na by the Kinsman of the Sun-the Buddha Bhagavan-
are as follows:
Pursua11ce of the Pnth 119
1. the four based on the past: that the self and the worlq are
eternal (sasvata), not eternal, both or neither;
2. the four based on the future: that the self and the world have
an end (antavan), have no end, both or neither;
3. the four based upon nirvar:ia: that the Tathagata 1P continues
to exist after His death, that He does not, that He both does
and does not or neither does nor does not; and
4. the two based upon the body and the soul ("soul" and "self"
being, in this case, synonymous): that the body and soul are
the same or that they are different.
One may ask why these views are called "unexpounded".
Questioned by certain non-Buddhist ascetics on these matters,
the Tathagata realized their basic premise to be the belief in a
permanent self. Understanding both that it would be incorrect to
apply the attributes of being eternal or non-eternal, etc., to a non-
existent substance and that it would serve n~ go()d purpose to
reject the existence of a self, He gave no answer. For that reason
these views are called "the unexpounded".
An alternative explanation is that this "self" is the person-
ness ascribed to the aggregates and that "world" is the five
grasping aggregates themselves. Since , these two originate depen-
dently, they lack a self-existent natt1re and therefore cannot ob-
tain the status of being either eternal, non-eternal, or the rest. As
the scriptures state:
That which originates dependently
Is, in its very essence, peace.
The objects of these views are therefore not something to be
expounded as being either eternal, non-eternal, impermanent,_or
so on. The Buddha did not declare them as not self-existent, ie. as
originating dependently, because he did not consider the non-
Buddhists worthy vessels for the "most profound of meanings".
It is for all these reasons that the views are said to be unexpounded.
As written in the Rat11iivali:
When asked if the world had an end,
The Jina remained silent because
He would not present the profound teaching
To beings who were not worthy vessels.
120 Niigiirjt11u1's Letter
The wise realized the Omniscient One
To be all-knowing.
[Ch. 1, v . 73-4)
One should not contemplate views such as those just pre-
sented because only those things which can be contemplated
properly and with beneficial results warrant consideration. As
they presuppose something non-existent, one cannot contem-
plate these questions. In considering them, one becomes seized
by the "snake" of evil views which causes the poison of the
mental afflictions to spread; hence, the mind will find no peace
through their contemplation.
The following threee verses are stated to indicate that what
ought to be contemplated is Dependent Origination (pratitya-
samutpada), and that doing so has the benefit of providitlg the
attainment of peace.
(109, 110, 111)
The Muni declared that from ignorance arises
Karma, from that consciousness, and from that
Name and form; from that the six
Faculties and from them contact.
From contact arises sensation; based on
Sensation comes about craving. From craving
Originates grasping, from that existence, and
From existence comes birth.
When there is birth there arises grief,
Sickness, aging and destitution, the fear of
Death and so on-a huge mass of suffering.
By stopping birth, all this will cease.
The Muni, the Bhagavan, declared in the Pratityasa111utpiida
Sutra:
Monks! When this is present, this will come about.
Because this has arisen, this will arise. It is thus: through
the influence of ignorance, the compositional pro-
cesses (sarpskara)19 come into being...through birth's
influence, there come into being aging and death,
grief, cries of anguish, mental suffering and all anxi-
ety. Thus does this huge mass of suffering come into
being.
Pursuance of the Path 121
The Buddha makes a similar statement that:
When ignorance has ceased, the compositional pro-
cesses will cease...when birth has ceased, aging and
death, grief, cries of anguish, mental suffering and all
anxiety come to cease. Thus does this huge mass of
suffering come to an end.
This is what is presented in the verses here.
In regard to these limbs of Dependent Origination, from
ignorance (avidya, the view that the heaps constitute or pertain to
a "self") arise three possible types of karma (here called sarpskara):
merit (pul)ya), non-merit (apui:tya), and invariable karma
(anmjya).2° From this karma arises consciousness (vijfiana), the
receptacle of karmic tendencies and the agent which takes birth.
From consciousness arises name and form (na1na, rupa),
whose nature is that of the five aggregates during the early stages
of fetal development. "Name" is the four heaps of sensation, etc.,
while "form" is the accompanying four physical elements and
their products.21 From the development of name and form arise
the six inner faculties (ayatana) of the eye, ear, nose, etc.
From these six faculties arise contact (spar5a), which results
from the convergence of object, sense faculty, and consciousness.
From contact come about the sensations (vedana) of pleasure and
pain; and based on sensatio11 there comes about craving (~i:ia)­
the wish to acquire pleasure and rid oneself of pain.
From craving arises grasping (upadana), an intensification of
craving which causes one to initiate acts aimed at acquiring
pleasure and ridding oneself of pain. From this, existence (bhava)
comes into being. It is the stage in which the karmic propensities
that cause rebirth become activated. From existence originates a
future birth Gati).
With the occurrence of birth arise sickness (an imbalance of
one's physiological constitution), aging Gara, the loss of one's
youthful vitality), and death (marai:ia, the termination of one's
vital force). There also arises grief-tormenting both body and
mind; a total lack of such material things as food, clothi11g, etc., as
well as cries of anguish and mental suffering. These constitute the
huge mass of suffering which neither constitutes nor pertains to a
self.
Likewise, in reverse, this huge mass of suffering will all come
to an end beginning from the cessation of the compositional
122 Niigiirjuna's Letter
processes by the cessation of ignorance up to the cessation of
aging and death by the cessation of birth.
If one should wonder in what length of time these 12 limbs
reach completion, the full process involves three separate life-
times; though they may be interspersed among a great many
other ones. The three limbs of ignorance, the compositional pro-
cesses, and consciousness reach completion in the prior life, be-
cause they are the projecting force for a birth.
The limbs from name and form up to sensation reach comple-
tion in the intermediate life, for their nature is that of being a
maturation. Since the three limbs of craving, grasping, and exist-
ence come about through the influence of these maturations, they
also reach completion in the intermediate life.
Birth, along with aging and death, reach completion in the
later life, because the final stage of this life occurs with the limb of
existence-and birth is brought about through its influence. Ag-
ing and death, in tum, come about through birth.
The first two births of the foregoing description need not
occur in immediate succession, as it is possible for the name and
form of the present life to have been projected by the ignorance of
a hundred kalpas past. However, if it is a case where the matura-
tion is of "karma to be experienced in the next birth" (upapadya
vedaniya), these two lives do occur in immediate succession.
The latter two births always come about in succession be-
cause the birth, as well as the aging and death, of a person's next
life always originates through the influence of the existence state
of the present one.
Thus this life's birth, along with aging and death, is not of the
same cycle of Dependent Origination as the name and form, etc.,
of this life, since they do not originate through the influence of
this life's desire and grasping. Well then, what is·the case?
They are of the same Dependent-Origination cycle as the
name and form, etc., of one's previous life; for this life's birth and
aging and death arise through the influence of that preceding
life's desire, grasping, and existence.
Thus, for all common persons (prthagjana) the full 12 limbs of
Dependent Origination are present in the current life; however,
they represent a combination of limbs pertaining to three differ-
ent cycles of Dependent Origination. That is, one's current birth,
as well as aging and death, are linked with the Dependent Origi-
nation of a former life. The ignorance, compositional processes,
Pursuance of the Path 123
cesses, and consciousness of this life are linked with a subsequent
Dependent Origination since they are the projecting force for
future lives. Finally, the seven current limbs ranging from name
and form up to existence pertain to the Dependent Origination of
this life.
Accordingly, the 12 limbs of Dependent Origination present
in one's current life enable one to understand the nature of one's
past and future lives. Specifically, the limbs ranging from name
and form up to sensation are results projected from former lives;
while birth, along with aging and death, is a result to be achieved
in the next life. From these, one can infer the existence of former
lives.
The three limbs of ignorance etc. are the projecting (a~epaka)
causes of a future life while the three limbs of desire etc. are its
producing (abhinirvartaka) causes. Thus one can infer the exist-
ence of future Jives.
The 12 limbs of Dependent Origination that occur in past and
future lives should be considered as having the same type of
cause cmd effect relationships as the ones decribed with reference
to the 12 limbs of this life.22 Thus one should come to understand
how it is that the 12 limbs of existence revolve continuously,
without beginning or end, like a whirling firebrand. As the Acarya
himself has stated (in the Pratityasa111utpiidahrdaya kiirikii):
Two originate from three,
Seven from two, and from seven as
Well come three-this wheel of existence
Revolving over and over again.
[v. 3]
The foJlowing verse is stated to illustrate that-through con-
templating Dependent Origination with the attributes explained
above one will see the true nature of dharmas (i.e. tattva).
(112)
This Dependent Origination is the most
Cherished and profound treasure of the Jina's speech.
Whoever is able to see this sees Buddha-
Supreme knower of reality.
Thus, this Dependent Origination is the most cherished of all
the Jina's speech, because it is the essential meaning of all the holy
124 Niigiirjuna's Letter
words. It is profound in the sense that it is difficult for others to
comprehend, being free of the four extremes.23
Whoever comes to a correct realization of Dependent Origi-
nation sees the Buddha-the supreme knower of reality; for the
Buddha consists of the Dharmakaya,2• whose nature is not differ-
ent from that of Dependent Origination. As the Sa/istn111ba Sutra
states:
Whoever knows Dependent Origination knows the
Dharma;
He who knows the Dharma knows the Tathagata.
The following verse is stated to demonstrate that one who
has a thorough understanding of Dependent Origination wilJ
give rise to the path focused upon the four Arya Truths.
•
11te Eightfold Arya Path
(113)
Right View, Livelihood, Effort, Recollection,
Samadhi,
Speech, Activity and Right Conceptualization are
The Eight Limbs of the Path. Meditate
Upon them in order to attain Peace.
For the sake of meter, the path's limbs are enumerated out of
order. The proper order is as follows:
1. Right View (sa:qiyag-dr~ti) is wisdom which makes a thor-
ough examination of the object realized in the path of seeing.
2. Right Conceptualization (sa:qiyak-sa:qtkalpa) is co11ceptual-
ization which gives rise to speech indicating to others what
one has realized.
3. Right Speech {satpyag-vac) is true and exact verbal expres-
sion generated by Right Conceptualization.
4. Right Activity (sa:qiyak-karmanta) is the physical and verbal
expression of one who has eschewed wrongdoing.
5. Right LiveHhood (sa:qiyak-ajiva) is a manner of subsistence-
through food, clothing, and so forth-which is in accord with
the Dharma.
6. Right Exertion {satpyak-vyayama) is effort in meditation on
the path.
Pursun11cc of the Path 125
7. Right Recollection (sa:qiyak-smrti) is not forgetting aspects of
tlte path which are objects of one's attention.
8. Right Samadhi (sa'f!\yak-samadhi) is remaining fixed, orte-
pointedly, upon these objects.25
These eight factors, which occur during the path of medita-
tion (bhiivana marga),26 are called the "Eight Limb~ of Llie Path"
because they are components and elements of the Arya path.
Of these eight, Right View is the lim.b of "ascer~ainment", f~r
it ascertains the true nature of things, tattva, as 1t was experi-
enced during a state of composure. Because it gives rise to ~pe~ch
which is based on one's own realization, l{ight Conceptuahzat1on
is the limb which "provides understanding" for others.
The three of Right Speech etc., are the limbs wh~ch "instil
respect in others". Of these, Right Speech-thro~gh ~ dialogue ~f
questions and answers-brings others .to the reah_z~tion,that or~e s
morality is absolutely pure. Through the _prach_tio~er s see~1ng
clothing and so forth in an open manner, Right L1vehhood brings
others to respect that livelihood as being absolutely pure. . .
Right Exertion is the limb which purifies the mental-affhction
obstructions, for it is through generating effort that one esche:-vs
any remaining bonds (sa:qiyojana). Recollection is the limb _w~1ch
purifies the obscurations of the ~econdary menta_l ~ffhct1ons
(upakle§a)27 because, by not forgettmg the characteristics ~f ~or- . .
rect samatha, etc., one prevents ~e secondary mental afflichons .
of mental "dimness" (laya) and "excitation" (auddhatya) from
arising. Samadhi is the limb which purifies ob~rations to the
extraordinary virtues, because it brings the achievement of s u-
pernormal wisdom(abhijna) and so forth. ~
2
_
1nese eight limbs are described in the scripture Madhya11ta-
v ibhiiga:
That which ascertains, that which provides under-
standing,
Three '"'hich instil respect in others, and the
(three) antidotes to the adversities:
These are the Eight l..imbs of the Path.
[Ch. 4, v. 10]
The eight should therefore be meditated upon-in order to
attain peace, or nirv~a. . . .
The next verse illustrates that the obiects of meditation for the
truth of the path are the Four Arya Truths.
 126 Nnt{iirju11n's Letter
The Four Arya Truths
(114)
All that arises is suffering; craving
Is its vast origination.
Its cessation is liberation-the rath for
Attaining this is the Eightfold Arya Path.
The arising of the five grasping aggregates is suffering
(dul:tkha). As stated in a Sutra: " .. .in short, the five grasping
aggregates are suffering." Craving, attachment to the hnpure
aggregates, is the origination (samudaya) of this suffering. A
Su tra states:
What is the Arya Truth of the Origination of Suffer-
ing? It is recurrent craving, consisting of an attach-
ment one delights in, as well as an attitude which
takes pleasure: now here, and now there.
This craving is called "vast" because it is the cause for all
births into existence.
The total cessation of this suffering and its origination is, th.e
truth of cessation (nirodha satya), which itself is liberation. The
path to its attainment is the eight-limbed Arya Path just de-
scribed; for these limbs join one to the path bringing nirvana's
attainment. · They· were, before, just ordinary
(115a)
That being so, strive-al~ys-
In order to see the Four Arya Truths.
These Four Arya Truths are what is to be "realized", "es-
chewed", "manifested", and "relied upon". Since the described
Four Truths are such, one should ever exert oneself in meditation
so as to see-through these Four Arya Truths- reality.
Because-in a rela.tive sense these four exist as Arya(" noble")
truths, they are so named; just as an accurate term, for example,
might be referred to as a "noble" (Arya) term. It can be otherwise
explained that they are "Arya" truths because their correctness
has been seen by the Aryas.
How can one as a layman, engaged in the governing of a
Pursuance of the Path 127
kingdom, see the truth? Because seeing the truth depends upon
an individual's own effort, .one should not become discouraged.
Sonre Words of Encouragement
(115b)
Even those householders in· whose laps rest great
worldly riches
Can, through knowledge, cross the river of the men-
tal afflictions.
Even such laymen as King Bimbisara, in whose lap rested the
riches of a kingdom (as well as the riches of a son and so forth),
saw the truth and crossed over the river of the mental afflictions
by means of right knowledge. You, 0 King, must do the same.
The following verse is stated to demonstrate that the Arya
path is achieved through an individual's own efforts.
(116)
Further, those who gained realization of Dharma
did not
Fall from the sky nor sprout from the ground like
crops.
Persons subject to the mental afflictions.
However many Arya&-those who have perceived the Four
Truths directly-have appeared, not one of them has been so
from the beginning. They neither fell from the sky nor rose up out
of the ground like crops but were, formerly, ordinary persons
dominated by the mental afflictions. Later, through a spiritual
teacher, they were able to pursue the path and become Aryas.
Thus, you too must exert yourself, without becoming discour-
aged, in pursuit of the path.
(117)
What need to preach much to the fearless?
Subdue your mind-this is the most useful
And essential of instructions. The Bhagavan
Said mind is the root of Dharma.
128 Nagarjuna's Letter
The king, free of worry that others might oppose him, is
adressed as " fearless". What need is there to preach at great
length? Indeed, it is unnecessary. The primary and.most essenti~l
instruction, of benefit in both a temporary and ultimate sense, is
this: "subdue the mind", by turning it away from non-virtue and
engaging it in virtue. In this way, all acts of body, speech, and
mind will become virtuous.
The Bhagavan has declared that, "The world is produced by
mind-it is brought into being by the mind . All things follow
from the influence of a single thing; mind." h1 addition, "Good is
the subdual of the mind. Subduing the mind brings happiness."
The following verse is stated to indicate that not only d~s
one abide properly in the teaching of the Buddha through practis-
ing all that has been explained here; accomplishing even part of
the instruction is meaningful.
(118)
To accomplish all this teaching given you would be
Difficult even for a monk. Bring
Meaning to your life by developing the good quali-
ties of
Whichever instructions you practice.
"O King," to practise, in its entirety, all that has been in-
structed in these words would be difficult indeed even for a
monk, who engages exclusively in virtuous activities. Needless to
say, a layman-diverted by many responsibilities would find it
so.
Nevertheless, whichever of these instructions you make the
essence of your practice, b ring meaning to your .life, habituating
yourself to the eschewal of non-virtue and the cultivation of
virtue. In doing so, you abide in the teaching of the Buddha and
gradually come to acquire all other virtues as well.
•
CHAl'l'ER 6
P URSUING WHAT lS THE MAHAYANA P ATH,
T OGETH ER WITH ITS RESULT
There are, as well, two sections to· this chapter. The first is
that of the path's activities. The listener's mind having been
satisfied through the presentation of Dharma in the foregoing
chapters, the following verses are stated with the intention of
introducing him or her to the Mahayana Path.
1. Activities of the Path
(119, 120, 121)
Rejoice at all the virtue of all beings and
Dedicate your own threefold good
Deeds to the attainment of Buddhahood.
Then, with this mass of virtue,
Become a master of yoga in all the worlds of
Gods and humans, for an immeasurable number of
births, and
Protect many helpless beings with activities
Like those of Arya Avalokitesvara.
In a final birth, dispel sickness, aging, d esire and
Hatred . Then, in a Buddha field, become-
As did Lord Amitabha-the guardian of the
World, with a lifespan of infinite length.
Rejoice, saying the following words:
Just as the Buddhas and Bodhisattvas rejoice at all
virtue-both the impure of ordinary beings and the
pure of Aryas-so too do I rejoice." Dedicate as well
all your three types of good deeds- those of body,
speech, and mind-to the attainment of Buddhahood,
saying: "By this virtue may I become a guardian for
those beings who have no guardian-a saviour for
those who have no saviour.
The verse next advises that one should, with the mass of

130 Migarjuna's Letter
virtue acquired from rejoicing and dedication, "generate a life-
time of infinite length through remaining the guardian of the
world until sa~ra is emptied."
What must one do before this comes about? It comes about
after one has brought the qualities of a Buddha to completion and
sentient beings to maturity. The first of these two activities is
done in the following manner. During the period in which one is
pursuing the path, one takes birth in the worlds of deities and
humans for an immeasurable number of liyes and proceeds to
master the yogas of dharai:ii/ samadhi, etc., which have incon-
ceivably great qualities. . . . .
Concerning the second practice of br1ng1ng sentient beings to
maturity, one should prEtect many helpless beings with activities
comparable to those of Arya Avalokite§vara, who h~s saved such
beings from the threat of lions, elephants, and the like. Through
this the accumulations of virtue and wisdom are completed.
Ne~t, having taken birth in one's final existence, one should rid
oneself of illness and aging (subsumed within the truth of su_ffe.r-
ing), as well as of desire, hatred, and so forth (subsumed w1th1n
the truth of origination).
Where is this done? It is done in a Buddha field, which has
been purified through one's own rudiments of virtue. How is .it
done? One is to acquire a field, retinue,2 lifespan, and so forth 1n
the same way as the Bhagavan Amitabha,3 who attained Buddha-
hood in the Buddha field of Sukhavati.4
The following two verses are stated to illustrate that, after
attaining Buddhahood and acting appropriately on behalf of
sentient beings, one should attain nirvai:ta.
2. Result of the Path
(122,123)
Having achieved the stage of victory-which paci-
fies human .
Earthlings and divine celestial youths delighting in
Sense pleasures and extinguishes fear, birth and
death for . .
•
Multitudes of helpless afflicted beings-
Spread the fame of immaCulate wisdom, morality,
and generosity
Pursua11cc of tltc Pntlt 131
I
Throughout the celestial regions, space, and upon
the face of the earth.
Finally, attain the transcendent state: of name only,
Peace, fearlessness, unsullied, and perfect.
Having achieved the stage of victory, attain the state of
nirvana. , which is transcendent in that the impure heaps are
terminated in their entirety. This nirvar:ia is "of name only" be-
cause it is not real, "peace" because there is no harm, and "fear-
lessness" because there is no fear. It is "unsullied" because it is
without impurity, and "perfect" because it is without change.
What sort of victorious stage must be achieved before this is
attained? This nirvana is attained after one has achieved the
victorious stage whi~h disheartens the heedless who delight i11
the joys of sensory pleasures, be they humans living upon the
earth or exalted youths comprising the six classes of desire gods,
and pacifies them by establishing them in the p:_eliminaries of the
Arya path-morality and so forth-and in the Arya path itself. It
is as weJI the stage which extinguishes the fear (derived primarily
from the perishable view),5 birth (derived primarily from igno-
rance, karma, and desire), and death (produced by the exhaus-
tion of karma and one's lifespan, and by one's not having eschewed
anger) of the multitude of sentient beings tortured by the mental
afflictions and tormented by suffering.
One may ask what must be done before (entering nirvai:ta).
(One should enter nirvai:ta) after hav~ng spread the fame of per-
fect wisdom-which discerns, absolutely, reality's true condi-
tion; of perfect morality-which has the qualities of being
uncorrupted and such; and of perfect liberality-which is free
from attachment towards anything-throughout the worlds of
the celestial realms, of the intervening sky, and of humans upon I
I
the earth.
......
This lotus of good sayings, from the water treasure of scrip-
tures kept by the nagas, is a source for the honey of virtue.
It should be opened with the sunrays of intellect and
enjoyed by a swarm of fortunate, bee-like persons.
132 Niignrjunn's Letter

As long as the Good Word of the Muni's speech and

the sayings of great persons are proclaimed in this NOTES
world,
This realm will have a true guardian and remain A Biography of Acirya Nigirjuna:
beautiful, with sunlight shining in an unblem-
ished sky. 1. Tib, dBu-ma.
2. Cf. prefacing verses of Venerable Rendawa's commentary.
But as the forces of the Flower-Arrowed One- 3. Tib, sPyan-ras gzigs.
destroyer of virtue-increase, the Muni's teaching 4. Tib, zhal-ta-ba.
becoming obscure like the waning of a person's 5. Tib, dge-slong. ,
life 6. Tib, rkang-,,zgyogs-kyi dngos-grub: a supernatural art which enables
And the multitude straying from the Dharn1a-path one to travel effortlessly at extraordinary rates of speed.
of peace, those desirous of virtue should rely 7. Tib, gser-'gyur-gyi rtzi.
8. Tib, dge-sbyong.
single-mindedly on the path of virtue. 9. Tib, klu.
May the pure virtue acquired by my present 10. Tib, shes-rab-kyi pha-rol-tu phyin-pa.
endeavour, white as the pollen of the kumuda and 11. i.e., Tib, "rTag-tu ngu'i le'u" and "Chos-'phags-kyi le'u".
the lotus, 12. Tib, kun-dga' rva-ba.
13. Tib, dPal-gyi ri.
Enable beings to cross the river of erroneous views 14. ·Tib, ring-bsrel.
and reach the land of deliverance. 15. Cf. verses 108-112 of the commentary text.
16. Tib, gta'1z-gyi tsogs.
• • ••• 17. Tib, bstod-pa'i tsogs .
18. Tib, rigs-pa'i tsogs.
This concludes The Elucidated Mcn11i11,'? (Sphutiirthn),6 a com-
The Elucidated Meaning (Sphutirtha):
mentary to the great Arya Nagarjuna's Suhrllek11a composed at
the great Sakya Monastery by myself, Sakya Bhi~u gZhon-nu " Prefacing Verses":
blo-gros, at the behest of the great and learned Tripi~aka Master 1. Tib, rGyal-ba: "Victor," an appellation of the Buddha.
Upa-dhyaya rCyal-ba dpal and in response to requests by my 2. Tib, Thub-pa'i dbang-po: "Lord of Sages"-also an appellation of the
disciples: gTzo-mdo-ba kun-dga' bzang-po and others. Buddha.
3. Skt, Sa§adhara: epithet of the moon.
4. See verse 27.
5. Tib, '1111go11-111tho; S~t, abhyuda~a: a standard term used to signify birth
as a human, demigod, or deity-a short-term goal for which one
strives. r
6. T~b, _nges-legs; Skt, ni~§reyasa: a standard ternt meant to signify
rurvai:ia or Buddhahood, ie. the highest goal.
A Recommendation to Heed
1. Tib, bDe-bar gshegs-pa: "one who has fared well," an appellation of the
Buddha.
2. Tib, thar-pa; Skt, 1110~: a synonym for nirvana.
3. Tib, Thub-pa. .
4. Tib, sgo-gsu111: the three gateways of action: body, speech, and mind.
134 Niigarjuna' s Letter Notes 135

Chapter 1. General Advice for Both Householders and Those De- · 39. Tib, rGyal-ba'i dbang-po: a synonym for "Buddha".
parted from the Home Life: 40. Tib, sbyin-pa.
41. Tib, tsul-khri11is.
1. Tib, De-lnhin gshegs-pa. 42. Tib, bzod-pa.
2. Tib, dGra-bc0111-pa. 43. Tib, brtzon-'grus.
3. Tib, Yang-dag-par rdzogs-pa'i sangs-rgyas; Skt, Sa11iyak Sa111buddh~. ,, 44. Tib, bsat11-gta11.
4. Tib, de-bzhin nyid; Skt, tathiitii: meaning "the true nature of reality · 45. Tib, shes-rab.
5. Tib, bstan-pa'i chos: refers to the word of the Buddha and commentar- 46. Tib, bya11g-dzub-kyi setns: the desire to attain perfect enlightenment for
ies to it. the benefit of all sentient beings.
6. Tib, rtogs-pa'i chos: refers to the Three Trainings, the Five Paths, and 47. Tib, 'khor-gsu111 111i-rtog-pa: in the case of liberality, they are the
the Truth of Cessation. recipient, the object given, and the act of giving.
7. Tib, ye-shes. 48. Tib, bsod-11a111s-kyi tsogs.
8. See verse 7. 49. Tib, gzha11-do11 phun-tsogs; refers to the Buddha's activity of extricat-
9. Tib, respectively, rgyal-chen ris bzhi su111-cu-rtza-gsut11 gzha11-'phrul ing beings from samsara.
dbang-byed. . " . deed" " ood k rma" 50. Tib, ye-shes-kyi tsogs.
10. Tib. bsod-na111s: synonymous w1th virtuous or g a · 51. Tib, chos-kyi sku.
11. Tib dge-ba' i las-la111. 52. Tib, rang-don phun-tsogs: refers to the condition of having eliminated
12. Tib: bde-'gro: synonymous with 11111go11-111tho (see "Prefacing Verses", all faults and having realized everything to be known.
no~e 5). . . .
13. Tib, las-la111 yongs-su rdwgs-pa: an act m which all the bmbs men- Chapter 2. Instruction Directed Primarily to Householders:
tioned occur in an unerring manner.
14. Tib, bsa111-pa. 1. Tib, bs11ye11-g11as.
15. Tib, sbyor-ba. 2. Tib, gso-sbyong.
16. Tib, dngos-gzhi. 3. Tib, 'dod-pa'i kha11zs.
17. Tib, gzhi. 4. Tib, so-sor thar-pa'i sdo111-pa.
18. Tib, 'du-shes. 5. Tib, dge-tsut.
19. Tib, srog gcod-pa. 6. Tib, ser-sna.
20. Tib, 11ia-byin-par len-pa. 7. Tib, g,yo.
21. Tib, log-par g,ye111-pa. 8. Tib, sgyu.
22. Tib, (b) rdzun-du s111ra-ba. 9. Tib, chags-pa.
23. Tib, phra-11ia. 10. Tib, s11yo111-las.
24. Tib, ngag-rtzub. 11. Tib, 111ngo11-pa'i 11ga-rgya.
25. Tib, tshig-'khyal. 12. Tib, 'dod-chags.
26. Tib, bn1ab-se111S. 13. Tib, zhe-sdang.
27. Tib, g11od-set11s. 14. Tib, rgyags-pa.
28. Tib, log-par lta-ba. 15. Tib, bag-yod.
29. Tib, bcas-pa'i kha-11a-11ia-tho-ba. 16. Tib, bag-11ied.
30. Tib, bag-t11ed. 17. Tib, dge-ba'i bshes-g11ye11: see verse 62 and the commentary to it.
31. Tib, yo11-ta11-gyi zhing. 18. The verse actually reads "111Thong-Ida11," for which the Sanskrit
32. Tib, sdug-bs11gal-gyi zhi11g. equivalent is uncertain. Probably chosen for metrical reasons, this
33. Tib, phan-'dogs-pa'i zhi11g. . less-familiar name is identified by all commentaries as an epithet of
34. Tib, 11ga11-'gro: birth as a hell being, hungry ghost, or animal. the well-known Ajatasatra (Tib, Ma-skyes dgra).
35. Tib, zhi-ba: a.n epithet of nirvana. 19. Tib, dge-bsnye11.
36. Tib, 11ii-sdug-pa. 20. Tib, 111tsa111s-111ed Inga: the five immediate sins-<:onsisting of (1)
37. Tib, r11a111-par grol-ba: another epithet of nirval)a. matricide, (2) killing an arhat, (3) patricide, (4) causing a schism in the
38. Tib, pha-rol-tu phyin-pa drug.
 136 Nagarjuna's Letter Notes 137

sai:igha-wheel and (5) drawing blood, in malice, from a Tathagata. 3. Tib, dran-pa.
21. Tib, rgyu11-zhugs. 4. Tib, shes-bzhin.
22. Tib, 'khon-'dzin. S. Tib, bsa111-gta11: see verse 41 .
23. Tib, rGyal-ba'i dbang-po. 6. Tib, tsad-111ed bzhi.
24. Tib, dngos-po. 7. Tib, bt;a111s-pa.
25. Tib, gzugs. 8. Tib, s11yi11g-rje.
26. Tib, de kho-11a nyid. 9. Tib, dga'-ba.
27. Tib, rte11-ci11g 'brel-bar 'byung-ba; Skt, pratitya sa111utpiida: Dependent 10. Tib, bta11g-s11yo111s. . .
Origination-cf verses 109-112. 11 . Tib, respectively, sei11s-ca11-la d111igs-pa, chos-la d1111gs-11a, and d1111gs-11a
28. Tib, bdag. 111ed-pa. _ . .
29. Tib, gtzo-bo: unevolved natur-e. 12. Tib, phung-po: the five being form (Skt, rupa; T1b, g~~gs}, feeling
30. Tib, byis-pa. (vedanii, tsor-ba}, conception (sa111j1iii, 'du -shes}, compositional factors
31. Tib, respectively, gang-zag-gi bdag-111ed and chos-kyi bdag-111ed. (sa1!1skiira, 'du-byed), and consciousness (vij1iii11a, nm111-sltes).
32. Tib; stong-pa nyid. 13. Tib, ga11g-zag-gi bdag-111ed.
33. Tib, dbag-11zed: the absence of self-nature. 14. Tib, clzos-kyi bdag-11zed.
34. ie., the Buddha. 15. Tib, so-so skye-bo.
3S. Tib, shes-rab-kyi pha-rol-tu phyin-pa. 16. By the Madhyamika Svatantrika (dBu-111a ra11g-rgyud-pa) school.
36. Tib, skyes-bu da111-pa. 17. Tib, Nya11 -thos and Ra11g sa11gs-rgyas.
37. Tib, 'phags-pa. 18. Tib, Madhyamika Prasaitgika (dBu-111a thal-'gyur-ba} school.
38. Tib, 'jig-rten chos brgyad. 19. Tib, dga'-ba.
39. Tib, n1a111-par s111i11-pa'i 'bras-bu. 20. Tib, bde-ba.
40. Tib, las. 21. Tib, rtog-pa.
41 . Tib, 111tlto11g-ba'i chos-la 111yo11g-bar 'gyur-ba. 22. Tib, dpyod-pa.
42. Tib, skyes-11QS 111yo11g-bar 'gyu r-ba. 23. Tib, 1m11g rab-tu da11g-ba_. .
43. Tib, la11-gra11gs gzha11-la 111yo11g-bar 'gyur-ba. 24. Tib, bla11g-s11yo111s: a mental state differing from the sensation of the
44. Tib, skyes-rabs. same name and defined as a balanced state free from mental "dim-
4S. See note 20, this chapter. ness" (fib, byi11g-ba) and "excitement" (fib, rgod-pa).
46. Tib, gShin-rje: the Lord of Death. 2S. Tib, rgyu s11yo11ts-'jug. ·
47. Tib, dad-pa. 26. Tib, respectively, Tsa11gs-ris, Tsa11gs-pa' i 111d1111-11a 'do11, and Tsa11gs-pa
48. ie., the Fou r Arya Tru ths: see verse 114. che11-po.
49. Tib, dK011-111chog. 27. Tib, respectively, dGe-ch1111g, Tsad-111ed dge, and dGe-rgt;as.
SO. Tib, tsul-khri11ts. 28. Tib, respectively, sbyor-ba, bsa111-11a, g11ye11-po, and gzhi.
Sl . Tib, gto11g-ba. 29. Tib, pha11-' dogs-pa'i gzhi.
S2. Tib, thos-pa. 30. Tib, yo11-la11 gtzo-lda11-gyi gzhi.
53. Tib, ngo-tsa shes-pa. 31. Tib, 'gog-pa'i s11yo111s-'j11g.
54. Tib, khrel yod-pa. 32. Tib, rgod-pa.
SS. Tib, shes-rab. 33. Tib, 'gt;od-pa.
S6. Tib, d1og shes-pa. 34. Tib, g11od-se111s.
3S. Tib, r111ugs-pa.
C hap ter 3. Ins truction, to both Householders and those Dep arted 36. Tib, 'dod-pa-la 'd1111-pa. ''
from the Home Life, concerning the Pursuance of Higher 37. Tib, tlte-tso111.
States and Sup reme Be atitude: 38. Tib, sgrib-pa.
39. "fib, bslab-pa gsu111: see verses S2, 53.
1. Tib, ti11g-11ge-'dzi11.
40. Tib, zlzi-g11as: the "tranquil state".
2. Tib, 111i-11yal-bar brtzon-pa.
41 . Tib, /hag-pa' i ts11l-khrir11s.
I
138 Niigiirj1111n's Letter Notes 139
42. Tib, llrag-pa'i se111S.
43. Tib, ll111g-pa'i shes-rab. 84. Tib, 11ye-bar len-pa'i phu11g-po Inga: the five psycho-physical constitu-
44. Tib, Jl1ag-111tl1011g: "i11sigltt 111editatio11", see verse 107. ents of being; see note 12, this chapter.
4S. Tib, brtzo11-'gr11s. 8S. Tib, 'khor-lo cher1-po bzhi.
46. Tib, cl1os-111d1og. 86. Tib, tsa11gs-par spyod-pa.
47. Tib, s/Jyor-la111. 87. Tib, dge-ba'i bshes-gnyen.
48. Tib, slobs. 88. Tib, dge-ba'i grogs-po.
49. Tib, dlx111g-po. 89. See verses S2, S3.
SO. Tib, rtze-1110. 90. Tib, sde-snod gsu1n.
Sl. Tib, ya11g-dag-pa'i lta-ba. 91. Tib, yi-dvags: see verses 91-97.
S2. Tib, dba11g-po. 92. Tib, 'du-sht!S 111ed-pa.
S3. Tib, ku11-rdzob: literally, " that which veils, or obscures".
S4. Tib, do11 da111-pa: literally, "that of the highest meaning". Chapter 4. Presentation in Brief and Full:
SS. Tib, log-pa' i lta-ba.
S6. Tib, dra11-pa 11ye-lx1r bzlzag-pa. 1. Tib, thar-pa don-du g11yer-ba'i blo.
S7. Tib, pltyi11-ci-log bzlzi. 2. Tib, nges-pa 111ed-pa.
S8. Tib, rdzas-s11 yod-pa. 3. Tib, ngo111S 111i-shes-pa.
59. ·rib, bdag-t11 ltn-l1n. 4. Tib, bt;is-pa.
S. Tib, thar-pa'i cha-111thu11.
60. Tib, tsor-ba: see note 12, this chapter.
6. Tib, 11yi11g-111tsa11is sbyor-ba: "conception", referring to the moment
61. Tib, jig-tsogs-la lta-/1(1.
that the consciousness-continuum enters the womb. ·
62. Tib, rgy11.
63. Tib, rlo;mr. 7. Tib, 111tho-d111an-du 'gyur-ba.
64. Tib, Gra11gs-ca11. 8. Tib, 'khor-los sgyur-ba'i rgyal-po.
9. Tib, ri11-che11 sna-bdun: see commentary to verse 106.
65. Tib, ra11g-bzl1i11.
66. Tib, respectively, rdu/: explained as having a nature of motility and 10. Tib, bsDus-'j0111S.
11 . Tib, rin-po-che s1ia bzhi: crystal, sapphire, ruby, and gold.
initiative; 1111111-pa: as having a nature of heaviness and obscuration;
12. Tib, chu yan-lag brgyad-da11g ldan-pa: water having the qualities of
and s11yi11g-stobs: as having a nature of lightness and clarity.
being cool, delicious, light, smooth, clear, free of any foul odour, and
67. Tib, 11go-bo 11yid.
68. Tib, Rigs-pa ca11. harmful to neither throat nor stomach.
69. Tib, d8a11g-phy11g. 13. Tib, 'Thab-bral.
14. Tib, 111Nar-111ed: the "Hell of Unremitting Torture" see verse 77.
70. Tib, 'dod-pa.
71. Tib, fstfl-khri111s-da11g brtul-bzhugs 111chog-'dzi11. 15. Tib, Nyi-tse-uxti d111yal-ba.
72. Cf. verse 49. 16. Tib, Ya11g-sos.
73. Tib, 11ye-bar le11-pa: see verse S8. 17. Tib, Thig-1iag.
74. Tib, ki111-t11 sbyor-ba: a force which binds one to samsara. 18. Tib, bsDus-'jo111s.
7S. See verses 10, 11 . · 19. Tib, Ngu-'bod.
76. See note 41, this chapter. 20. Tib, Ngu-'bod che11-po: ie. the "Great Raurava Hell".
77. Tib, spo11g-ba bd1111: three pertaining to the body and four to speech. 21. Tib, Tsa-ba.
78. See note 42, this chapter. 22. "fib, Rab-tu tsa ba.
79. See note 43, this chapter. 23. See note 14, this chapter.
80. Tib, respectively, 71ha111-pa bzhi, lhag-111a bcu-gsu111, spa11g-ltu11g su111-cu, 24. Tib, Nye-'khor-ba.
'ba' -zhig-pa dgu-cu, sor-bshags bzhi and 11yes-bt;as brgya-rtza-bcu-g11yis. 25. Tib, Me-111ur.
81. Tib, lus-su gtogs-pa'i dra11-pa. 26. Tib, Ro-111yags 'da111.
82. Tib, Lhu11-po. 27. Tib, sPu-gri gta111s-pa' i la111.
83. Tib, 111Tso 111a-dros-11a. 28. Tib, Nags-tsal ral-gri lo-111a ca11.
29. Tib, lCags-kyi shi11g shal-111a-li'i tsa/.
30. Tib, Chu-bo rabs-111ed.
31. Tib, Chu-bur ca11 .
140 Nagarjuna's Letter Notes 141

32. Tib, 01u-bur rdol. compositional processes, desire, grasping, and existence) and seven
33. Tib, respectively, So tha111-tha111-pa, Kyi-hud, and Ah-ch11. resultant limbs (those ranging from consiousness to sensation, birth,
34 .Tib, Gro-bzhi1i skyes. and aging and death).
35. Tib, 11ges-'llyed cha-111thu11. 23. See commentary to verse 27.
36. Tib, Shi11g-rta sna-tsogs-kyi tsal. 24. Cf. the " Dharma Body", verse 8.
37. Tib, llta 111a-yi11: "demigods", super-human beings lacking the 25. Tib, respectively, (1) ya11g-dag-pa'i lta-ba, (2) ya11g-dag-pa'i rtog-pa, (3)
splendour of, and in constant conflict with, true deities. y1111g-dag-pa'i 11gag, (4) ya11g-dag-pa'i /as-kyi 111/ha', (5) ya11g-dag-11a'i
38. Tib, 'phe11-bt;ed-kyi las: "projecting" karma. 'tso-ba, (6) ya11g-dag-pa'i rtzol-ba, (7)ya11g-dag-pa'i dra11-pa, and (8)
39. Tib, rdzogs-bt;ed-kyi las: "consummating" karma. ya11g-dag-pa'i ti11g-11ge-'dzi11.
40. Tib, 11ye-du'i g11od-pa. 26. Tib, sgo111-la111.
27. Tib, 11ye-ba'i 11yo11-111011gs.
Chapter 5. That Which is Common to all Vehicles: 28. These first three are grouped together as the "antidotes".

1. Tib, (zag-bcas-kyi pltu11g-po) lltag-111a 111ed-pa. Chapter 6. Pursuing what is the Mahiyina Path, together with its
2. Tib, (zag-bcas-kyi phu11g-po) lhag-bcas. Result:
3. Tib, shi11-sbya11gs.
4. Tib, byi11g-ba. 1. Tib, gzu11gs. _
5. Tib, rgod-pa. 2. Comprised exclusively of Bodhisattva Aryas.
6. Tib, bya11g-chub ya11-lag. 3. Tib, 'Od dpag-tu 111ed-pa.
7. Tib, 'khor-lo ri11-po-che. 4. Tib, bDe-ba ca11.
8. Tib, rta-111chog ri11-po-che. 5. See ve,se 49.
9. Tib, 11111go11-par shes-pa. 6. Tib, Don gsal-ba.
10. Tib, 11or-bu rin-po-che.
11. Tib, btzu11-1110-ri11-po-d1e.
12. Tib, khyi111-bdag ri11-po-d1e.
13. Tib, b/011-po ri11-po-che.
14. Tib, zhi-g11as: literally, "tranquil or quiescent state".
15. Tib, lhag-111tho11g: literally, "insight".
16. Cf. verse 41. .
1
17. Tib, lt111g 111a-bsta11-pa i lta-ba bcu-bzhi.
18. See Chapter l, note 1.
19. The 12 limbs of Dependent Origination are (1) ignorance (Tib, 111a-rig-
pa); (2) the con1positional processes ('du-byed}-referring, in this
context, to karma; (3) consciousness (n1a111-par shes-pa);14) name and
form (11ii11g-da11g gzugs); (5) the six faculties (skt;e-111clied dr11g); (6)
contact (reg-pa); (7) sensation (tsor-ba); (8) craving (sred-pa); (9) grasp-
ing (le11-pa); (10) existence (srid-pa); (11) birth (skye-ba); and (12) aging
and death (rga-sh1).
20. Tib, bsod-11t1111s, bsod-11a111s 111a-yi11-pa, and 111i-g,yo-ba' i Ins: karma
projecting birth-respectively-into the pleasurable states of the
desire realm, into the evil s ta tes, and into a state of the two higher
realms.
21. Tib, 'bt;u11g-ba bzhi an d 'bt;u11g-ba-las gyur-ba: the "four elements" of
earth, water, fire, and air and their "products", the five sense objects.
22. The twelve limbs can be divided into five causal limbs (ignorance, the
 AN OUTLINE OF THE TEXT

Prefacing Verses
I. A Recommendation to Heed (verses 1-3)
II. The Actual Instruction (v. 4-123)
A. General Advice concerning Virtuous Practices (v. 4-64)

1. General advice for both householders and those de-

parted from the home life (v. 4-8)
a. The Six Remembrances (v.4)
i. Buddha
ii. Dharma
· iii. Sangha
iv. Generosity
v. Morality
vi. Deities
b . The Ten Paths (v. 5-7)
c. The Six Paramitas (v. 8)
i. Liberality
ii. Morality
iii. Patience
iv. Effort
v. Meditation
vi. Wisdom
2. Instruction directed primarily to householders
(v. 9-37)
a. Respecting one'~ father and mother (v. 9)
b. Observing upavasa (v. 10-11)
i. Eschewing harm towards others
ii. Eschewing harm towards oneself and others
iii. Restoring from degeneration what was
rightly undertaken
iv. Establishing attentive recollection
v. Preventing the memory becoming clouded
c. Eschewing wrong attitudes (v.12)
d. Practising mindfulness (v. 13-14)
e . Practising patience (v. 15-16)
f. Eschewing indecent conduct (v. 17-19)
g. Finding proper associates (v. 20)
h. Eschewing desire for another's wife (v. 21-35)
i. The method of suppression (v. 21-27)
(a) Altering one's conception (v. 21)
(b) Guarding the mind and restraining
144 Niigiirj1111a's Letter
the senses (v. 22-24)
(c) Contemplating the faults of the
desiredobject and the desiring mind
(v. 25-26)
ii. The eschewal of the seeds of desire (v. 27-35)
(a) The actual method (v. 27)
(b) Praise of wisdom and morality (v. 28)
(c) Turning back from worldly dharmas
(v. 29-31)
(d) The Seven Riches (v. 32)
(e) Eschewing hindrances to the riches of
the Aryas (v. 33)
(f) Abiding ini'l s tate of satisfaction (v. 34-
35)
i. Taking a proper wife (v. 36-37)
3. Instruction, to both householders and those departed
f~om the home life, concerning the pursuance of
higher states and Supreme Beatitude (v. 38-64)
a. The Oharma common to both goals (v. 38-44)
i. Regulating the quality of one's food (v. 38)
ii. Sleeping only in the middle period of the
night (v. 39)
iii. Meditating upon the Four lmmeasurables (v.
40)
iv. The Four Dhyanas (v. 41)
v. The Relative Gravity of Karma (v. 42-43)
vi. The Five Obstacles (v.44)
b. The Pursuance of Supreme Beatitude (v. 45-54)
i. The Five Powers and the Five Strengths (v.
45)
ii. Conceit (v. 46)
iii. The Right View (v. 47-54)
(a) Brief presentation (v. 47)
(b) The expanded explanation (v. 48-54)
(i) Meditating upon the Four Well-
Established Recollections (v. 48)
(ii) Recollecting selflessness (v. 49-
50)
(iii) Eschewing the Three Bonds (v.
5l)
(iv) Practising the Three Trainings
(v. 52-53)
(v) Recollecting Bodily Circum-
stances (v. 54)
011tli11e of the Text 145
.
c. Utilizing the Human Form Fully (v. 55-64)
i. Removal of attachment for the body (v. 55-58)
ii. Contemplation on the difficulty of attaining a
life of opportunity and fortune (v. 59-60)
jii. Advice to the king in particular (v. 61-64)
B. Development of Aversion for Saf!\sara through Contemplat-
ing its Defects (v. 65-103)
I. A brief presentation (v. 65)
2. The expanded description (v. 66-102)
a. The defect of being without certainty (v. 66)
b. The defect of never becoming satisfied (v. 67)
c. The defect of discarding one's body again and
again (v.68a)
d. The defect of being conceived again and again (v.
68b)
e . The defect of continually vacillating between e1ni-
nent and lowly states (v. 69-75)
f . The defect of being companionless (v. 76)
g. The specific miseries experienced by the five types
of beings (v. 77-102)
i. The suffering of hell beings (v. 77-88)
ii. The suffering of animals (v. 89-90)
iii. The suffering of hungry ghosts (pretas) (v.
91-97)
iv. The suffering of deities (v. 98-101)
v. The suffering of demigods (asuras) (v. 102)
3. The Conclusion (v. 103)
'
C. Pursuance of the Path, having Contemplated Nirvar:ia's Vir-
tues (v. 104-123)
1. That which is common to all vehicles (v. 104-118)
a. Illustration of the virtues making nirvai:ia an object
to be attained (v. 104-105)
b. Instruction for the pursuance of the collection of
causes for nirvar:ia (v.106-108)
i. The Seven Limbs of Enlightenment (v. 106)
ii. The union of ~amatha and vipa~yana
(v. 107)
iii. The eschewal of the topics not worthy of
consideration and the pursuance of an un-
derstanding of Dependent Origination (v.
108-112)
iv. The Eightfold Arya Path (v. 113)
146 Nagarjuna's Letter

v. The Four Arya Truths (v. 114-llSa)

vi. Some words of encouragement (v. 1 lSb-118)
2. Pursuing what is the Mahayana Path, together with its
results (v. 119-123}
a. Activities of the path (v. 119-121)
b. Result of the path (v. 122-123)