Definition of Adjective

Adjectives are describing words. Large, grey, and friendly are all examples of adjectives. In the
examples below, these adjectives are used to describe an elephant.

Examples:

Large elephant
Grey elephant
Friendly elephant

Adjectives Modify Nouns

The word elephant is a noun. Adjectives are added to nouns to state what kind, what colour,
which one or how many. Adjectives are said to modify nouns and are necessary to make the
meanings of sentences clearer or more exact.

Examples:

 Follow the yellow cab.

(In this example, the adjective yellow modifies the noun cab.)

 Craig caught a large bass.

(In this example, the adjective large modifies the noun bass.)

 It is the girl with the pale face again.

 The principal words should be in bold.

(Beware of the adjective principal - see right)

 The rusty nail he stood on was the cause of the infection.

 Please put the old documents in the shredder.
 There is an essential matter we need to discuss.
 Peter guessed the right number.

Adjectives Modify Pronouns

Although less common, adjectives can also modify pronouns.

Examples:

 It is a blue one.

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 (In this example, the adjective blue modifies the pronoun one.)

 Only a brave few have received a recommendation.

The Different Types of Adjectives

Adjectives are describing words. However, there are many other words that are classified as
adjectives, some of which do not fall easily under this description.

What Are Possessive Adjectives?

A possessive adjective modifies a noun or a pronoun to show who (or what) owns something.
For example:

Here is a list of the possessive adjectives:

 my
 your
 his
 her
 its
 our
 their
 whose

Examples of Possessive Adjectives

Here are some examples of possessive adjectives in sentences:

Subjective Possessive Example

Pronoun Adjective
I my I like my new car.
you your You can leave your hat on.
he his He accidentally cut his finger.
she her She plays to her strengths.
it its It will show its teeth.
we our We have our reasons.
they their They washed their hands.
who whose Whose writing is this?

Examples of Possessive Adjectives

Here are some more examples of possessive adjectives in sentences:

 My head goes woozy when you climb your ladder.

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 Take his spoon and put it by your plate.
 She got her looks from her father. He's a plastic surgeon. (Groucho Marx)
 It only wants its ball back.

Possessive Adjectives and Possessive Pronouns

Here is a list of personal pronouns with their corresponding possessive
adjectives and possessive pronouns (i.e., their possessive forms):

Personal Pronoun Possessive Form

Possessive Adjective Possessive Pronoun
I my mine
you your yours
he his his
she her hers
it its [not used]
we our ours
they their theirs
who whose whose

Beware

Possessive Adjectives Are Technically Possessive Pronouns

A pronoun is a word that replaces a noun. As possessive adjectives replace nouns, you will
occasionally (and rather unhelpfully) see them classified as possessive pronouns. Look at this
example:

 This is Sarah's hat.

 This is her hat.

(In this example, the possessive adjective her replaces Sarah. That's why it's classified
as a pronoun as well as an adjective.)
It is more helpful to group possessive adjectives and possessive pronouns under the
term possessive form. This helps to differentiate between possessive adjectives (e.g., my, your,
her) and possessive pronouns (e.g., mine, yours, hers).

What Are Articles? (with Examples)

The articles are a, an, and the. Articles are words that define whether something is specific or
unspecific. For example:

Use 'the' to define something as specific:

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 This is the lake.

(This is a previously specified lake, i.e., one already known to the audience.)
Use 'a' or 'an' to define something as unspecific:

 This is a lake.

(This is a previously unspecified lake.)

Even though there are three articles (the, a, an), there are two types of articles:

 The Definite Article (the)

 The Indefinite Article (a and an).

The is called the definite article because it is used to indicate something specific. A and An are
called the indefinite articles because they are used to indicate something unspecific.

Of note, the articles are classified as determiners, which are type of adjective.

Examples of the Definite and Indefinite Articles

Here are some examples of the articles in use:

 I fell over the chair again.

(The chair is specific. It is known to the audience.)

 Can you pass me a chair?

(This means an unspecific chair, i.e., any chair.)

 I loved the apple pie after the meal.

(In this example, the audience knows which apple pie is being praised, e.g., the one at last
night's dinner.)

 I love an apple pie after dinner.

(The audience understands that the speaker likes to eat an apple pie after dinner (any
apple pie will do).)

 I'm not a troublemaker. I'm the troublemaker!

(This means "I'm not any old troublemaker. I'm the one you all know about.")

When Do You Use An and A?

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 The main question regarding articles is when to use an instead of a.

An is used instead of a to make speaking easier. An is used when the first sound of the next
word is a vowel sound. Note: Consonants can create a vowel sound, and vowels can create a
consonant sound. The use of an is determined by the sound not the letter. Look at these
examples:

 A house
 An hour

(House and hour start with the same three letters; however, house attracts a,
and hour attracts an. This is because housestarts with a consonant sound, but hour starts
with a vowel sound.)

 A uniform row
 An unidentified man

(Uniform and unidentified start with the same three letters; however, uniform attracts a,
and unidentified attracts an. This is because uniform starts with a consonant sound (yoo),
but unidentified starts with a vowel sound.)

Articles Go before Adjectives

An article often modifies a noun that is already being modified by an adjective. When this
happens, the article goes before the adjective (or adjectives). For example:

 Please open the small box first.

(Here, the noun box is being modified by the adjective small. The definite article the sits
before the adjective. Remember, the use of the tells us that we are talking about a box
already known to the audience.)

 You will get an excellent pizza at Papa Antonio's.

(Here, the indefinite article an sits before the adjective excellent.)

Indefinite Articles Are Used with Singular Nouns

The indefinite article (a, an) is only for singular nouns. It is not used for plural nouns.

As the indefinite article (a, an) specifies one thing (e.g., a cup means one cup), it is not used
with non-countable nouns (e.g., water, air, integrity). For example:

 I need an air.
 Play me a music.
 Give me a heat.

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 Most commonly, the indefinite adjective some is used instead.

Articles Are Not Used with Possessive Adjectives or Possessive Pronouns

Articles are not used with possessive adjectives (my, your, his, her, its, our, their) or possessive
pronouns (mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs) as these already show that something is specific.
For example:

 Take me to the your leader.

 Take me to your leader.

 Can I borrow a yours?

 Can I borrow yours?

What Are Demonstrative Adjectives? (with Examples)

The demonstrative adjectives are this, that, these, and those. They are used to point out specific
people or things.

This and That for Singular Nouns

This and that are used to modify singular nouns.

This is used to point out something close by. For example:

 This plate is very hot.

That is used to point out something farther away. For example:

 Can you see that ranch?

These and Those for Plural Nouns

These and those are used to modify plural nouns.

These is used to point out something close by. For example:

 These flowers smell nice.

Those is used to point out something farther away. For example:

 Do not approach those dogs.

The Difference between Demonstrative Adjectives and Demonstrative Pronouns

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 The demonstrative pronouns are the same words as the demonstrative adjectives
(i.e., this, that, these, and those). They are also used to point out specific people or things.
However, they do not modify nouns or pronouns. They stand alone as pronouns. For example:

 This is very hot.

 Can you see that?
 These smell nice.
 Do not approach those.

What Are Indefinite Adjectives? (with Examples)

An indefinite adjective is used to describe a noun in a non-specific sense.

The most common indefinite adjectives are any, each, few, many, much, most, several,
and some.

They are often used to describe a noun to show an element of uncertainty.

Indefinite adjectives should not be confused with indefinite pronouns. Indefinite adjectives
modify nouns or pronouns. Indefinite pronouns are standalone pronouns. For example:

 We are all born with genius, but most of us only keep it for a few minutes.

(In this example, most is an indefinite pronoun, and few is an indefinite adjective. It
modifies minutes.)

 However many holy words you read, however many you speak, what good will they do you
if you do not act on upon them? (Buddha)

(In this example, only the first many is an indefinite adjective. (It modifies holy words.) The
second many is an indefinite pronoun.)

Examples of Indefinite Adjectives

Here are some examples of indefinite adjectives:

 There are several people in the safe room.

(This is an indefinite adjective. It modifies the noun people.)

 There are several in the safe room.

(This is an indefinite pronoun. It stands alone. It does not modify a noun.)

 I have seen some cartridges in the cupboard.

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 (This is an indefinite adjective. It modifies the noun cartridges.)

 I have seen some in the cupboard.

(indefinite pronoun)

 There are only a few deer left

(This is an indefinite adjective. It modifies the noun deer.)

 There are only a few left.

(indefinite pronoun)

More Examples of Indefinite Adjectives

Here are some indefinite adjectives that feature in witty quotes:

Everyone is born with genius, but most people only keep it a fewminutes. (Edgard Varese,
1883-1965)
Many people would sooner die than think; In fact, they do so. (Bertrand Russell, 1872-1970)
I bought some batteries, but they weren't included. (Steven Wright)

Numbers
Numbers are classified as adjectives too.

 Four dolphins stayed with the boat until dawn.

(The adjective four modifies the noun dolphins.)

 All we could muster was 9 cans of beans.

(The adjective 9 modifies the noun cans.)

Definition of Compound Adjective

A compound adjective is an adjective that comprises more than one word. Usually, a hyphen (or
hyphens) is used to link the words together to show that it is one adjective. For example:

 Please request a four-foot table.

(Four-foot is an adjective describing table. A hyphen is used to link four and foot to show
they are part of the same adjective.)

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 It is a 6-page document.
 Claire worked as a part-time keeper at the safari park.
 That is an all-too-common mistake.

Compound Adjectives from Proper Nouns

Often adjectives are formed from proper nouns (i.e., the names of things), which should be
written using capital letters. In these circumstances, there is no need to group the words
together using hyphens. For example:

 Did you manage to get the Billy Elliot tickets?

(The words Billy Elliot are one adjective describing the tickets. As the capital letters group
the words, there is no need to use a hyphen.)

Compound Adjectives with Quotation Marks and Italics

Although a less common practice, it is also possible to group the words in a compound adjective
using quotation marks, italics or a combination of the two. (Italics tend to be used for foreign
words.)

Examples:

 It is an ab initio course (i.e., for beginners).

(italics used to group the adjective)

 Amber looked at the stick in the water, looked me in the eye and then turned away, giving
me a "get it yourself" look.

(quotation marks used to group the adjective)

 For more than ten years, Jack claimed to be part of the "Mary Celeste" crew before
admitting to his cousin at a party that he was not.

(capital letters, italics and quotation marks used to group the adjective)

Adverbs and Compound Adjectives

As covered in the lesson on adverbs, an adjective is often preceded by a word
like very, well, beautifully, or extremely. (These are adverbs.)

Usually, there is no need to link an adverb to an adjective using a hyphen. For example:

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 Young Tracey is an extremely brave girl.

(The adverb extremely modifies the adjective brave but is not part of it. There is no need to
group it and brave together with a hyphen.)

 It was a beautifully painted portrait in a skilfully carved frame.

(The adverb beautifully adds to the adjective painted but is not part of it. It is the same
with skilfully and carved. There is no need for hyphens.)

Ambiguous Adverbs
However, with words like well and fast (which are both adjectives and adverbs), a hyphen can
be used to avoid ambiguity. For example:

 Jacob took the well-fatted calf to the riverside.

(well-fatted calf as in a very plump calf)

 Jacob took the well fatted calf to the riverside.

(well fatted calf could be construed as a well (i.e., healthy) and fatted calf. In the first
example, the well-fatted calf could be ill.)

What Is an Adverb?
At school, you may have been told that adverbs end ly and modify verbs. That is all true, but
adverbs are far more diverse than that description suggests.

Adverbs can also modify adjectives and other adverbs. Although many adverbs end ly, lots do
not (e.g., fast, never, well, very, most, least, more, less, now, far, and there).

Adverbs Modifying Verbs

An adverb that modifies a verb usually tells you when, where, how, in what manner, or to what
extent the action is performed. (NB: The ones that end ly are usually the ones that tell us how
the action is performed, e.g., quickly, slowly, carefully, quietly.)

Here are some examples of adverbs modifying verbs:

 Anita placed the vase carefully on the shelf.

(The word carefully is an adverb. It shows how the vase was placed.)

 Tara walks gracefully.

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 (The word gracefully is an adverb. It modifies the verb to walk.)

 He runs fast.

(The word fast is an adverb. It modifies the verb to run.)

 You can set your watch by him. He always leaves at 5 o'clock.

(The word always is an adverb. It modifies the verb to leave.)

 The dinner guests arrived early.

(Here, early modifies to arrive.)

 She sometimes helps us.

(Here, sometimes modifies to help.)

 I am the only person in the world I should like to know thoroughly. (Oscar Wilde)

(Here, thoroughly modifies to know.)

Adverbs Modifying Adjectives

If you examine the word adverb, you could be forgiven for thinking adverbs only modify verbs
(i.e., add to verbs), but adverbs can also modify adjectives and other adverbs. Here are some
examples of adverbs modifying adjectives:

 The horridly grotesque gargoyle was undamaged by the debris.

(The adverb horridly modifies the adjective grotesque.)

 Peter had an extremely ashen face.

(The adverb extremely modifies the adjective ashen.)

 Badly trained dogs that fail the test will become pets.

(The adverb badly modifies the adjective trained.)

(Note: The adjective trained is an adjective formed from the verb to train. It is called
a participle.)

 She wore a beautifully designed dress.

(The adverb beautifully modifies the adjective designed.)

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 Adverbs Modifying Adverbs
Here are some examples of adverbs modifying adverbs:

 Peter Jackson finished his assignment remarkably quickly.

(The adverb quickly modifies the verb to finish. The adverb remarkably modifies the
adverb quickly.)

Different Types of Adverbs

Although there are thousands of adverbs, each one can usually be categorized in one of the
following groupings:

Adverbs of Time
An adverb of time tells us when an action occurs. For example:

 Press the button now.

 I have never been.
 I tell him daily.
 I tell him on a daily basis.

(Remember, an adverb can be more than one word. Here, the adverb is a prepositional
phrase.)

What Are Adverbial Phrases? (with Examples)

Adverbial phrase is the term for two or more words which play the role of an adverb. Look at
these examples:

 I will sit quietly.

(normal adverb)

 I will sit in silence.

(adverbial phrase)

 I will sit like a monk meditates.

(adverbial clause)
(When the multi-word adverb contains a subject and a verb (like in this example), it is
an adverbial clause as opposed to an adverbial phrase.)
In the examples above, all the adverbs tell us how the person will sit. They are all adverbs of
manner. When used to modify a verb, an adverb (including an adverbial phrase and an
adverbial clause) will usually describe when, where, or how something happens.

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 When (Adverbial Phrase of Time)
An adverbial phrase of time states when something happens or how often. For example:

 I'll do it in a minute.
 After the game, the king and pawn go into the same box. (Italian Proverb)
 Do not wait for the last judgment. It takes place every day. (Albert Camus)

Where (Adverbial Phrase of Place)

An adverbial phrase of place states where something happens. For example:

 I used to work in a fire-hydrant factory. You couldn't park anywhere near the place. (Steven
Wright)
 Opera is when a guy gets stabbed in the back and, instead of bleeding, he sings. (Ed
Gardner)

How (Adverbial Phrase of Manner)

An adverbial phrase of manner states how something is done. For example:

 He would always talk with a nationalistic tone.

 He sings in a low register.
 People who say they sleep like a baby usually don't have one. (Leo J. Burke)

What Are Adverbial Clauses? (with Examples)

An adverbial clause is a group of words which plays the role of an adverb. (Like all clauses, an
adverbial clause will contain a subject and a verb.) For example:

 Keep hitting the gong hourly.

(normal adverb)

 Keep hitting the gong until I tell you to stop.

(adverbial clause)
In the examples above, the normal adverb and adverbial clause both tell us when the gong is to
be hit. They are both adverbs of time. All adverbs (including adverbial clauses) can usually be
categorized as one of the following:

Adverbs of Time
An adverb of time states when something happens or how often. An adverb of time often starts
with one of the following subordinating conjunctions: after, as, as long as, as soon as, before, no
sooner than, since, until, when, or while. Here are some examples:

 After the game has finished, the king and pawn go into the same box. (Italian Proverb)

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 I stopped believing in Santa Claus when my mother took me to see him in a department
store, and he asked for my autograph. (Shirley Temple)
 As soon as you trust yourself, you will know how to live. (Johann Wolfgang von Goethe)

Adverbs of Place
An adverb of place states where something happens. An adverb of place often starts with a
preposition (e.g., in, on, near) or one of the following subordinating
conjunctions: anywhere, everywhere, where, or wherever. Here are some examples:

 In a world where there is so much to be done, I felt strongly impressed that there must be
something for me to do. (Dorothea Dix)
 I am not afraid of the pen, the scaffold, or the sword. I will tell the truth wherever I please.
(Mother Jones)

Adverbs of Manner
An adverb of manner states how something is done. An adverb of manner often starts with one
of the following subordinating conjunctions: as, like, or the way. Here are some examples:

 He acts like it is a joke.

 We don't have conversations. You talk at me the way a teacher talks to a naughty student.
 Except for an occasional heart attack, I feel as young as I ever did. (Robert Benchley)

Adverbs of Degree or Comparison

An adverb of degree states to what degree something is done or offers a comparison. An
adverb of degree often starts with one of the following subordinating
conjunctions: than, as...as, so...as, or the...the. Here are some examples:

 A vacuum is a hell of a lot better than some of the stuff that nature replaces it with.
(Tennessee Williams)
 He is as smart as he is tall.
 She is not so bright as she thinks she is.

Sometimes, the verb in an adverb of degree is understood (i.e., not present). For example:

 You are taller than I.

(In this example, the verb am has been omitted. This is permissible.)

 You are taller than I am.

(This is the full version.)

 You are taller than me.

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 (This is the colloquial version. This version might irk some of your grammar-savvy readers,
but it is acceptable.)
Read more about choosing between than I and than me.

Adverbs of Condition
An adverb of condition states the condition for the main idea to come into effect. An adverb of
condition often starts with if or unless. Here are some examples:

 If the facts don't fit the theory, change the facts. (Albert Einstein)
 If the English language made any sense, a catastrophe would be an apostrophe with fur.
(Doug Larson)
 If all the rich people in the world divided up their money among themselves, there wouldn't
be enough to go around. (Christina Stead, 1903-1983)

Adverbs of Concession
An adverb of concession offers a statement which contrasts with the main idea. An adverb of
concession often starts with one of the following subordinating
conjunctions: though, although, even though, while, whereas, or even if. Here are some
examples:

 Although golf was originally restricted to wealthy, overweight Protestants, today it's open to
anybody who owns hideous clothing. (Dave Barry)
 A loud voice cannot compete with a clear voice, even if it's a whisper. (Barry Neil Kaufman)

Adverbs of Reason
An adverb of reason offers a reason for the main idea. An adverb of reason often starts with one
of the following subordinating conjunctions: as, because, given, or since. Here are some
examples:

 I don't have a bank account, because I don't know my mother's maiden name. (Paula
Poundstone)
 Since you are like no other being ever created since the beginning of time, you are
incomparable. (Brenda Ueland)

Properties of an Adverbial Clause

Here are the properties of an adverbial clause:

 An adverbial clause is an adjunct. This means it can be removed without the sentence
being grammatically wrong.
 An adverbial clause is a dependent clause. This means it cannot stand alone as meaningful
sentence in its own right.
 An adverbial clause usually starts with a subordinating
conjunction (e.g., although, because, if, until, when)

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 An adverbial clause will contain a subject and a verb. (This is what makes it a clause as
opposed to a phrase.)

Adverbs of Place
An adverb of place tells us where an action occurs. For example:

 Daisies grow everywhere.

 I did not put it there.
 I did not put it in the box.

(Remember, an adverb can be more than one word.)

Adverbs of Manner
An adverb of manner tells us how an action occurs. For example:

 He passed the re-sit easily.

 The lion crawled stealthily.
 The lion crawled like an escaped convict.

Adverbs of Degree
An adverb of degree tells us to what degree action occurs. For example:

 That is the farthest I have ever jumped.

 He boxed more cleverly.

Forming Comparatives and Superlatives from Adverbs

The rules for forming comparatives and superlatives from adverbs are varied.

Comparatives of Adverbs
Here are some examples of comparatives of adverbs:

 The goat can see better than you think.

(better — comparative of well)

 Try to paint the edges more carefully; it will save time later.

(more carefully — comparative of carefully)

 He tries harder than most, but he has no aptitude for languages.

(harder — comparative of hard)

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 The engine operates less efficiently with alcohol.

(less efficiently — comparative of efficiently)

Superlatives of Adverbs
Here are some examples of superlatives of adverbs:

 I have found that the office runs best with the radio on and the heating down.

(best — superlative of well)

 The gift is most gratefully received.

(most gratefully: superlative of gratefully)

 It was obvious that they were not used to high heels, but Karen moved least gracefully of
all.

(least gracefully — superlative of gracefully)

 She answered most abruptly .

(most abruptly: superlative of abruptly)

In general, comparatives and superlatives of adverbs do not cause difficulties for native English
speakers. However, the mistake of using a double comparative or a double superlative is fairly
common in speech. This error is more common with the comparatives and superlatives of
adjectives, but is occasionally seen with adverbs too.

Forming Comparatives and Superlatives from Adverbs

The table below shows the rules for forming comparatives and superlatives from adverbs:

Type of Adverb Example of Type How to Form the How to Form the
of Adverb Comparative Superlative
One Syllable add er add est
fast faster fastest
hard harder hardest
More Than One carefully add less or more add most or least
Syllable more carefully most carefully
Irregular no rules no rules
badly worse worst
well better best

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What Are Conjunctions?

Conjunctions are used to join words or groups of words together. The word conjunction comes
from the Latin conjuntio, which means conjoin. Many words are classified as conjunctions, but
the following three are the most common conjunctions by far:

And, but, or

Types of Conjunctions

Conjunctions can be categorized into one of three groupings:

Coordinating Conjunctions

Coordinating conjunctions are the ones that spring to mind when people think about
conjunctions. They include:

And, but, or, nor, for, so, yet

Coordinating conjunctions are used to join individual words, phrases, and independent clauses.

Coordinating Conjunctions Joining Individual Words:

Jamie, Adam, and Lee arranged to meet by The Bull at 7 o'clock.

It is a small but practical kitchen.

Coordinating Conjunctions Joining Individual Phrases:

The finance manager or his new deputy from Holland will notify you when the report is ready to
send.

John or his new deputy from Holland will notify you when the report is ready to send.

(You can join a mix of words and phrases with a coordinating conjunction. Here, the
conjunction or groups the word John and the phrase his new deputy from Holland.)

Coordinating Conjunctions Joining Individual Clauses:

A little sincerity is a dangerous thing, and a great deal of it is absolutely

fatal. (Oscar Wilde)

(Here, the conjunction and joins two independent clauses.)

We are all in the gutter, but some of us are looking at the stars. (Oscar Wilde)

History will be kind to me, for I intend to write it. (Winston Churchill)

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 The word coordinating means of equal rank. Usually, the elements joined by a coordinating
conjunction are of equal rank. It is unusual, but possible, to see a mix of these groups joined by
a coordinating conjunction.

Correlative Conjunctions

Correlative conjunctions appear in pairs. They include:

Either...or, neither...nor, whether...or, not only...but also

This man is either dead or my watch has stopped. (Groucho Marx)

Subordinating Conjunctions

Subordinating conjunctions include:

After, although, as, because, before, if, once, since, than, that, though, till, until, when,
where, whether, while

They are used to show the relationship between an independent clause a dependent clause.

Keep your hand on the wound until the nurse asks you to take it off.

Personally I'm always ready to learn, although I do not always like being taught. Sir Winston
Churchill (1874-1965)

We can't all be heroes because somebody has to sit on the curb and clap as they go by. Will
Rogers (1879-1935)

Common Errors with Conjunctions

Conjunctions do not normally cause serious errors, but writers are sometimes confused about
when to place a comma before a conjunction. Unfortunately, there is no simple rule, such as:
Never put a comma before and.

The guidelines are explained in the lesson Conjunctions and Commas.

Comma before And in a List?

Most lists look like this:

 Thing, another thing, another thing, and the final thing.

The conjunction sits before the final thing. In this case, it's the word and. The big question is
whether the comma before the and is right or wrong.

When there are just two list items, there is no need for a comma before the conjunction. For
example:

19
 Thing and the final thing.

(No comma is required because it is a list containing just two list items.)
Here's a real example:

 I know George and Toby.

(No comma required before the and.)

The whole world is agreed on not needing a comma with just two list items.

However, when there are more than two list items, the world is divided on whether there should
be a comma. There is no right answer. You have to pick a convention and stick with it.

The comma before the conjunction is called an Oxford Comma. Some people consider the
Oxford Comma to be a waste of ink, while others strongly campaign for its inclusion. In general
terms, the Oxford Comma is more common in the US than it is in the UK (despite it being called
the Oxford Comma).

Followers of the Oxford Comma Avoiders of the Oxford Comma

(generally Americans) (generally Brits)
 I went to the shop for eggs and butter.  I went to the shop for eggs and butter.

(There is no need for a comma with just (There is no need for a comma with just
two list items.) two list items.)

 She went to the shop for eggs, milk, and
butter.
 She went to the shop for eggs, milk and
butter.
 Carl, David, and Sarah were all there.
 Carl, David and Sarah were all there.
 She went to the shop for eggs, milk, and
butter.
 She went to the shop for eggs, milk and
butter.
 Carl, David, and Sarah were all there.
 Carl, David and Sarah were all there.

There is another quirk. On occasion, it may be appropriate to use a comma with the conjunction
in a simple list (even a list with just two list items). This could be for the sake of tidiness or to
eliminate ambiguity. For example:

 The news will be shown after Dangermouse, and Rug Rats.

(Without the comma, people could think that Dangermouse and Rug Rats is one
programme.)

 The train will stop at Harrow, Pinner, Watford, and Bushey.

20
 (Watford and Bushey could be one place, like Bath and Wells.)

 The emblem is an amalgamation of the British and Irish flags, the

Stars and Stripes, and the Hammer and Sickle.

(The word and appears lots of times in this example. The comma before the and makes it
easier for the reader to identify

Using Commas in Lists

When there are two items in a list, there is no need to separate the list items with a comma. For
example:

 Bread and cheese

 London and New York

The last item in a list is usually preceded by a conjunction. The two most commonly seen in lists
are and and or. (The conjunction andfeatures in both examples above.)

When there are more than two items, the situation gets more complicated. Generally speaking,
in the UK, writers tend not put a comma before the conjunction. In the US, however, writers tend
to use a comma.

This delineation between UK and US is very general — there are plenty of organizations in both
countries that do not adhere to this.

The Oxford Comma

When a comma is used before the conjunction in a list, it is known as an Oxford Comma. Some
people (mostly, but not exclusively, Brits) consider the Oxford Comma to be a waste of ink,
while others (mostly, but not exclusively, Americans) strongly campaign for its inclusion. There
really is no rule. You should follow whatever convention your company follows. If you don't have
a company convention, then copy the convention used in a decent national newspaper. If you're
free to make your own mind up, then pick a convention and be consistent. (That is the golden
rule.)

 Bread, milk and cheese ( or those who don't use the Oxford Comma)
 Bread, milk, and cheese ( or those who do use the Oxford Comma)
 London, Paris and New York ( or those who don't use the Oxford Comma)
 London, Paris and New York ( or those who do use the Oxford Comma)

Followers of the Oxford Comma Avoiders of the Oxford Comma

(generally Americans) (generally Brits)
 I visited New York and London.  I visited New York and London.

21
 (There is no need for a comma with just (There is no need for a comma with just
two list items.) two list items.)

 I visited New York, Paris, and London.  I visited New York, Paris, and London.
 I visited New York, Paris and London.  I visited New York, Paris and London.

There is another consideration. Sometimes, it is appropriate to break whatever convention

you're following for the sake of clarity — even in a list with just two list items. For example:

 The news will be shown after Dangermouse, and Rug Rats.

(Without the comma, people could think that Dangermouse and Rug Rats is one
programme.)

 The train will stop at Harrow, Pinner, Watford, and Bushey.

(Watford and Bushey could be one place, like Bath and Wells.)

 The emblem is an amalgamation of the British and Irish flags, the Stars and Stripes, and
the Hammer and Sickle.

(The word and appears lots of times in this example. The comma before the and makes it
easier for the reader to identify the last list item.)

Using Lots of Adjectives (Enumeration of Adjectives)

Especially in creative writing, there is a need to use several adjectives. The rules about using
commas in a list of adjectives are far more relaxed. For example:

For TWO adjectives:

 vast, inhospitable moor (with a comma)

 vast and inhospitable moor (with and)
 vast inhospitable moor (with nothing)

For THREE or more adjectives:

 vast, inhospitable, windy moor (commas between)

 vast, inhospitable and windy moor
(comma(s) between and then and )

(With this style, follow your convention; i.e., put a comma before and if you advocate
the Oxford Comma.)

22
 vast inhospitable windy moor (nothing between)
 vast inhospitable and windy moor (nothing and then and)

In short, you cannot go wrong with two adjectives and using three is rare. (Lining up adjectives
in a row is called enumeration of adjectives.)

Comma before And

This page is about when to use a comma before a conjunction (i.e., a word like and, or,
and but).

Unfortunately, there is no simple rule like: always use a comma before and or never use a
comma before and.

Use a Comma to Join Two Independent Clauses

When two standalone sentences (or independent clauses) are joined together using
a conjunction (e.g., and, but, or), the conjunction should be preceded by a comma.

Examples (the conjunctions are shaded):

 Our team was given 2 minutes' notice, but theirs had been training for weeks.

(When two complete "sentences" are merged into one using a conjunction, the conjunction
should be preceded by a comma.)

 I have spoken to Sarah, and she has confirmed the delivery date.

("I have spoken to Sarah." + "She has confirmed the delivery date". The conjunction and is
correctly preceded by a comma.)

 I have spoken to Sarah, and confirmed the delivery date.

("I have spoken to Sarah." + "confirmed the delivery date".

The conjunction and should not be preceded by a comma in this example
because confirmed the delivery date is not a complete sentence, i.e., it is not an
independent clause. This is just a list with two list items: spoken to Sarah and confirmed the
delivery date.)

 We eventually found the cave, but Jack was not there.

 We built the hut in an hour and then painted it.

(This is correct with no comma.)

Don't Use a Comma to Join Two List Items

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 When there are two items in a list, there is no need to separate the list items with a comma.

Examples:

 Fish and chips

 She would only eat ham and eggs.
 I have never been to London, or Paris.

(With two list items, there is no need for the comma.)

With Three List Items, Use a Comma If You're an American (or an Advocate for the
Oxford Comma)
When there are three or more list items, things start to get complicated. There a two
conventions. Generally speaking (more on this below), Americans will use a comma, but Brits
won't.

Examples:

 Fish, chips, and peas ( )

 Fish, chips, and peas ( )
 Fish, chips and peas ( )
 I have never been to London, New York, or Paris. ( ) ( )

The comma before a conjunction in a list is called an Oxford Comma. Be aware that – despite
the national conventions outlined above – lots of Brits use it, and lots of Americans omit it. So,
the national conventions explained above are not strictly followed in either country. There are
also times when you should break whatever convention you're following to make your text
clearer.

The Oxford Comma causes great debate amongst grammarians. The bottom line is this: use
the convention that will least annoy your boss (or readers) and then be consistent
throughout your document.

Using a Semicolon before And, But, and Or

When a conjunction (e.g., and, but, or) merges two sentences into one, it should be preceded
by a comma. (This is covered in the lesson on commas before conjunctions.)

However, if one (or both) of the sentences (or independent clauses as they're really called)
already contains a comma (or commas), then a semicolon can be used instead of a comma to
outrank the commas within those clauses.

(Note: Using a semicolon in this way is quite an outdated practice. However, you can still use a
semicolon if you think it makes things clearer for your readers.)

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 Examples:

 In the '60s, there were dozens of buzzards along the 7-mile trek; but, due to the decline in
vermin, only 2 adults live in the area at present.

(This sentence is made up of two independent clauses: In the '60s, there were dozens of
buzzards along the 7-mile trek. +Due to the decline in vermin, only 2 adults live in the area
at present.
As these clauses both contain commas, it is possible to use a semicolon before the
conjunction that merges them into a single sentence. Remember though, it would be far
more common to use a comma and not a semicolon.)

 Mark, Dawn, and Sally adore boiled spare ribs; but Julia, a staunch vegetarian, leaves the
room when they are on the menu.

(Here, it is acceptable to use a semicolon before but. However, using a comma would be
far more common.)

What Are Interjections?

Interjections are words used to express strong feeling or sudden emotion. They are included in
a sentence (usually at the start) to express a sentiment such as surprise, disgust, joy,
excitement, or enthusiasm.

An interjection is not grammatically related to any other part of the sentence.

Examples of interjections (shaded):

 Hey! Get off that floor!

 Oh, that is a surprise.
 Good! Now we can move on.
 Jeepers, that was close.

Yes and No
Introductory expressions such as yes, no, indeed, and well are also classed as interjections.

Examples:

 Indeed, this is not the first time the stand has collapsed.
 Yes, I do intend to cover the bet.
 I'm sure I don't know half the people who come to my house. Indeed, for all I hear, I
shouldn't like to. (Oscar Wilde)
 Well, it's 1 a.m. Better go home and spend some quality time with the kids. (Homer
Simpson)

25
 Phew!
Some interjections are sounds.

Examples:

 Phew! I am not trying that again.

 Humph! I knew that last week.
 Mmmm, my compliments to the chef.
 Ah! Don't say you agree with me. When people agree with me, I always feel that I must be
wrong. (Oscar Wilde)

Nouns
A noun is a word for a person, place, or thing. (You might like to think of nouns as "naming"
words.) Everything we can see or talk about is represented by a word that names it. That
"naming" word is called a noun.

Often a noun will be the name for something we can touch (e.g., lion, cake, computer), but
sometimes a noun will be the name for something we cannot touch (e.g., bravery, mile, joy).

Everything is represented by a word that lets us talk about it. This includes people (e.g., man,
scientist), animals (e.g., dog, lizard), places (e.g., town, street), objects (e.g., vase, pencil),
substances (e.g., copper, glass), qualities (e.g., heroism, sorrow), actions (e.g., swimming,
dancing), and measures (e.g., inch, ounce).

Examples of Nouns
Here are some more examples of nouns:

 soldier, Alan, cousin, Frenchman (These are nouns representing people.)

 rat, zebra, lion, aardvark (These are nouns representing animals.)
 house, London, factory, shelter (These are nouns representing places.)
 table, frame, printer, chisel (These are nouns representing objects.)
 lead, nitrogen, water, ice (These are nouns representing substances.)
 kindness, beauty, bravery, wealth, faith (These are nouns representing qualities.)
 rowing, cooking, barking, reading, listening (These are nouns representing actions.)
 month, inch, day, pound, ounce (These are nouns representing measures.)

Common Nouns and Proper Nouns

A noun can be categorized as either a common noun or a proper noun.

A common noun is the word used for a class of person, place, or thing (e.g., person, city, dog).

A proper noun is the given name of a person, place or thing, i.e., its own name (e.g., Michael,
New York, Rover). (Note: A proper noun always starts with a capital letter.)

26
 Here are some more examples of common nouns and proper nouns:

Common Noun Proper Noun

Boy David
Sailor Adam
Lawyer Sarah
mother-in-law Janice
Town Milton Keynes
Bridge The Golden Gate Bridge
Tower Eifel Tower
Street Honeysuckle Crescent
Cat Fido
Monkey Bonzo

Capital Letters for Proper Nouns

Use capital letters for the names of people, places, planets, days of the week, titles of rank or
relationship (when joined to person’s name, e.g., Sergeant Smith, Uncle Fred), months,
holidays, departments, clubs, companies, institutions, bridges, buildings, monuments, parks,
ships, hotels, streets, historical events, and documents. These are known as proper nouns.)

Do not use a capital letter for a common noun, unless it starts a sentence. A common noun is
the word we use for something, e.g., dog, ship, auntie. Common nouns contrast with proper
nouns, which are specific names or titles, e.g., Rover, Titanic, Auntie Sally.

Examples Showing When to Use Capital Letters

In the examples below, the proper nouns (i.e., the names or titles) are in bold.

 The next lake the party visited was Lake Michigan.

(The word lake is a common noun. It is the word for an in-land water feature.
Lake Michigan is a proper noun. It is the name of the lake.)

 According to Lord Davies, The Church in London is not actually a church but a public
house. (The Church is a proper noun. The word church is a common noun.)
 It was a rewarding day, and I intend to visit here again on Armistice Day next year.
(The word day is a common noun. Armistice Day is a proper noun.)
 Could you ask Sergeant Allan or the other sergeant to arrange the patrol
on Friday morning? (Sergeant Allan is a proper noun. The word sergeant is a common
noun.)

The Different Types of Nouns

27
 A noun can usually be further categorized depending on its meaning (e.g., Is it something
tangible?) or its structure (e.g., Is it made up of more than one word?).

Below is a list of the different types of nouns with examples:

Abstract Nouns
Abstract nouns are things you cannot see or touch. For example:

 bravery
 joy
 determination

Collective Nouns
Collective nouns are words that denote groups. For example:

 team
 choir
 pack

Collective nouns can be treated as singular or plural. It depends on the sense of your sentence.
For example:

 The team is scheduled to arrive at 4 o'clock.

 The team are wearing different novelty hats.

Compound Nouns
Compound nouns are nouns made up of more than one word. For example:

 court-martial
 pickpocket
 water bottle

Some compound nouns are hyphenated, some are not, and some combine their words to form
a single word.

Concrete Nouns
Concrete nouns are things you can see or touch. For example:

 tree
 hammer
 cloud

Non-countable Nouns

28
 Non-countable nouns (or mass nouns) are things you cannot count. For example:

 food
 music
 water

Gender-specific Nouns
Gender-specific nouns are nouns that are definitely male or female. For example:

 king
 vixen
 actress

Verbal Nouns
Verbal nouns are nouns derived from verbs. (Verbal nouns have no verb-like properties.) For
example (verbal nouns shown in bold):

 a good building
 a fine drawing
 an effective attack

In the examples above, the verbal nouns are shown with adjectives to differentiate them from
gerunds (which are often confused with verbal nouns). Gerunds are modified with adverbs not
adjectives.

Gerunds
Gerunds are nouns that end -ing and that represent actions. (Gerunds have verb-like
properties.) For example (gerunds shown in bold):

 happily building a tower

 quickly drawing the scene
 suddenly attacking the enemy

In the examples above, the gerunds are shown with adverbs and direct objects to differentiate
them from verbal nouns (which are often confused with gerunds).

Prepositions
A preposition is a word (often a short word) that expresses the relationship between two other
nearby words. In the examples below, each preposition (highlighted) shows us the relationship
between the word book and the word wizard.

 The book about the wizard

 The book by the wizard

29
 The book near the wizard
 The book behind the wizard
 The book under the wizard

The Role of a Preposition

A preposition precedes a noun (or a pronoun) to show the noun's (or the pronoun's) relationship
to another word in the sentence. In the examples above, the preposition preceded the
noun wizard to show that noun's relationship with the noun book.

Here are some more examples:

 It is a container for butter. (The preposition for shows the relationship

between butter and container.)
 The eagle soared above the clouds. (The preposition above shows the relationship
between cloudsand soared.)
 He is the President of the United States. (The preposition of shows the relationship
between the United States and President.)

List of Common Prepositions

Here is a list of common prepositions:

above, about, across, against, along, among, around, at, before, behind, below, beneath,
beside, between, beyond, by, down, during, except, for, from, in, inside, into, like, near,
of, off, on, since, to, toward, through, under, until, up, upon, with and within.

A Good Way to Think about Prepositions

When you're first learning about prepositions, it is useful to think about prepositions
as anywhere a mouse could go.

This works because lots of prepositions show the relationship between two words by expressing
their location relative to each other (e.g., on, near, behind, under, inside).

Origin of the Word Preposition

The word preposition comes from the idea of being positioned before.

Object of a Preposition

The word (or words) that follows a preposition is called the object of a preposition. If there is a
preposition, there will always be an object of the preposition. A preposition cannot exist by itself.

What Are Objective Personal Pronouns? (with Examples)

30
 The objective personal pronouns are me, you, him, her, it, us, them, and whom.

Objective personal pronouns are used when they are:

 A direct object (e.g., I saw her.)

 An indirect object (e.g., Give him a chance.)
 The object of a preposition (e.g., Sit next to them.)

Objective personal pronouns are personal pronouns in the objective case. The objective case
contrasts with the subjective case, which is used to show the subject of a verb. For example:

 They know him. (They is the subjective case. Him is the objective case.)
 He knows them. (He is the subjective case. Them is the objective case.)

Examples of Objective Personal Pronouns As Direct Objects

Here are some examples of objective personal pronouns as direct objects:

 Democracy is the name we give the people whenever we need them.

 To obtain a man's opinion of you, make him mad. (Oliver Wendell Holmes, 1809-1894)

(In this example, you is also an objective personal pronoun. It's an object of preposition.
See below.)

 I'm a godmother. That's a great thing to be, a godmother. She calls me God for short.
That's cute. I taught her that. (Ellen DeGeneres)

(In this example, her is also an objective personal pronoun. It's an indirect object. See
below.)

What Is a Direct Object? (with Examples)

The direct object of a verb is the thing being acted upon (i.e., the receiver of the action).

Examples of Direct Objects

Here are some examples of direct objects (shaded):

 Play the guitar.

 Every actor played his part.
 The crowd will cheer the President.
 We can climb the hill and fly the kite.

How to Find the Direct Object of a Sentence

31
 You can find the direct object by finding the verb and asking what? (or whom?). For example:

 She fed the cat.

(Step 1. Find the verb = fed)

(Step 2. Ask What? = the cat)
(Therefore, the direct object is the cat.)

 Craig will read the book tomorrow.

(Step 1. Find the verb = will read)

(Step 2. Ask What? = the book)
(Therefore, the direct object is the book.)

Phrases and Clauses Can Be Direct Objects

The tip above also works when the direct object is a phrase or a clause. For example:

 She thought that the contract had ended.

(Step 1. Find the verb = thought)

(Step 2. Ask What? = that the contract had ended)
(Therefore, the direct object is that the contract had ended.)

 The constable described what he saw at the scene.

(Step 1. Find the verb = described)

(Step 2. Ask What? = what he saw at the scene)
(Therefore, the direct object is what he saw at the scene.)

 Toby loves cooking scones.

32
 (Step 1. Find the verb = loves)
(Step 2. Ask What? = cooking scones)
(Therefore, the direct object is cooking scones.)

 The cat wants to eat our goldfish.

(Step 1. Find the verb = wants)

(Step 2. Ask What? = to eat our goldfish)
(Therefore, the direct object is to eat our goldfish.)
(Note: This direct object has its own verb with its own direct object. (Question: to eat what?
Answer: our goldfish.))

Only Transitive Verbs Have Direct Objects

When a verb has a direct object, it is called a transitive verb. Some verbs do not have a direct
object. They are known as intransitive verbs. For example:

 Malcolm fell very badly.

(Step 1. Find the verb = fell)

(Step 2. Ask What? = Nothing. You can't fall something.)
(Therefore, there is no direct object. The verb to fall is intransitive.)

 Joan is sleeping at the moment.

(Step 1. Find the verb = sleeping)

(Step 2. Ask What? = Nothing. You can't sleep something.)
(Therefore, there is no direct object. The verb to sleep is intransitive.)

Do Not Confuse Complements with Direct Objects

If you ask what? with a linking verb, you will find a verb complement not a direct object. For
example:

 Peter is happy.

(Step 1. Find the verb = is)

(Step 2. Ask What? = happy.)
(However, on this occasion, happy is not the direct object. This is because is (i.e., the verb
to be) is a linking verb.)

What Is an Indirect Object? (with Examples)

The indirect object of a sentence is the recipient of the direct object. Every sentence must
contain a verb. Most verbs have a direct object(the thing being acted upon). For example:

33
 Paula passed the parcel.

(The direct object is the parcel. There is no recipient in this sentence. Therefore, there is no
indirect object.)
Some sentences tell us about the recipient. That's the indirect object. For example:

 Paula passed her father the parcel. (The indirect object (i.e., the recipient) is her father.)

Examples of Indirect Objects

Here are some examples of indirect objects (shaded):

 Simon gave his uncle a dirty look.

(his uncle - indirect object)

 Paula passed the money to her father.

(her father - indirect object)

(Note: Sometimes, the indirect object will follow a preposition like to or for.)

 Let him have it.

(him - indirect object)

(Note: When the indirect object is a pronoun, the pronoun must be in the objective case.)

 Shall I tell the children our ghost story tonight?

(the children - indirect object)

How to Find the Indirect Object

Before you can find the indirect object, you have to find the direct object. You can find the direct
object by finding the verb and asking what?. Once you've found the direct object, ask who or
what received it? For example:

 She gave the beggar a gold coin.

(Step 1. Find the verb = gave)

(Step 2. Ask What? = a gold coin)
(Therefore, the direct object is a gold coin.)
(Step 3. Ask Who (or what) received it? = the beggar)
(Therefore, the indirect object is the beggar.)
Remember, once you have found the direct object, you have to ask who (or what) received it to
find the indirect object.

34
 Only Transitive Verbs Have Direct Objects and Indirect Objects
A verb that takes a direct object is called a transitive verb. A few verbs do not have a direct
object. They are known as intransitive verbs. For example:

 Jonathan skidded on the ice.

(Step 1. Find the verb = skidded)

(Step 2. Ask What? = Nothing. You can't skid something.)
(Therefore, there is no direct object. The verb to skid is intransitive.)

 Lee is snoring heavily.

(Step 1. Find the verb = is snoring)

(Step 2. Ask What? = Nothing. You can't snore something.)
(Therefore, there is no direct object. The verb to snore is intransitive.)

Do Not Confuse Complements with Direct Objects

If you ask what? with a linking verb, you will find a verb complement not a direct object. For
example:

 Johnathan was angry.

(Step 1. Find the verb = was)

(Step 2. Ask What? = angry.)
(However, on this occasion, angry is not the direct object. This is because was (i.e., the
verb to be) is a linking verb.)

 Johnathan seemed uncomfortable.

(Step 1. Find the verb = seemed)

(Step 2. Ask What? = uncomfortable.)
(However, uncomfortable is not the direct object. This is because to seem is a linking verb.)

What Is an Indirect Object? (with Examples)

The indirect object of a sentence is the recipient of the direct object. Every sentence must
contain a verb. Most verbs have a direct object(the thing being acted upon). For example:

 Paula passed the parcel.

(The direct object is the parcel. There is no recipient in this sentence. Therefore, there is no
indirect object.)
Some sentences tell us about the recipient. That's the indirect object. For example:

35
 Paula passed her father the parcel. (The indirect object (i.e., the recipient) is her father.)

Examples of Indirect Objects

Here are some examples of indirect objects (shaded):

 Simon gave his uncle a dirty look. (his uncle - indirect object)
 Paula passed the money to her father. (her father - indirect object)
(Note: Sometimes, the indirect object will follow a preposition like to or for.)
 Let him have it. (him - indirect object)
(Note: When the indirect object is a pronoun, the pronoun must be in the objective case.)
 Shall I tell the children our ghost story tonight? (the children - indirect object)

How to Find the Indirect Object

Before you can find the indirect object, you have to find the direct object. You can find the direct
object by finding the verb and asking what?. Once you've found the direct object, ask who or
what received it? For example:

 She gave the beggar a gold coin.

(Step 1. Find the verb = gave)

(Step 2. Ask What? = a gold coin)
(Therefore, the direct object is a gold coin.)
(Step 3. Ask Who (or what) received it? = the beggar)
(Therefore, the indirect object is the beggar.)
Remember, once you have found the direct object, you have to ask who (or what) received it to
find the indirect object.

Only Transitive Verbs Have Direct Objects and Indirect Objects

A verb that takes a direct object is called a transitive verb. A few verbs do not have a direct
object. They are known as intransitive verbs. For example:

 Jonathan skidded on the ice.

(Step 1. Find the verb = skidded)

(Step 2. Ask What? = Nothing. You can't skid something.)
(Therefore, there is no direct object. The verb to skid is intransitive.)

 Lee is snoring heavily.

(Step 1. Find the verb = is snoring)

(Step 2. Ask What? = Nothing. You can't snore something.)
(Therefore, there is no direct object. The verb to snore is intransitive.)

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 Do Not Confuse Complements with Direct Objects
If you ask what? with a linking verb, you will find a verb complement not a direct object. For
example:

 Johnathan was angry.

(Step 1. Find the verb = was)

(Step 2. Ask What? = angry.)
(However, on this occasion, angry is not the direct object. This is because was (i.e., the
verb to be) is a linking verb.)

 Johnathan seemed uncomfortable.

(Step 1. Find the verb = seemed)

(Step 2. Ask What? = uncomfortable.)
(However, uncomfortable is not the direct object. This is because to seem is a linking verb.)

Examples of Objective Personal Pronouns As the Objects of Prepositions

Here are some examples of objective personal pronouns as the objects
of prepositions (prepositions in bold):

 All the world's a stage and most of us are desperately unrehearsed. (Sean O'Casey, 1880-
1964)
 To obtain a man's opinion of you, make him mad. (Oliver Wendell Holmes, 1809-1894)

(In this example, him is also an objective personal pronoun. It's a direct object. See above.)

 Whenever I hear anyone arguing for slavery, I feel a strong impulse to see it
tried on him personally. (Abraham Lincoln, 1809-1865)

What Is the Object of a Preposition? (with Examples)

The object of a preposition is the noun or pronoun governed by a preposition.

The object of a preposition is usually (but not always) the noun or pronoun immediately to the
right of the preposition.

Examples of Objects of Prepositions

Here are some examples of objects of prepositions. In the examples below, the objects of
prepositions are shaded, and the prepositions are in bold.

 This is one small step for a man, one giant leap for mankind. (Neil Armstrong)

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 (The word a before man is a modifier. The object of a preposition is often accompanied by
modifiers that precede it or follow it.)

 The ants get in your ears when you are sleeping.

(The word your is a modifier.)

 Inside every cynical person, there is a disappointed idealist. (George Carlin)

(The words every and cynical are modifiers.)

 Are those biscuits on the table for the dogs?

(Note: The words the before table and dogs are modifiers. Remember, the object of a
preposition is the head noun (or pronoun) within the noun phrase or noun clause.)

 Half our life is spent trying to find something to do with the timewe have rushed through life
trying to save. (Will Rogers, 1879-1935)

(In this example, the preposition relates to the noun clause the time we have rushed
through life trying to save. The object of the preposition is time, which is the head noun.
The word the is modifier. The clause we have rushed through life trying to saveis also a
modifier. It's an adjective clause.)

 If you change the way you look at things, the things you look atchange. (Wayne Dyer)

(Remember, the object of a preposition does not always follow the preposition. This is the
case with the second things.)

Objects of Prepositions Are in the Objective Case

The noun or pronoun governed by a preposition is always in the objective case. In English, this
only affects pronouns. For example:

 Go with her. (The pronoun her is the objective case version of she.)
 Sit near them. (The pronoun them is the objective case version of they.)
 You want me to talk to whom? (The pronoun whom is the objective case version of who.)

Not All the Pronouns Change Their Forms

Objects (i.e., direct objects, indirect objects, and objects of prepositions) are always in the
objective case. In English, this only affects pronouns (but not all pronouns). Here is a table:

Subjective Pronoun Objective Pronoun Comment

I me
you you No change

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 He him
she her
It it No change
We us
they them
who whom More on who & whom

Prepositional Phrase
A prepositional phrase is made up of a preposition and the object of the preposition (including
any modifiers). Prepositional phrases are very common. They function as
either adjectives or adverbs. For example (prepositional phrases highlighted):

 It is a message from Mark.

(Here, the prepositional phrase from Mark is functioning like an adjective because it is
describing message.)

 Mark is trapped on the island.

(Here, the prepositional phrase on the island is functioning like an adverb because it is
modifying the verb is trapped.)

What Is a Prepositional Phrase? (with Examples)

A prepositional phrase is a phrase that starts with a preposition and ends with noun (or a
pronoun). For example:

It is a little bit more complicated than shown above because the noun can be anything that plays
the role of a noun. For example:

 from her (the "noun" is a pronoun)

 from sleeping (the noun is a gerund, i.e., a verbal noun)
 from the man across the street (the noun is a noun phrase)
 from what he said (the noun is a noun clause)

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 The words after the preposition (shown in bold above) are known as the object of a preposition.
There will often be modifiers in the object of the preposition making it a noun phrase. For
example:

 with John (There are no modifiers in this example. Compare it to the next example.)
 with the wonderful John (With the modifiers the and wonderful, the object of the
preposition is now a noun phrase.)

Here is another example:

 without trying (There are no modifiers in this example. The object of the preposition is a
noun. In this case, it's a gerund. Compare it to the next example.)
 without overly trying (With the modifier overly, the object of the preposition is a noun
phrase.)

Prepositional Phrases Function As Adjectives or Adverbs

Here are some more examples of prepositional phrases. In each example, the prepositional
phrase is shaded with the preposition in bold. Be aware that prepositional phrases function as
adjectives or adverbs.

Prepositional phrases functioning as adjectives:

 Please read the message from Lee.

(The prepositional phrase describes the noun message.)

 The man on the radio has a boring voice.

(The prepositional phrase describes the noun man.)

 May I see one of the brown ones? (The prepositional phrase describes the pronoun one.)

Prepositional phrases functioning as adverbs:

 Lee caught a small mackerel with utmost pride. (The prepositional phrase modifies the
verb caught. It is an adverb of manner; i.e., it tells us how he caught it.)
 Before the war, Lee played football for Barnstoneworth United. (The prepositional phrase
modifies the verb played. It is an adverb of time; i.e., it tells us when he played.)
 Lee is tired from the hike. (The prepositional phrase modifies the verb is. It is an adverb of
reason; i.e., it tells us why he is tired.)
 Lee lives in that fridge. (The prepositional phrase modifies the verb lives. It is an adverb of
place; i.e., it tells us where he lives.)

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 What Are Verbs?

A verb is a "doing" word. A verb can express:

 A physical action (e.g., to swim, to write, to climb).

 A mental action (e.g., to think, to guess, to consider).
 A state of being (e.g., to be, to exist, to appear).

Verbs Can Express Physical Actions

Here are some sentences with verbs that express physical actions. (In each example, the verb
is highlighted.)

 She sells pegs and lucky heather.

(In this example, the word sells is a verb. It expresses the physical activity to sell.)

 The doctor wrote the prescription.

(In this example, the word wrote is a verb. It expresses the physical activity to write.)

 Alison bought a ticket.

(The word bought is a verb. It expresses the physical activity to buy.)

Verbs Can Express Mental Actions

While many verbs express physical actions (e.g., to jump, to dance, to sing), verbs can also
express mental actions. For example:

 She considers the job done.

(The word considers is a verb. It expresses the mental activity to consider.)

 Peter guessed the right number.

(The word guessed is a verb. It expresses the mental activity to guess.)

 I thought the same thing.

(The word thought is a verb. It expresses the mental activity to think.)

Verbs Can Express a State of Being

A small but extremely important group of verbs do not express any activity at all. The most
important verb in this group (arguably of all) is the verb to be.
Here is the verb to be in the different tenses:

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 Subject Verb to be
past tense present tense future tense
I was am will be
You were are will be
He / She / It was is will be
We were are will be
You were are will be
They were are will be

Here are some real examples with the verb to be:

 Edwina is the largest elephant in this area.

(The word is is a verb from the verb to be.)

 It was a joke.

(The word was is a verb from the verb to be.)

 I am.

(The word am is a verb from the verb to be.)

(Point of interest: I am is the shortest sentence in English.)

The Types of Verbs

As we've covered, a verb can be categorized as a physical verb (e.g., to run), a mental verb
(e.g., to think), or a state-of-being verb (e.g., to be). However, a verb will often be further
categorized as one of the following:

Action Verb
An action verb expresses an activity that a person or thing can do. For example:

 Lee eats cake.

(Eating is something Lee can do.)

 The bear chased the salmon in the shallow rapids.

(Chasing is something the bear can do.)

Compare those verbs with these:

 Lee likes cake.

(To like is not an activity. It's a state.)

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 The bear is hungry.

(To be is not an activity. It's a state.)

Stative Verb
A stative verb expresses a state rather than an action. A stative verb typically relates to a state
of being, a thought, or an emotion. For example:

 I am at home.
 She believes in fairies.
 He feels elated.

Transitive Verb
A transitive verb is one that acts on something (i.e., it has a direct object). For example:

 I saw the dog.

(Here, the direct object is the dog.)

 Lee ate the pie.

(Here, the direct object is the pie.)

 The postman will give Sarah the letter.

(Here, the direct object is the letter.)

Note: The direct object of a transitive verb can be found by finding the verb and asking "what?"
For example, "saw what?" (answer: the dog); "ate what?" (answer: the pie); "will give what?"
(answer: the letter).

What Are Transitive Verbs? (with Examples)

A transitive verb is a verb that can take a direct object. In other words, it is done to someone or
something. Most verbs are transitive.

A transitive verb contrasts with an intransitive verb. An intransitive verb cannot have a direct
object.

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 Here is an example of a transitive verb:

 He read a book.

(Read (from to read) is a transitive verb. In this example, the direct object is a book. To
read is transitive because you can read something. You can read a poem, a story, a face,
a horoscope, etc.)
Here is an example of an intransitive verb:

He snores.(Snores (from to snore) is an intransitive verb. It has no direct object. You cannot
snore something.)

Finding the Direct Object

Remember, to find a direct object of a transitive verb, first find the verb and then ask "what?" (or
"whom?").
(Note: If this question seems nonsensical, then you're probably dealing with an intransitive
verb.)

In each example below, the transitive verb is shaded and direct object is in bold.

 Lee loves pies.

(Q: Loves what? A: pies)

(The direct object is pies. To love is a transitive verb. It has a direct object.)

 Lee eats cakes.

(Q: Eats what? A: cakes)

(The direct object is cakes. To eat is a transitive verb. It has a direct object.)
Direct objects aren't usually single words. They are usually noun phrases. For example:

 Lee loves mince pies.

 Lee eats dozens of cakes.
 Mary saw the eagle two days after it escaped.
 As the clock struck midnight, all the toys opened their eyes.

(Q: Struck what? A: midnight)

(Note: A direct object does not have to be something tangible. If it answers the question
"what?" or "whom?" in relation to a verb, then it's a direct object. The word midnight is not
tangible, but it is a perfectly good direct object for the verb to strike.)
Compare the examples above to this intransitive verb:

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 They arrived after the party.

(Q: Arrived what? That doesn't make sense. You can't arrive something. Arrive is an
intransitive verb. It can't take a direct object.)

Examples of Transitive Verbs

Here are some more examples of transitive verbs. Remember, to prove they are transitive, find
the verb (shaded) and then ask "what?" or "whom?" to find the direct object (in bold).

 No amount of time can erase the memory of a good cat, and no amount of masking tape
can ever totally remove his furfrom your couch. (Leo Buscaglia, 1925-1998)

Transitive verbs are very common. They even appear inside the direct objects of other transitive
verbs. Look at these examples:

 I loathe people who keep dogs. They are cowards who haven't got the guts to bite
people themselves.

(Q: Loathe what? A: people who keep dogs)

(Q: Got what? A: the guts to bite people)

 I loathe people who keep dogs. They are cowards who haven't got the guts to
bite people themselves.

(Q: Keep what? A: dogs)

(Q: To bite what? A: people)

 You can't get eight cats to pull a sled through snow. (Jeff Valdez)

(Q: Can't get what? A: eight cats to pull a sled through snow)

 You can't get eight cats to pull a sled through snow.

(Q: To pull what? A: a sled)

Examples of Verbs Which Are Transitive and Intransitive

Some verbs can be transitive and intransitive. For example:

 Mark walks his dog for miles

(To walk is transitive.)

However, compare it to this:

 Mark walks for miles.

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 (As walks is not being done to anything, this verb is intransitive. Some verbs can be both
transitive and intransitive, depending on the precise meaning.)
Here is another example:

 The workers protested their innocence in the car park. (transitive)

 The workers protested in the car park. (intransitive)

Intransitive Verb
An intransitive verb is one that does not act on something (i.e., there is no direct object). For
example:

 The rain fell.

 My throat hurts.
 The cat sneezed.

What Is an Intransitive Verb? (with Examples)

An intransitive verb is one that does not take a direct object. In other words, it is not done to
someone or something. It only involves the subject.

The opposite of an intransitive verb is a transitive verb. A transitive verb can have a direct
object. For example:

 He laughed.

(Laughed is an intransitive verb. It has no direct object. You cannot laugh something.)

 He told a joke.

(Told is a transitive verb. The direct object is a joke. You can tell something. You can tell a
story, a lie, a joke, etc.)
Remember, you can find the direct object of a verb by reading the verb and then asking "what?"
(or "whom?"). If this question is not appropriate, then you're probably dealing with an intransitive
verb. For example (verbs in bold):

 He caught the bus after the party.

(Q: Caught what? A: the bus. This is a transitive verb. It has a direct object.)

 He disappeared after the party.

(Q: Disappeared what? That doesn't make sense. You can't disappear something. This is
an intransitive verb. It can't take a direct object.)

Examples of Intransitive Verbs

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 Here are some more examples of intransitive verbs:

 Every single person voted.

 The jackdaws roost in these trees.
 The crowd demonstrated outside the theatre.

(In this example, demonstrated is an intransitive verb. However, to demonstrate can be

used transitively too, e.g., He demonstrated a karate chop to the class.)

Examples of Verbs Which Are Transitive and Intransitive

Some verbs can be transitive and intransitive. For example:

 Mel walks for miles.

(As walks is not being done to anything, this verb is intransitive.)

However, compare it to this:

 Mel walks the dog for miles

(This time, walks does have a direct object (the dog). Therefore, it is transitive. Some verbs
can be both intransitive and transitive, depending on the precise meaning.)
Here is another example:

 The apes played in the woods.

(intransitive)

 The apes played hide and seek in the woods.

(transitive)
(Q: played what? A: hide and seek.)

Common Intransitive Verbs

Here is a list of common intransitive verbs:

Intransitive Verb Comment

to agree can also be transitive (e.g., to agree a point)
to play can also be transitive (e.g., to play a tune)
to run can also be transitive (e.g., to run a mile)
to walk can also be transitive (e.g., to walk the dog)
to eat can also be transitive (e.g., to eat a cake)
to appear
to arrive

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 to belong
to collapse
to collide
to die
to demonstrate can also be transitive (e.g., to demonstrate a skill)
to disappear
to emerge
to exist
to fall
to go
to happen
to laugh
to nest
to occur
to remain
to respond
to rise
to roost
to sit can also be transitive (e.g., to sit a child)
to sleep
to stand can also be transitive (e.g., to stand a lamp)
to vanish

Intransitive Verbs Do Not Have a Passive Form

As an intransitive verb cannot take a direct object, there is no passive form. For example:

 She fell.

(The verb fell (from to fall) is intransitive.)

 She was fallen.

(There is no passive version of to fall.)

Here is another example:

 The event happened at 6 o'clock.

(The verb happened (from to happen) is intransitive.)

 The event was happened at 6 o'clock.

(There is no passive version of to happen.)

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 Compare those two examples to one with a transitive verb:

 The man baked a cake.

(The verb baked (from to bake) is transitive.)

 A cake was baked by the man.

(You can have a passive version with a transitive verb.)

What Are Auxiliary Verbs? (with Examples)

An auxiliary verb (or a helping verb as it's also called) accompanies a main verb to help express
its tense, mood, or voice. The most common auxiliary verbs are be, do, and have. You will see
these in the following forms:

Be: am, is, are, was, were, being, been

Do: does, do, did
Have: has, have, had, having

Modal auxiliary verbs are also auxiliary verbs. They are can, could, may, might, must, ought
to, shall, should, will, and would. (These never change their forms.)

Examples of Auxiliary Verbs

Here are some examples of auxiliary verbs expressing tense (main verbs in bold):

 I have been sitting here since 7 o'clock.

 Sarah was waiting for the shark to reappear.
 John will have broken the record by then.

Here are some examples of auxiliary verbs expressing voice:

 Unfortunately, our dessert has been eaten by the dog.

 The phone will be disconnected tomorrow.

Here are some examples of auxiliary verbs being used to express mood:

 If he should arrive, tell him to leave.

 If he were to arrive in the next 10 minutes, we would still be on track.

Auxiliary Verbs and Verb Phrases

A verb phrase is made up of the auxiliary verb(s) and the main verb. In the examples below, the
verb phrase is shaded with main verb in bold:

 Rose has been drinking since breakfast.

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 Peter is taking you to the airport.

Be aware that any adverbs which appear alongside or inside the verb phrase are not part of the
verb phrase. For example:

 Rose has been drinking heavily since breakfast.

(The adverb heavily is not part of the verb phrase.)

 Peter is definitely taking you to the airport.

(The adverb definitely is not part of the verb phrase.)

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