Bachelor of Engineering (Electrical Power) Honours Research Project 2006 Variable Speed Constant Frequency Generating System For Small Hydro

Bachelor of Engineering (Electrical Power)
Honours Research Project
2006
Variable Speed Constant

Frequency Generating
System for Small Hydro
Student: K. Fogarty
Supervisors: Dr. M.A. Kashem
Mr. S. Buckland (Tyco Tamar)
Mr. R. Page (Tyco Tamar)
Final Report and Thesis

Variable Speed Constant Frequency Small Hydro Generating System
ABSTRACT
Hydro energy conversion systems are used all over the world for the supply of clean and
renewable power. With virtually no emissions and quick startup times, hydropower is still a
preferred option in many regions. Some regions however are unable to effectively make use
of some cheaper turbine options, like reversible pumps, since they must operate at a fixed
speed for a given supplied head of water in order to efficiently transfer energy from the water
to the generator. Variable speed constant frequency (VSCF) systems using power electronics
and doubly fed induction generators are able to overcome this problem. The concept has been
used in larger (over 1MW) wind turbines for many years with much success, and has slowly
become accepted into hydroelectric systems recently so as to effectively supply power to
areas that had previously been ignored commercially. In this report, a variety of VSCF
systems, both wind and hydro, are reviewed and a model is developed for use in grid-
connected small hydro generating applications. This model is simulated and tested for
suitability, viability and efficiency for a commercial market under a variety of speeds. This
system is proposed in response to a need presented by the project’s sponsor, Tyco Tamar, to
fill a niche market. The proposed system uses a wound rotor induction generator with the
rotor circuit supplied by torque and speed from a reversible pump, as well as a back-to-back
PWM inverter for the purpose of governing stator frequency and the control of reactive power
to the load. Methods for mitigating harmonic distortion introduced by the inverter
components are also discussed. Also included in the discussions are potential avenues for
further research as a result of the findings from this project.
Kyron Fogarty 1
Sup.: Dr M. Kashem, Mr. S. Buckland, Mr. R Page
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract ...................................................................................................................................... 1
1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 4
2. Literature Review ................................................................................................................... 6
3. General System Overview ...................................................................................................... 8
4. Available Technology .......................................................................................................... 12
4.1 Turbines .......................................................................................................................... 12
4.1.1 Reversible Pump Selection...................................................................................... 14
4.2 Generators ...................................................................................................................... 15
4.2.1 DC Generators ......................................................................................................... 15
4.2.2 Synchronous Generators ......................................................................................... 16
4.2.3 Induction Generators ............................................................................................... 16
4.2.3.1 Squirrel Cage Induction Generators ..................................................................... 17
4.2.3.2 Doubly-fed Wound Rotor Induction Generators .................................................. 17
4.3 Frequency Control .......................................................................................................... 18
4.3.1 Governors ................................................................................................................ 18
4.3.2 Frequency Converters ............................................................................................. 19
4.4 Harmonic Effects............................................................................................................ 21
5. Results & Discussions .......................................................................................................... 23
5.1 Design Outline................................................................................................................ 23
5.2 Baseline Comparison...................................................................................................... 24
5.3 Doubly Fed Connection ................................................................................................. 26
5.3.1 Model Description ................................................................................................... 26
5.3.2 Initial Results at Various Flow Rates ...................................................................... 28
5.3.3 Reactive Power Generation ..................................................................................... 30
5.3.4 Sub-Synchronous Operation ................................................................................... 31
5.3.5 Model Shortcomings & Improvements ................................................................... 32
5.4 Harmonic Considerations ............................................................................................... 33
5.4.1 Theoretical Design and Simulation ......................................................................... 34
5.4.2 Harmonic Analysis of Real Data ............................................................................. 37
5.4.3. Harmonic Distortion Mitigation Optimisation ....................................................... 39
5.5 Difficulties Faced ........................................................................................................... 40
6. Further Research ................................................................................................................. 41
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6.1 Hydro-dynamics and reversible pumps (mechanical/civil) ............................................ 41

6.2 DFIG control system (mechatronics, electronic & communications) ............................ 41
6.3 DFIG practical machine tests (power) ........................................................................... 42
6.3.1 Synchronisation ....................................................................................................... 42
6.3.2 Efficiency ................................................................................................................ 42
6.3.3 Transient Stability ................................................................................................... 42
6.4 Harmonic mitigation and frequency domain analysis (power/electronics) .................... 43
6. Conclusions .......................................................................................................................... 44
7. Acknowledgments ................................................................................................................ 45
Appendix A: Experimental Test Equipment Specifications .................................................... 46
Appendix B: MATLAB® Simulation Models .......................................................................... 47
Baseline Model ................................................................................................................. 47
Doubly-Fed Induction Generator Model .......................................................................... 48
MATLAB® Variable Specifications File ......................................................................... 53
Appendix C: Component Price List ......................................................................................... 54
Appendix D: Pump Efficiency Dynamics ................................................................................ 56
Bibliography ............................................................................................................................. 58
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1. INTRODUCTION
Hydropower is widely used throughout the world as a source of electrical energy. Tyco
Tamar is a Tasmanian business specializing in the production of mini-hydro power stations
(generation of between 100kW and 5MW) [1], which has an interest in filling a niche by
providing variable speed constant frequency systems using reversible pumps as turbines. To
this end, Tyco Tamar has put forward this concept to determine the feasibility of such a
venture when implemented in hydro sites delivering electrical power up to approximately
500kW.
Electrical energy is sourced in many different ways. However, with a large focus globally on
reducing greenhouse emissions and pollution, renewable and environmentally friendly
energies are being increasingly sought after to supply an ever increasing population. Energy
sources such as wind, solar, biomass, and geothermal are politically correct and popular
choices, but hydro power is still a strong and common option [1-3]. The choice of energy
conversion is mainly determined by the energy sources available at the location of the
proposed power plant. As such, with many potential plant locations still in existence, hydro
power remains and will continue to remain a firm option in the future for the supply of
electrical energy [2].
Hydro energy is converted to electrical energy by water flowing through a turbine, which
drives the rotor of an electrical generator [4, 5]. The amount of energy available is
determined by the rate of water flow and the head of water upstream [5], and the turbine
driving power is given by the equation:
Pwater = ρgHQ (1.1)
For the most part, the water density, ρ, and the acceleration factor, g, are constant and are
accepted as unchangeable. Thus, the variable factors that affect the amount of available
power are head, H, and flow rate, Q. From this result, the power supplied by the system is
equal to the power applied to the turbine less the losses incurred by the turbine and the
generator. The system efficiency, then, is [4, 6]:
Pout P − Pturbine _ loss − Pgen _ loss
η system = = water (1.2)
Pwater Pwater
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The key to maximizing system efficiency is to minimize the losses in both the turbine and the
generator.
Under normal circumstances, the power provided to the network or loads is varied by
adjusting Q appropriately, since the stored head is usually unchanging, and cannot be
controlled (except when using pumped-storage) [5, 7]. However, circumstances exist where
head can vary sufficiently to affect the performance of the chosen turbine [4, 7], since turbines
are designed to operate at maximum efficiency when the generator is delivering a constant
frequency supply. The resulting inefficiency can be mitigated, however, by adjusting the
rotational speed of the turbine [7-9]. Unfortunately, this can cause problems with power
quality in islanded power systems and is simply not possible with grid-connected systems due
to the high inertia of the infinite bus [6, 8, 10]. The use of variable speed constant frequency
systems has been successfully used to overcome this problem.
This report examines research performed into this area, a general overview of the system, and
the technology available to achieve the desired goals. Simulations and practical experiments
are outlined in chapter 5, and the results are discussed. These results highlight both the
normal operation of the generator systems modeled, as well as the issues encountered with
harmonic distortion of the outputs from the use of power electronics. Chapter 6 reviews some
of the problems encountered during this project, and provides some potential avenues for
further research as a result.
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2. LITERATURE REVIEW
Before examining the research performed into variable speed constant frequency (VSCF)
systems using electronic devices, it should be pointed out that mechanical systems that
convert variable speed rotation to constant speed rotation have been used for some time, and
in some cases continue to be used and developed upon. However, since this project is
electrically focused, these mechanical systems are discussed purely for comparative purposes.
Constant speed gear systems [11] have been used in ships to control the supplied speed to the
ship’s generator while the engine speed changes as required. These systems use a
combination of epicyclic gear systems and hydraulic variable transmissions to provide a
continuously variable transmission (CVT) coupled between the engine drive shaft and the
generator rotor [11]. Wartsila Switzerland Ltd still uses this system (called ConSpeed) for the
Sulzer RTA series of engines. Variations on the CVT continue to be implemented. The
NuVinci gear system [12] uses a series of balls spaced around a shaft to transfer torque at
high efficiency between an input disc and an output disc. The transferred speed to the output
disc is changed by adjusting the relative diameter of the rolling balls, controlled by rotating a
shaft in the centre of the mechanism. While the basic concept of this design is aimed at the
bicycle and automotive market, it has been proposed for wind energy conversion systems in
the 1.5MW range [12, 13], showing that it may be feasible for lower power applications as
well. The automotive industry is also exploring CVT, with Audi [14] using another variation
involving moving conical gears and chains to vary the transmission ratio.
Pena et al. [15], demonstrated the capability of using back-to-back PWM inverters with a
doubly-fed induction generator (DFIG) for supplying isolated resistive loads to extend the
operating speed range of the generator, with a 7.5kW experimental test rig. They determined
the feasibility of the system, but did not test machine losses and efficiencies, the optimum
operating reactive power supply capability, nor methods of harmonic mitigation. In [3], a
VSCF DFIG system is proposed for hydro power applications to enhance the turbine
efficiency and reduce friction losses. Tang and Xu were able to minimize the harmonic
content injected to the load while providing adaptive control of both active and reactive
power, demonstrating this through simulations. An alternative approach was shown in [16],
by adding an exciting machine to the generator shaft, much like a synchronous generator.
Both MATLAB® simulations and experimental results showed that under sub-synchronous
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operation the exciter generated power for the DFIG rotor, while under super-synchronous
operation it became a motor, recovering torque onto the shaft. However, it was found that the
stator frequency was more stable under sub-synchronous operation than at super-synchronous
speeds. Kastha and Isha [17, 18] obtained good voltage and frequency regulation on
computer simulations of an isolated load. It was also observed that PWM inverter-fed DFIG
could exceed the rated power of the generator without thermal problems. Kawabata et al [19,
20] showed that the inverter-fed DFIG is suitable for either aiding or replacing mechanical
speed governors in regulating output frequency in response to step-changes in isolated loads.
However, they did not test the system’s behaviour when connected to non-linear and
capacitive loads.
Methods for detecting rotor position typically use sensors, which are subject to sampling
problems and RFI. However, Datta and Ranganathan showed experimentally in [22] that an
increased reliability could be obtained using mathematical transform methods within the
controller, using a 3kW 415V DFIG. They also speculated that super-synchronous operation
was achievable by reversing the phase sequence of the rotor-side inverter. Sensorless position
estimation was supported in [23] experiments, showing excellent voltage and frequency
regulation to an isolated load under step-changes to both speed and load. Lin et al. [24]
determined a suitable design methodology for an excitation system for DFIG, which was
modeled mathematically and simulated. It was found that the active and reactive power at the
stator was adjustable via changes to rotor voltage magnitude, frequency and phase angle for
specific values of slip.
Grid-connected applications of VSCF systems have been found to improve power system
stability margins in Norway and Sweden [9], as well as improve generator efficiencies and
starting times. Sporild et al also showed that VSCF hydro systems operate with reduced
mechanical stresses such as vibration and cavitation, demonstrating advantages other than
those explored within the scope of this project. Other hydro system applications, such as
those shown in [25] and [7] support the general findings that VSCF systems using PWM
inverter-fed DFIG produce active and reactive power at increased efficiency to conventional
constant speed constant frequency systems.
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3. GENERAL SYSTEM OVERVIEW

Just as the name suggests, variable speed constant frequency (VSCF) systems can maintain a
constant frequency to the load [18] (50Hz in Australia), even though the generators rotate at
speeds other than the synchronous speed1. The most common VSCF method is by the use of
power electronic switching devices, which “chop” the varying frequency waveform into a DC
voltage, and then invert the DC voltage to a constant frequency waveform. Such devices are
commonly placed in series between the generator and the load [16, 26, 27], but can also be
used to transfer power between the machine stator and rotor [3, 20]. Both of these methods
and their advantages and disadvantages are discussed shortly. By far, the majority of research
conducted recently into VSCF systems uses the latter.
When a portion of power is to be fed back into the machine to control frequency at the stator,
a particular type of generator must be used. Wound rotor induction generators are frequently
used for this purpose in wind energy conversion systems [18, 28], which require rapid control
of stator terminal frequency in response to changes in wind speed. These machines have also
been used similarly in hydro energy conversion systems [3]. The basic principle is that an
induction generator may be driven at any speed [6, 8], which will excite the frequency output
at the stator to be:
NP
fS = (3.1)
120
where P is the number of poles on the stator. When power is fed into the rotor terminals,
which are normally connected to a rheostat for torque control, at a different frequency, f R , the
stator frequency is increased by the same frequency:
NP
fS = + fR (3.2)
120
The key result of this is that adjusting the frequency of the injected power into the rotor may
compensate any change in rotating speed. Equation (3.2) applies directly for rotating speeds
less than the synchronous speed, called sub-synchronous operation. However, for speeds
greater than synchronous speed, or super-synchronous operation, the equation still applies [6].
So in order to maintain a constant f S , the injected power needs to be at a negative frequency.
1
The synchronous speed is the speed at which the generated frequency is equal to the rated frequency, eg 50Hz.
It is also proportional to the number of poles on the stator.
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This is commonly achieved by extracting power from the rotor at the required frequency.
Equation (3.2) now becomes two equations, for sub-synchronous and super-synchronous
operations respectively:
NP
f S , sub = + fR (3.3)
120
NP
f S ,sup er = − fR (3.4)
120
Synchronous speed is determined by rearranging equation (3.1):
120 f
NS = (3.5)
P
Typically, the power injected or extracted at the rotor is connected to the stator supply so as to
minimize losses [29]. This is demonstrated in figures (3.1) and (3.2) for sub- and super-
synchronous operations respectively.
Fig. 3.1: Wound Rotor Induction Generator operating in Sub-synchronous mode. PL is the power delivered by
the turbine; f2 is the injected power frequency to the rotor; f is the stator frequency. Adapted from [6]
In figure 3.1, the turbine delivers power PL through the shaft to the rotor, less friction losses in
the shaft, PV. The power seen by the rotor, Pm, is transferred across the air gap, with some
power lost in the rotor windings as heat (Pjr) as well as losses due to rotor slip. The power
seen by the stator, Pr, is then made available to the load, after accounting for iron and heat
losses in the stator circuit (Pf & Pjs), as Pe. In this arrangement, the losses due to rotor slip are
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supplemented or recovered depending on whether the machine is operating at sub- or super-

synchronous speed respectively. In figure 3.1, power is fed back from the stator/load circuit
through a frequency converter to the rotor at frequency f2. While an extra power loss
component is introduced (Pc) in the converter, Per is equal to the previous slip power loss plus
rotor heat loss, therefore increasing the generator’s efficiency by reducing its losses. The slip
f2
energy lost previously is sPr = Pr , which is proportional to the air gap power, Pr, and f2.
f
Thus the converter power required is given by equation 3.6:
Pconverter = Pc + Pjr + sPr (3.6)
Fig. 3.2: Wound Rotor Induction Generator operating in Super-synchronous mode. PL is the power delivered by
the turbine; f2 is the extracted power frequency from the rotor; f is the stator frequency. Adapted from [6].
Figure 3.2 illustrates the system behaviour under super synchronous operation. The main
difference here compared with sub-synchronous mode is the flow of power in the rotor
circuit. Converter power requirements can be determined again by equation 3.6. The key
advantage of this method is that much smaller frequency converters are required (typically
30% of machine rating) compared with series-connected VSCF systems as not all of the
generated energy is transferred through the converter. In fact, only a small amount of power
needs to be passed through the frequency converter to deliver adequate overall frequency
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control. This means that lower ratings are required for the converter components: insulated
gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs), heatsinks, and DC voltage storage components; thus
reducing the overall cost of the converter. The construction and operation of the converter is
explained in chapter 4.2.
Power factor is controlled through the use of current control on the rotor [3, 30], in particular
the control of the direct axis and quadrature axis current components ( id and iq ) of the three-
phase currents, iA , iB and iC . Currents id and iq are found by applying Park’s transformation
[30-32], resulting in the equations below:
id , s =
2
3
[
ia cos ωst + ib cos(ωst − 120o ) + ic cos(ωst + 120o ) ] (3.7)
iq , s = −
2
3
[
ia sin ωst + ib sin(ωst − 120o ) + ic sin(ωst + 120o ) ] (3.8)
id , r =
2
3
[
iA cos θ r + iB cos(θ r − 120o ) + iC cos(θ r + 120o ) ] (3.9)
iq , r = −
2
3
[
iA sin θ r + iB sin(θ r − 120o ) + iC sin(θ r + 120o ) ] (3.10)
d
vd , s = Rsid , s − ωsψ q , s + ψ d ,s (3.11)
dt
d
vq , s = Rsiq , s − ωsψ d , s + ψ q,s (3.12)
dt
d
vd , r = Rr id , r − sωsψ q , r + ψ d ,r (3.13)
dt
d
vq , r = Rsiq , r − sωsψ d , r + ψ q ,r (3.14)
dt
Where:
• iA, iB, iC are rotor phase currents;
• ia, ib, ic are stator phase currents;
• ωs is the angular velocity of the stator field in electrical r/s;
• θr is the angle by which the rotor phase A lags the d-axis (synchronous axis);
• ψ is the flux linkage; and
• Rs, Rr are the stator phase and rotor phase resistances respectively.
Also [3]:
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3Pturbine
Ps = ωrψ d , siq , s (3.15)
4
3
Qs = (vq , sid , s − vd , siq , s )
2 (3.16)
3P
= turbine ωrψ d , sid , s
4
Where Pturbine is the power delivered to the rotor from the turbine, and ωr is the angular
velocity of the rotor field in mechanical r/s. From equation 3.16, injecting or extracting more
id through the converter increases the amount of reactive power supplied by the stator,
reducing the power factor supplied by the generator [33]. Thus, even though the nature of
induction machines requires that they are reactive power sinks (explained in chapter 4.2), a
wound rotor induction generator connected and operated in this fashion is able to
independently supply reactive power [22]. As such, it can be operated connected to a grid or
in stand-alone mode.
4. AVAILABLE TECHNOLOGY
4.1 Turbines
It is important to discuss the different types of turbine technologies available for hydro energy
conversion systems so as to obtain an appropriate context for this project. In most hydro
power plants, the major types of turbines used are as follows [4, 5]:
• Reaction Type:
o Francis;
o Kaplan;
o Deriaz;
o Reversible Pump;
• Impulse Type:
o Pelton;
o Turgo;
o Banki/crossflow.
Impulse turbines develop torque by converting the kinetic energy, or velocity head, of the
water supplied by jets aimed at the turbine’s buckets [4]. These types of turbines are typically
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used for high head applications. Reaction turbines operate with the runner case flooded, with
torque being supplied by the reaction forces of the water flowing through the runner from a
high-pressure area to a low-pressure area. This type of turbine is usually used for lower head
applications, up to approximately 150m gross head. Bernoulli’s equation (4.1) shows the
relationship between water height, pressure and velocity with respect to total available head:
p v2
H =h+ + (4.1)
ρg 2 g
Typically a reaction turbine is positioned such that h ≈ 0m , and since the casing construction
and turbine itself causes the velocity to reduce to 0 m/s, the total head is essentially related to
the water pressure [4]. Thus, a reversible pump is acted on by pressure head, since it is
classified as a reaction turbine.
Turbine torque and speed characteristics need to be known in order to appropriately design a
hydro generating system. It is known that turbine power is related to torque acting on the
turbine and the rotating speed [6], as shown in equation (4.2):
NT
Pturbine = (4.2)
9.55
The proportionality constant 9.55 is included to account for units. Thus, an inversely
proportional relationship exists between torque and speed if power is to remain constant.
Equation (4.2) also shows that increases in electrical load (proportional to power extracted
from the water by the system’s efficiency) require increases in either speed or torque to
maintain stability. This is the realm of governors and power control, which is discussed
briefly in chapter 4.3. However, it is important to note that by combining equations (1.1) and
(4.2), for a fixed speed and turbine power, torque is proportional to head and flow rate, shown
by equation (4.3).
9.55ηturbine ρgHQ
T P = cons tan t
= (4.3)
N
Turbine efficiency is another characteristic that should not be ignored in calculations. In an
ideal world, power in is equal to power out. In the real world though, losses are encountered
through the turbine, generator, penstock pipes, valves, gates, and switchgear that reduced the
power available for transmission [4-6, 10]. As mentioned previously, efficiency is the ratio of
output to input power. Hydro turbines, due to their relatively low operating speeds compared
with steam turbines, are reasonably efficient, with reaction turbine efficiencies often in the
range of 80% to approximately 99.1% [4]. However, the efficiency of a turbine for a fixed
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head changes with the speed of rotation; conversely, the efficiency for a given speed changes
proportionally to head variations. Many reaction turbines have methods of adjusting flow and
torque to the turbine to maximize the turbine efficiency: Kaplan turbines vary the angle of the
blades2, while Francis turbines alter the position of the guide vanes. Unfortunately, fixed
blade-fixed gate turbines such as reversible pumps become subject to large efficiency changes
when head is changed. This effect is illustrated in figure (4.1).
Fig. 4.1: Chart of efficiency vs. flow for different reaction turbines. Adapted from [5]
Note that for a substantial change in flow for Kaplan and Francis turbines the efficiency is
largely unaffected, such that further action is unnecessary. However, a narrow spike is seen
for the reversible pump curve. This means that if this type of system is to be used, the head
and flow should remain fixed and unchanging, or else the turbine must be allowed to change
speed with flow to maximize the efficiency range. As mentioned previously, many sites exist
that exhibit significant head changes over time, and so the use of variable speed reversible
pumps is an attractive option.
4.1.1 Reversible Pump Selection

The reasons for selecting a reversible pump [4, 5] for a hydro site are as follows:
1. Cost/Simplicity. Most turbines are manufactured to precise specifications, and are
usually constructed on a job-by-job basis. Pumps, on the other hand, are often mass-
2
True Kaplan turbines vary both blade angle and guide vane position, semi-Kaplan turbines change only blade
angle.
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produced, and can be purchased “off the shelf” as it were. This method of acquisition
is conducive to reducing the costs involved. The cost of a particular pump design is
written off over a large number of units produced, while a turbine’s design cost must
be factored in to the specific project budget. As a result, reversible pumps can be used
on sites where the cost of manufacturing makes the viability of other turbines
unsuitable or undesirable.
2. Robustness. Runner casings must be constructed specifically for a given turbine, but
usually do not physically support the weight of the runner. Under normal
circumstances, the runner weight is loaded onto generator bearings, where the turbine
is directly coupled. Pumps, on the other hand, are often supplied with their own
casing, which includes bearings. This allows pumps to be given a more flexible
coupling, and also reduces the bearing load specifications for the generator. The
manufacturing process also is different between pumps and conventional turbines.
Turbines are usually machined, welded and balanced manually, while pumps are
typically cast from a mold. This means that pumps are formed as one piece of metal,
while turbines are built from a number of components.
4.2 Generators
Hydro energy conversion systems require the use of rotating field generators to convert the
mechanical energy of the rotating turbine into electrical energy [4]. Depending on the
application, different types of generator can be used. Most generators operate in basically the
same fashion, however, with a rotating magnetic field inducing an electrical current in the
stator windings. The terminal voltage is generated by the changing current in the stator
windings [6, 10]. However, the method of generating the rotating magnetic field varies from
machine to machine.
4.2.1 DC Generators
DC generators were a popular choice for variable speed generator systems for several reasons.
Firstly, the output frequency is fixed (DC, or 0 Hz), allowing for more simple inverting
systems and variable speed operation [6, 10]. Secondly, they don’t require any external
excitation, making them suitable for stand-alone operation [8, 10]. However, since rotating
field generators inherently produce AC stator voltages, the output is rectified using a
commutator and brushes. These require regular maintenance, which can become a costly
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exercise. Also, the output voltage is also proportional to the rotating speed [6, 34]. As such,
DC machines are not used as widely in generating applications.
4.2.2 Synchronous Generators

By far, the most common generator choice for hydro application is the synchronous machine
[4, 25, 35, 36]. The main reason for this is that stator terminal voltage and reactive power
control is actively controllable through the use of DC excitation of the rotor [34]. However,
synchronous generators need to be considerably derated if operated contrary to machine
ratings [37, 38]; varying rotor speed or connected through an inverter, for example.
Synchronous machines have been used in VSCF wind energy conversion systems, but
movement has been made in the direction of more versatile generators due to the usually
remote locations of wind farms, such as permanent magnet generators and induction
generators, unless used in conjunction with constant speed gearing systems.
4.2.3 Induction Generators

Induction machines are the most common machine used for industrial purposes [6, 8, 29],
such as pumping. The key advantage with such machines is that they don’t require any DC
field excitation [10, 34]. However, the stator does require AC excitation in order to induce a
rotating field – essential in the production of AC power. Nevertheless, induction machines
require less maintenance than synchronous machines, and so are less costly to operate. To
this end, two types of induction generator are available – squirrel cage rotor-type and wound
rotor-type [6, 29]. Figure 4.2 shows the method of connection for both a squirrel cage
induction generator and a synchronous generator for VSCF application.
Fig. 4.2: Synchronous Generator or Squirrel Cage Induction Generator connected through back-to-back PWM
converters to a grid or local load
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4.2.3.1 Squirrel Cage Induction Generators

Squirrel cage induction machines are the most widely used of all grid connected rotating
devices [10, 28]. This is mainly due to their relatively low costs, both initially and on going,
and due to the simplicity of machine construction. Squirrel cage stators are similar to other
types of generators, in that they consist of wires wound around the stator poles.
Squirrel cage induction generators are able to generate active power by absorbing reactive
power from another source [10, 35], such as a capacitor bank or a grid supply [40], for field
excitation; essentially they operate as lagging power factor generators. As such, squirrel
cage generators are not able to independently supply reactive power, which may be a problem
for an isolated load situation with rotating machines or other inductive loads. It can also be
problematic when faced with localized short circuit faults [35], as it may lead to field voltage
collapse. However, induction generators are quite simple in their construction, and are
reasonably tolerant of large variations in operating speeds [6].
4.2.3.2 Doubly-fed Wound Rotor Induction Generators
Fig. 4.4: Wound Rotor Induction Generator connected in a doubly fed arrangement through back-to-back PWM
converters on the rotor circuit to a grid or local load
Figure 4.4 shows the basic VSCF connectivity of a doubly fed wound rotor induction
generator (DFIG). As explained in chapters 2 and 3, this type of arrangement allows the
control system to regulate the magnitude, frequency, and phase of the rotor current, thus
providing sufficient excitation to self-induce an output at the stator terminals. It also allows
the power factor of the generator to be controlled in a similar fashion to a synchronous
generator, with the DFIG able to supply reactive power while squirrel cage induction
generators cannot. The inherent tolerance of squirrel cage induction generators to variable
Kyron Fogarty 17
speed operation is also found in wound rotor induction generators, with speed variations
allowable up to ±30% of synchronous speed [28, 41].
DFIG is often used in high power (>5MW) wind turbine systems, mainly due to their cost,
and the comparative cost of frequency converters in using squirrel cage generators. However,
they have been successfully prototyped at lower power ratings. Since they are of more
versatile than synchronous generators, and frequency control is achieved with much smaller
converters, DFIG is the most widely used VSCF system. Such use involves both grid-
connected systems and stand-alone generation in both wind and hydro energy conversion
applications.
4.3 Frequency Control

A key element of this project is the capability of converting a varying frequency into a fixed
frequency, it is important to identify the equipment capable of achieving this goal. This is
done through the use of input speed controlling governors and output frequency converters.
4.3.1 Governors
Put simply, a governor is a system that maintains the rotating speed of a generator/turbine
under changing load conditions [4, 30]. For hydro energy conversion systems, speed is
controlled by adjusting the flow of water [4, 5]. Most mechanical governors sense only
mechanical speed changes [5], but many modern systems use electronic sensors and complex
PID controllers3 [42]. Electronic governors are more flexible as they may be tuned more
precisely or specifically, while mechanical governors are tuned quite easily for single set
point systems, but become increasingly more complicated if multiple speed set points are
required.
3
Proportional, Integral, Derivative Controllers are commonly used in electronic control systems.
Kyron Fogarty 18
4.3.2 Frequency Converters

4.3.2.1 Inverters
Whenever a change in transmission frequency is required, some form of inverter technology
and power electronics devices is needed. Most commonly, inverters are constructed using
three stages [43]:
• A rectifier stage takes the AC voltage whose frequency is to be changed and converts
it into a DC voltage with a ripple component (as shown in figure 4.5).
Fig. 4.5: DC and ripple voltage associated with a three-phase rectifier circuit. Sourced from [44]
A simple bridge rectifier circuit using power diodes is typically used;

• A DC link stage filters out the ripple voltage, and provides temporary energy storage.
This is usually achieved through the use of a large capacitor, or bank of capacitors;
• A Pulse-Width Modulated (PWM) inverter circuit converts the DC voltage into an AC
voltage at the required frequency. Frequency control is achieved by changing the
PWM switching signal carrier, which allows the inverter output frequency to be totally
independent of the original signal. This stage consists of a series of IGBTs being
activated by the PWM switching signal applied to the transistor base, operated as
on/off switches. Alternative systems use MOSFETs, bipolar junction transistors, or
thyristors, depending on power requirements. However, IGBTs are used
predominantly in high power applications due to their large current-handling
capabilities and high carrier frequencies.
Kyron Fogarty 19
In some cases, particularly where the input signal is increasing or decreasing in frequency, the
DC link voltage may rise or fall in sympathy. In these cases, an additional stage is required
prior to inverting. Buck-Boost converters are essentially DC transformers, in that they change
a DC voltage from one level to another [29].
Fig. 4.6: Circuit for a typical Buck-Boost converter.
A simple Buck-Boost converter is shown in figure 4.6, where it can be seen that thyristor
switching techniques are used in conjunction with other passive components to either increase
or decrease the secondary voltage as required. The mathematical equations [28, 45] for the
conversion process are given in equations 4.5 to 4.7 (D is the duty cycle of the thyristor
switching):
D
Vout = Vin (4.5)
1− D
D
I in = I out (4.6)
1− D
Vin I in = Vout I out (4.7)
A point of note is that the power relationship is the same as for a transformer (eqn. 4.7).
4.3.2.2 Variable Speed/Frequency Drives

Variable speed drives (VSDs) are commonly used in motor control applications [43], such as
variable flow pumping, conveyers, etc. They are sometimes referred to as variable frequency
drives (VFDs) since they control the speed of the motors by varying the frequency of the
applied voltage [46]. In effect, VSDs are a working example of an inverter described above:
they rectify the grid voltage to DC, which is then PWM inverted to whatever frequency is
Kyron Fogarty 20
required. There are a number of VSD manufacturers, such as Allen Bradley, Danfoss, NHP,
and ABB. While most VSDs only change frequency in one direction, many can be
programmed using their own internal logic controller, complete with sensor inputs and
outputs. With this in mind, a control system program may be implemented on the VSD’s
internal controller allowing it to independently monitor and control the frequency and current
flow to the generator rotor.
4.4 Harmonic Effects

One particular side effect of PWM inverters is that the output voltage is not sinusoidal: it is in
fact a series of square waves. According to Fourier theory, a square wave is composed of the
infinite weighted sum of the fundamental signal and all of the odd harmonics of that
fundamental signal [34, 47, 48].
Fig. 4.7: Typical PWM output waveform and the simulated sinusoidal waveform
In reality, a typical PWM waveform (figure 4.7), simulating a 50Hz signal modulated with a
carrier frequency of 1kHz, can be analysed in the frequency domain by using Fourier
transform methods to give the result shown in figure 4.8.
Kyron Fogarty 21
Fig 4.8: Frequency domain analysis of PWM waveform
The carrier frequency component is quite significant in the transmission of power, and this
needs to be reduced significantly in order to comply with IEEE std. 519, which identifies the
maximum allowable total harmonic distortion limits (THD) that can be returned to a grid
supply. THD is the ratio of harmonic content to fundamental content, given by the formula
[44]:
THD =
∑I 2
Harmonic
(4.8)
I Fundamental
In the case of PWM inverters, THD can be greater than 100%, approaching 150%. The
requirements of IEEE std. 519, however, are that grid-side THD is to be no more than 2.5%
for current distortion and 5% for voltage distortion when generating LV power for distributed
systems.
Compliance of IEEE std. 519 is achieved using filters [47, 49] to attenuate the harmonic
frequency components, and also by increasing the carrier frequency to maximize the filter’s
attenuation effects. The techniques used for this are detailed in chapter 5.4, but
predominantly are composed of shunt capacitances for voltage filtering and series inductive
chokes for the smoothing of line currents [27, 46].
Kyron Fogarty 22
5. RESULTS & DISCUSSIONS
5.1 Design Outline

The system developed in simulations was based on a water storage facility delivering a net
head of 30 m to the generator turbine. The turbine used as a baseline was a TKL Super Titan
450x500-375 (450 mm diameter inlet, 500 mm diameter discharge, and 375 mm diameter
impeller4), which develops 170 kW at 1246 RPM with 89.0% efficiency. This results in a net
generator shaft power of 151.3 kW. A flow rate of 649.9 m3/s is required to achieve this.
Calculations for water velocity for this pump are shown below5:
8Q 8.650
ω= = = 17655.6[rad / s ] (5.1)
πd ' di (π )(0.5) 2 (0.375)
2
For the model used, this was converted into a p.u. value of 1, and compared against the actual
turbine mechanical speed to determine the torque delivered to the turbine. For simplicity, the
torque model was developed using a modified wind turbine model with a restricted operating
range. This was due to the absence of more specific and accurate torque-speed data for
reversible pumps, which is discussed in chapter 6.1. Appendix D contains a comparison of
head and flow rate against the most efficient turbine operating speed. The generator used was
a 6 pole 150 kW induction machine wound rotor type. Using a torque input from the turbine
model and the load power requirements, the generator model determined the output power
and resulting relative rotor speed. A phase-locked loop (PLL) circuit was included to extract
the frequency being provided to the load and send it to the governing equipment. From there
the method of governing depended on the model used, as described in the following
subchapters.
Finally, the load model used is a resistive load. Steady state analysis was performed using
load values of 50%, 75% and 100% of full generator capacity. The tabulated results are
presented in the following chapters, along with more specific characteristics of the different
models developed. Diagrams of the Simulink models implemented are shown in Appendix B.
4
For a reversible pump turbine, the penstock is coupled to the discharge flange, with the tail water flowing out
of the inlet.
5
Derivation for ω is given in Appendix D, equation D.1.
Kyron Fogarty 23
5.2 Baseline Comparison

The purpose of the initial model was to establish the shortcomings of an uncontrolled
approach to induction generator use. Fig. 5.1 shows the single line diagram of the system
implemented in Simulink while a modified approach was taken for the practical test.
Fig. 5.1: Single line diagram of uncontrolled squirrel-cage induction generator model
For this section of the experiment, the turbine speed was maintained constant at 1400, 1450,
1500, 1550, and 1600 RPM. The applied torque, power output and power factor of the
simulated generator are provided in table 5.1.
Table 5.1: Results from simulations of various speeds for SCIG with no frequency control
Tested Resultant Pout (kW) pf
Speed (RPM) Torque (Nm)
1400 147.16 61.4 0.9897
1450 167.69 54.3 0.9868
1500 197.74 47.63 0.9884
1550 230.1 42.21 0.9781
1600 248.36 39.14 0.9587
These results were evaluated against an actual generator (using the same configuration and
parameters6), and these results are provided in table 5.2.
6
In fact, the details of the generator and load parameters, shown in appendices A & B, for the simulator were
taken from components used for the practical test.
Kyron Fogarty 24
Table 5.2: Results from practical experiments at various speeds for SCIG with no frequency control
Tested Resultant Pout (W) η pf
Speed (RPM) Torque (Nm) %
1493 -1.36 -193.05 91 0.1
1513 5.42 213.9 24.9 0.11
1530 12.61 948.6 46.9 0.4
1550 20.34 1634.1 49.5 0.58
From these results, it is clear that the Simulink model didn’t adequately represent the real-
world data. This was likely due to the use of a speed input to the model generator rather than
a driving torque, or rather a combined torque/speed input from a simulated turbine. Torque
was too high, as was the power factor. Also, no change was seen in direction of power flow
when speed transitioned from sub-synchronous speed to super-synchronous speed. However,
examining the practical data, machine power flow is seen as being positive when generating.
Torque is also much lower, representing the machine efficiency more accurately. In this case,
the machine was most efficient when motoring rather than generating. However, efficiency
when generating increased with rotor speed, as did power factor.
Even though the Simulink model using a speed input provided erratic results, the basic
concept of a standard induction machine with no frequency control shows, from practical
experiments, that the system experiences low efficiencies and low lagging power factors.
This result in itself is sufficient to warrant further investigation of alternative VSCF
techniques.
Kyron Fogarty 25
5.3 Doubly Fed Connection
5.3.1 Model Description

Once the baseline model had been completed and evaluated, a DFIG model was developed,
again using Simulink. This model was adapted from a wind turbine simulation model already
existing in MATLAB®’s database. The following adaptations were made:
• Wind turbine-related components were changed or adjusted (where possible) to hydro
turbine components. This involved altering the yaw and pitch controls to provide
fixed (or as close to fixed as possible) outputs, and to accept a flow rate input (in L/s
compared with m/s) instead of wind speed;
• Once alterations on the model had begun, the original accompanying initialization file
failed to work. Since attempts to reset the initialization file resulted in frustration,
machine initialization was removed from the model. This resulted in a period (of
approximately 0.5s) where the voltages, currents, torque, and rotor speed of the
machine fluctuated before settling to a steady state. Since this project’s scope focused
on the application of a VSCF model to hydro situations under steady state conditions,
these results were acknowledged as a potential problem in transient stability, but
otherwise discarded unless the simulation did not achieve steady state from a dead
start;
• The original wind model consisted of a 9MW wind farm with multiple generating
units. However, the scope of this project required only up to a 500kW output. As
such, generator and local load parameters were changed to reflect this. The
parameters used were based on the components priced in appendix C, with the actual
parameters shown in appendix B. These components were selected as a comparison
with a known configuration implemented by Tyco Tamar.
The block diagrams of the model employed in Simulink and the accompanying parameters
file is provided in appendix B.
The model developed for this project comprises a 150 kW DFIG feeding a local resistive load
and a connection with a 33 kV distribution network. The load was changed for different
simulation runs, testing 50%, 75% & 100% generating capacity of the DFIG. The distribution
network connection comprised of a 415V/33kV step-up transformer, transmission lines, and a
utility generator, among other earthing and transmission components. The design of the
Kyron Fogarty 26
distribution network was not included in the initial project scope, and so a generic model from
another Simulink model file was used. Simple alterations were made, such as voltages and
frequency, to match it to the developed system.
The DFIG block in the model receives an input in the form of hydraulic flow rate, in L/s. The
flow rate input connects directly to the hydro turbine block internal to the DFIG block. The
turbine model compares flow rate with the turbine speed to produce the torque reference to be
applied to the rotor of the generator.
The DFIG block is constructed as shown in figs. 3.1 & 3.2 with one additional component. A
line choke is introduced between the frequency converter and the network. This is designed
to reduce the effects of harmonic currents and voltages on the loads, explained in chapter 5.4.
In this model, the two PWM IGBT converters are controlled independently for three main
reasons:
1. To provide synchronism between the line-side converter (LSC) output and the stator
output;
2. To enable greater control over the DC link voltage; and
3. To independently control the voltage and current flow in the rotor windings from the
rotor-side converter (RSC).
The use of independent converters requires a controller capable of dual control outputs from
common inputs. Initially, inputs are filtered to remove measurement noise before being
passed through to the controller. The controller extracts frequency and phase angle
information, which it passes through to the LSC controller and RSC controller with other
electrical and mechanical information.
The LSC controller’s task is simpler than the RSC controller’s. Its key objective is to regulate
the frequency and magnitude of output power flow, which is done through the control of d-
axis and q-axis voltage magnitudes. The corresponding reference voltage is sampled,
discretised, and a set of pulses are generated for the control of the LSC. The RSC controller’s
objectives are to control the rotor torque and speed, and the amount of reactive power
generated, by regulating the flow of and frequency of current in the rotor windings. Another
reference voltage is sampled, discretised, and another set of pulses is generated to control the
Kyron Fogarty 27
RSC. The modulated frequency of the RSC controller output is determined according to the
machine’s apparent slip, as shown in chapter 37.
5.3.2 Initial Results at Various Flow Rates
Fig. 5.2: Generated power output for various flow rates to a 50% load and distribution network
Simple simulations were performed using variation in flow rate (50%, 100%, and 150%) and
local load (50%, 75%, and 100%). Fig. 5.2 provides a comparison between the different flow
rates for a 50% load case as they affect output power. The bottom line represents a flow rate
of 325 L/s, or 50% of nominal flow. Here it can be seen that power is being generated by the
DFIG, but not enough to independently supply the full load. The 50% load case represents a
load of 75 kW, and so 26 kW from the distribution network is supplementing the generated 49
kW. Increasing the rate of flow to 650 L/s resulted in the middle line. This flow rate allowed
the DFIG to produce nearly 68 kW of power, which like the 50% flow rate case, was
insufficient to independently supply the load. Thus the load is importing approximately 7 kW
from the distribution network. The final line in fig. 5.2 illustrates the power produced when a
flow rate of 975 L/s is employed. From this line, it can be seen that the power produced by
the generator exceeds the load requirements, resulting in approximately 8-10 kW being
exported to the distribution network.
Np s
7
f R = sf = . Also, the RSC current is controlled proportional to sPr, the slip multiplied by the air-
120 1 − s
gap power.
Kyron Fogarty 28
Fig. 5.3: Per-unit operating speed for various flow rates when connected to a 50% load and distribution network
Fig. 5.3 shows how the turbine speed relates to the rate of hydraulic flow. When the turbine
receives 50% of rated flow, the DFIG controller regulates the generator speed to 94% of rated
speed. In the model developed, this equates to a speed of approximately 940 RPM. In
conjunction with fig. 5.2, this flow rate results in sub-synchronous power being produced.
Thus, power is being diverted from the output of the generator through the inverter to supply
a modulated frequency of f R = sf Hz = 3 Hz to the rotor windings, where:
Ns − N 60
s= = = 6% (5.2)
Ns 1000
Therefore, approximately sPr=3 kW at 3 Hz is modulated by the RSC. This shows that a
smaller converter is capable of being implemented in DFIG than is required in a series-
connected configuration.
When the flow rate increases to rated flow (650 L/s), the turbine speed settles at
approximately 1.035 pu (1035 RPM). This results in a super-synchronous slip of 3.5%,
leading to slip energy being drawn from the rotor windings at a frequency of approximately
1.75 Hz. The amount of power recovered from the slip energy is approximately 2.3 kW.
Similarly, increasing the flow rate to 975 L/s (150% flow) results in a turbine speed of 1.12
pu (1120 RPM, also super-synchronous speed). This leads to a slip of 12% and a power flow
of approximately 10 kW at 6 Hz.
Two primary problems arise from the data collected. Firstly, a constant flow rate and load are
used, but fluctuations are observed in the power produced in the simulation. The main cause
of this response behaviour is due to the method of regulating rotor torque. Whilst mechanical
Kyron Fogarty 29
torque is regulated through proportional control, the electromagnetic torque is regulated using
PI control in the RSC controller. This control is also affected by responses to other
parameters such as gate opening, DC link voltage fluctuations, and machine inertia, resulting
in a number of persistent and subtle adjustments to the flow of current in the rotor. The
second main problem is that the power output and range of speeds appear to be smaller than
expected. The reasons for this and the suggested improvements are explained in chapter
5.3.5.
5.3.3 Reactive Power Generation
Fig. 5.4 Control system block from Simulink DFIG model
Fig. 5.4 shows a magnified portion of the control system block. The second input is used to
control the set point for the power factor of the generator. As described in earlier chapters,
the DFIG is capable of generating both leading and lagging power factors for the purpose of
network bus voltage support. Within the model itself, the Q_ref input can receive a constant
or a range of values (e.g. a ramp, step, multiple steps, etc.) to be implemented during
simulation. These values are on a per-unit scale (corresponding to the machine’s kVA rating),
between –1 and 1, with negative reference values indicating lagging power factor. This
capability is important for two key reasons:
1. The ability to generate power at unity or leading power factor enables DFIG to begin
operation, or remain operating, without the presence of an external reactive power
source (such as a capacitor bank or distribution network); and
2. Power system security is enhanced since the controller set point can be independently
regulated to maintain the local bus voltage to within AS1359.101 limits. If this set
point is regulated by a central SCADA system, the DFIG may be used to aid overall
power system security, rather than simply local security.
Kyron Fogarty 30
Table. 5.3: Generated power factor by DFIG for zero, positive, and
negative Q_ref controller inputs(50% load, 50% flow)
Q_ref (pu) Power Factor (average)
+0.5 0.6257 (lead)
0 1 (unity)
-0.5 0.6524 (lag)
Table 5.3 shows the system steady-state power factor for a zero, leading (positive), and
lagging (negative) Q_ref set point. As can be clearly seen from this table, the ability of the
DFIG to respond to a power factor set point to source or sink reactive power can be
independently controlled.
5.3.4 Sub-Synchronous Operation

As shown in fig. 5.3, for a given flow rate threshold, the DFIG system is capable of
generating power even while mechanically rotating at sub-synchronous speeds. This ability
significantly increases the operating speed range of the system compared with a conventional
induction generator, which acts as a motor when the rotating speed drops below synchronous
speed. For a 50% flow rate, the active and reactive power of the DFIG system can be
controlled as shown in figs. 5.5 & 5.6.
Fig. 5.5: Active power for various Q_ref set points at sub-synchronous
operation (50% load, 50% flow)
Kyron Fogarty 31
Fig. 5.6:Reactive power for various Q_ref set points at sub-synchronous

operation (50% load, 50% flow)
Clearly, though the reactive power component increases relatively linearly with the set point,
active power decreases non-linearly. As such, a reasonable range of reactive power set points
can be implemented without significantly adversely affecting the supply of active power.
5.3.5 Model Shortcomings & Improvements

Relatively simple but time consuming improvements can be made to the DFIG simulation in
order to more closely approximate the real system being modeled. Firstly, as demonstrated in
chapter 5.3.2, the current model does not seem to provide enough power. At rated flow, the
generator should be producing close to the rated output power of the generator, or at least it is
expected to produce more than it is. The cause of this can be found in the turbine block of the
model. Since this model was adapted from a wind turbine block, the method for converting
wind speed to wind power was assumed to be similar for flow rate and hydraulic power.
However, the data found in appendix D, along with equation 1.1, demonstrates that the
behaviour of hydraulic power also depends on head. Thus the model requires an alteration to
include the supplied head as an input, to which it should compare flow rate to determine the
hydraulic power supplied to the turbine. Then, it needs to utilize data that identifies the most
efficient operating speed for the head and flow rate combination. This will then provide the
reference torque output to the generator block. From this simple analysis, it can be seen that
the process itself is relatively straightforward, but the implementation requires a significant
allocation of resources to obtain the efficient speed data for given flow rates that is needed for
Kyron Fogarty 32
this improvement. It also introduces an order of complexity to the operation of the turbine
model itself, with two hydraulic set points required as inputs to the model. An independent
input for head is only required if the flow rate is being controlled, as might be the case when
the DFIG system is used primarily in islanded mode, and power output needs to be controlled
in order to reduce energy losses through dump loads. If no flow control is used, known
relationships between the most efficient operating point and the hydraulic flow rate can be
used instead, either as a function or as a look-up table. This would be a much simpler model
to produce, but still requires the use of real data.
This leads into the gate-opening variable of the turbine. Strictly speaking, a reversible pump
is a fixed gate turbine, and so this variable should be set to 100% constantly. Once again, due
to the adaptation of the turbine from the wind model, this variable was altered from the pitch
angle of the wind turbine blade. However, the data provided from the model suggests that
this was causing problems with supplied power due to the controller attempting to manipulate
the variable’s value. The results of this can be seen in the steady-state variations in power
output and the slope of the turbine speed measurement. The controller uses proportional gain
control to manipulate the variable, with limitations placed on the maximum rate of change of
the gate angle based on the speed of the turbine. This explains why the turbine speed step
change is much smaller in magnitude than is expected (see appendix D). The model can be
improved to more closely resemble the real system’s behaviour by removing this variable,
replacing it with a constant that reflects the greatest effect of flow on speed.
5.4 Harmonic Considerations

The use of power electronics in the power converters introduces harmonic frequencies that
can cause problems with both local loads and network security8, depending on the overall
total harmonic distortion at the point of common connection. In order to comply with IEEE
std.519, the system harmonic output requires filtering. The following chapters examine the
theoretical design of the filter and its specifications, and the harmonic analysis of
experimental data.
8
Harmonic currents can cause higher power losses in conductors and transformers than would be otherwise
expected resulting in overheating and component failure, even though instruments indicate no danger. This is
because most measuring instruments are sensitive to the fundamental frequency voltages and currents only.
Kyron Fogarty 33
5.4.1 Theoretical Design and Simulation

Three types of filter design were explored:
1. A simple LC 2nd-order low pass filter;
2. A T-filter (LCL 3rd-order low pass filter); and
3. A two-stage LC low pass filter (4th-order).
Two main types of filter design method were considered for this project to implement the
above filters: Butterworth and Chebychev. Before determining any circuit values, the order
of the filter required needed to be determined. For a Butterworth filter, this was determined
by the following equation, given that at 1kHz, the filter needs to attenuate the output by
approximately 60dB, and the -3dB frequency is approximately 70Hz, and at 50Hz the gain
must be close to unity.
1
= −60dB
2n
ω 
1 +  
 ω0 
∴ n = 0.5 log 1000 999999 (5.3)
70
∴ nactual = 1.3
1
= −1dB
2n
ω 
1 +  
 ω0 
∴ n = 0.5 log 50 10 −0.05 − 1 (5.4)
70
∴ nactual = 2.01
From these equations, it can be seen that at least a 2nd order filter is required to ensure suitable
attenuation of carrier harmonics with minimal attenuation of the fundamental. The alternative
design approach is using a Chebychev filter. This design calls for a small passband ripple,
which was specified as –1dB (ε=0.891). The same magnitude of attenuation at 1kHz was
used as with the Butterworth filter, and this was fed into the following equation to identify the
required Chebychev filter order:
Kyron Fogarty 34
1
= −60dB
ω 
1 + ε 2Cn2  
 ω0 
999999
cosh −1
∴n = 0.8912 (5.5)
1000
cosh −1
70
∴ nactual = 2 .3
It is clear that, comparing this result (3rd order minimum) with that of the Butterworth filter,
there is no distinct advantage in selecting a Chebychev filter in this case.
The Butterworth filter pole locations, for 2nd order, 3rd order and 4th order are given by the
following equations:
1+ j 1+ j
s 2 + 2ω n s + ω n2 = ( s + ω n )( s + ωn ) (5.6)
2 2
1+ j 3 1− j 3
s 3 + 2ω n s 2 + 2ω n2 s + ω n3 = ( s + ω n )( s + ω n )( s + ωn ) (5.7)
2 2
s 4 + 2.613ω n s 3 + 3.414ω n2 s 2 + 2.613ω n3 s + ω n4
= ( s 2 + 0.7654ω n s + ω n2 )( s 2 + 1.8478ω n s + ω n2 ) (5.8)
0.7654 ± j1.8477 1.8477 ± j 0.7654
= (s + ω n )( s + ωn )
2 2
By selecting a corner frequency of 70Hz, it is hoped to avoid harmonic resonance issues in
the network.
The next stage in the design process was the component value selection process, using
resistors, capacitors and inductors (resistors are shunted across the capacitor terminals). Once
values were selected, they could be implemented in PSPICE simulations, as shown in chapter
5.2.2.2. For a simple L-C filter, shown in figure 5.7, the transfer function is:
Fig. 5.7: Simple L-C filter with capacitor shunt resistance
Kyron Fogarty 35
1
LC ω n2
T (s) = = 2 (5.9)
1 1 s + 2ζω n s + ω n2
s2 + s+
RC LC
Values chosen were 0.45mH, 115µF, and 1.4Ω. A two-stage filter could be implemented for
the 4th order filter, with L and C values identical to the 2nd order filter. However, the resistor
values required would be 2.6Ω and 1.07Ω. Finally, the 3rd order filter implementation has a
transfer function of:
1 + RCs
L1C αω s + ω n
T (s) = = 2 n (5.10)
1 + RCs s + αω n s + ω n2
S2 +
L1C
Once again, the corner frequency is the same, thus the same L and C values can be used.
However, the resistor value is changed to be 2.8Ω.
The three filters were each tested using a white-noise voltage source, and the closed-loop gain
roll-off characteristics were simulated as shown in figure 5.8.
Fig 5.8: Frequency response curves of the three filters tested
In these simulations, the load was modeled by the low-voltage side of a distribution
transformer (22/0.415 kV) using a simple RL network with a reactance of 22% and L/R ratio
of 15, shown in figure 5.9.
Kyron Fogarty 36
Fig 5.9: Load model used in filter simulations

It can be seen here that the optimum response is achieved using the two-stage, 4th-order filter,
as expected. However, the order of the filter is reduced due to the parallel inductance of the
load, accounting for the low stop-band roll-off rate. This can be considered a worst-case
situation, as the load is likely to be dominated by resistance, leading to the filter order to be
maximized. Thus, when the generator is isolated, the harmonics are more heavily attenuated,
while the high electrical inertia of the grid assists in reducing the effects of the harmonics in
that mode.
5.4.2 Harmonic Analysis of Real Data

Practical data collected from the generator-supplied inverter circuit (fig. 4.2) was passed
through a fast-Fourier transform (FFT) method in MATLAB® and the resulting frequency-
domain signal was plotted. This plot is shown in figs. 5.10 & 5.11.
Fig. 5.10: Time domain analysis of inverter outputs with harmonic distortion
Kyron Fogarty 37
Fig. 5.11: Frequency domain analysis of inverter outputs with harmonic distortion
It was immediately visible that the magnitudes of the harmonic components were much
smaller than was expected at the IGBT carrier frequencies (approximately 4.5kHz and
subsequent harmonics). This data was then passed through an algorithm designed to
determine the THD for both current and voltage. These results are presented in table 5.4.
Calculation of the order of filter required using MATLAB® resulted in a minimum of a first-
order filter having the capability of reducing each of the THD values to within 2.5% as
prescribed by IEEE std.519.
Table 5.4: Total Harmonic Distortion of Inverter Inputs

& Outputs before filtering
Source Fundamental Magnitude THD (%)
Input Voltage 477 Vp, l-l 662
Input Current 3.22 Ap 2682
Output Voltage 285 Vp, l-n 1859
Output Current 4.73 Ap 3030
This was less than the 3rd order filter required by calculation and the 4th order filter
demonstrated by the simulation previously. This result is significant, since no practically
Kyron Fogarty 38
realizable filter can maintain unity gain up to the cutoff frequency. Thus, some power losses
can be expected with any filter at frequencies of the pass-band close to the cutoff frequency,
and these losses increase with the order of the filter. As such, a low-order filter with a cutoff
frequency as high as possible is optimal in order to maximize the power output and minimize
power losses through the converter.
Harmonic filtering and power loss minimization is of greatest importance when using a
series-connected inverter, such as might be used with the system shown in fig. 4.2. This is
due to the fact that the inverter transfers the full amount of generated power. Power losses in
the order of –0.5 to –1dB may be tolerated, but for a 300 kW generator, this means that only
79.4% of the maximum generated power is available to the load. However, DFIG systems
used a reduced rating inverter, resulting in a maximum of 30% of rated power flowing
through the inverter. Thus, for the same generator capacity, the losses are reduced by as much
as 70% (21 kW loss for super-synchronous DFIG compared with a 61.7 kW loss for series-
connected inverter).
5.4.3. Harmonic Distortion Mitigation Optimisation

As explained in chapter 4.4, PWM-controlled power electronic devices generate significant
harmonic distortion into the current and voltage waveforms. The harmonic frequencies
influencing these waveforms are dominated by multiples of the PWM carrier frequency.
However, from the figures shown above, simple low-order harmonic filters can reduce these
effects significantly. Some harmonic distortion will still be present after filtering that may
cause problems in particularly sensitive equipment.
Two methods exist to improve the attenuation performance of the filter. The first is to
increase the filter order form a 1st order to a 2nd or 3rd order. Using this method returns the
problems encountered in the simulated results, in that the power supplied through the inverter
at the fundamental frequency is also attenuated up to 70-80%. A simple method of
maximizing the harmonic attenuation whilst minimizing fundamental power attenuation is to
increase the carrier frequency. The carrier frequency used in the simulation was 1 kHz, while
the practical test used a carrier frequency of 4.5 kHz. Further increases in the carrier
frequency can result in both an increased attenuation of the carrier as well as an increase in
Kyron Fogarty 39
the filter cutoff frequency. This will also help to reduce the filtering effects on the
fundamental power.
5.5 Difficulties Faced

Some problems encountered during the practical testing phase of the project were relatively
minor, while others were severe. Instrumentation problems hampered data collection.
Analogue meters used to measure power flow and RMS line currents and voltages were
susceptible to harmonic distortion, leading to inflated measurements. In some tests, the
system efficiency (load power: “turbine” power) exceeded 150%. Fourier analysis of the
voltage and current waveforms showed that the presence of harmonics injected by the inverter
contributed significantly to this phenomenon, and so the readings obtained from these meters
was discounted as no more than a reference. Radio-frequency noise from the inverter PWM
switching circuit also caused some interference on signal leads from the voltage and current
transducers to the LabView data interface module when signals were low enough. This was
overcome using software filters during the data manipulation phase of the experiment due to
simplicity and expediency. The most restricting complication was caused by the data control
processing requirements. While a useful, even powerful tool for data collection &
manipulation, it was not capable of performing closed-loop control of the system within the
required timeframe. Further research uncovered that digital signal processors (DSP’s) or
microcontrollers would be needed, as even dedicated PLCs were not able to meet the
necessary speeds. This essentially halted any further practical experimentation, since even
though the DSP was a relatively low cost item, coding and interfacing would require
significant time and effort that was no longer available.
Kyron Fogarty 40
6. FURTHER RESEARCH
Because of time restraints, only a certain fraction of the desired tests were performed during
the course of the project. However, a number of potential avenues for further research and
practical implementation were revealed for a variety of engineering fields, and these are
discussed below.
6.1 Hydro-dynamics and reversible pumps (mechanical/civil)

Since this project’s industrial focus was on VSCF applied in hydroelectric systems using
reversible pumps, it would have been useful in simulations and practical tests to be able to
make use of real data, rather than a set of equations. This is mainly due to the differences in
behaviour of hydraulic turbines depending on their flow control characteristics. Since
reversible pumps are largely ungoverned, such information would be very helpful in more
effectively modeling similar systems in the future. Such data includes the dynamic effects of
varying head and flow on a centrifugal pump in reverse, energy extraction capabilities
(turbine efficiency), rotational speeds, and torque measurements. The main outcome from
this type of research would be the formulation of a meaningful, real-world practical model
that can be used in turbine simulations, and as a reference for more advanced practical
experiments using generators.
6.2 DFIG control system (mechatronics, electronic & communications)

In order to be able to practically implement a DFIG system in the power laboratory here at the
University, the control strategy needs to be realized using microcontrollers or digital signal
processors (DSPs). While the hardware cost is relatively low (approximately $500 from
Texas Instruments), the control strategy complexity requires significant time and effort in
developing an interface between a user and the DFIG. Such involvedness lends itself to a
full-year student project, such as honours, or to a masters or PhD candidate majoring in
electronics or computer systems engineering.
Further research could be performed into interfacing the DSP with SCADA systems as well as
phase-locked loops required in grid synchronisation. Mechatronics or communications
engineering students could undertake this.
Kyron Fogarty 41
6.3 DFIG practical machine tests (power)

Implementing the above control system on a DFIG in the power lab to test practically the
following:
6.3.1 Synchronisation
Grid connection of any generator creates a number of issues that require consideration.
Induction machines cause significant inrush current when the interconnecting circuit breaker
is closed, even when the machine is spinning at speed. Synchronisation of synchronous
machines requires a process of equalizing voltage magnitude, frequency, and phase angle on
both sides of the circuit breaker. Governing the turbine and controlling the generator
excitation control this. However DFIG machines, which are by nature induction and thus can
be connected at any point of the phase cycle, are also effectively synchronous machines and
so can be synchronized using the rotor-side PWM converter in conjunction with any control
over the turbine. Since inrush current can cause disturbances on the utility network, it would
be of great interest to network service providers to determine whether DFIG systems can
reduce or eliminate current inrush if a synchronization process is used. This would also be of
interest when reconnecting an islanded distribution system supported by a DFIG.
6.3.2 Efficiency
A system’s efficiency is important in assessing its viability as an option for practical
consideration. Induction generators sacrifice energy through slip when directly connected to
a grid system. Further practical study into the system’s slip-energy recovery capability and
inverter losses by either honours students or project students majoring in power engineering
would be of significance and would aid in assessing the practical benefits or downfalls of
DFIG systems in comparison with conventional generating systems.
6.3.3 Transient Stability

Analysis of a generator’s ability to respond to sudden changes in driving or loading conditions
is an important study in machine operations [33]. The main interest in transient stability
analysis is the performance of generators when presented with disturbances in loads, such as
load shedding, loss of other generators in the power system, and faults. Since the system
Kyron Fogarty 42
proposed in this project is implemented using an induction machine, sudden loss of line
voltage can cause problems with generator voltage field collapse [35]. Thus, further studies
into this aspect would be of great importance when considering practical implementation.
Another factor that should also be considered is the effects of dynamics in flow to the turbine,
which in the proposed system is completely ungoverned. The potential for frequency and
voltage instability as a result is worth investigation, and can have consequences in relation to
other ungoverned systems (fixed gate, uncontrolled flow, such as diesel-hydrogen hybrid
engines, currently being researched at the University of Tasmania) and under-governed
systems, such as wind turbines.
6.4 Harmonic mitigation and frequency domain analysis (power/electronics)

The use of power electronics for the frequency control component of the proposed system
leads to the introduction of harmonic currents and voltages that may impact on the system’s
IEEE-519 compliance. While during this project basic passive harmonic filtering
requirements were investigated, the specific filter characteristics like power losses and
component values were not considered. However, the possibility of resonance frequencies
caused by the filter components, transmission-line characteristics, and nearby reactive loads
(induction motors, refrigeration compressors, etc) in combination may cause problems with
such loads. Further study into this possibility may be helpful in determining whether it may
be a problem.
Kyron Fogarty 43
6. CONCLUSIONS
Variable speed constant frequency systems are achievable using wound rotor induction
machines connected in a doubly fed arrangement. This configuration is capable of producing
both active and reactive power, as well as being able to spontaneously excite a rotating
electromagnetic field in the machine’s stator circuit allowing both grid-connected and stand-
alone operation. While variable speed systems are often synonymous with wind energy
conversion systems, it has also been used in hydro energy systems as a method of increasing
or improving turbine efficiencies. Simulations of the proposed DFIG model demonstrated a
capability of generating power at a large range of hydraulic flow rates for speeds both above
and below the machine’s synchronous speed. The model also showed a capacity for
generating power at a leading and lagging power factor, likening it to a synchronous machine
in this sense. This flexibility in power factor enables the DFIG system to provide support to a
low bus voltage or a high bus voltage as required by either generating at leading or lagging
power factor respectively. The main disadvantage with the Simulink model developed in this
project was the inability to support the theoretical findings with practical data. However,
future engineering student projects should be able to confirm these findings in the lab once a
DSP control system can be developed. Also, frequency analysis showed a tendency for an
inverter-featured system to introduce significant harmonic currents and voltages into a
network. These harmonics can be satisfactorily filtered to comply with IEEE 519 limits
whilst maintaining a maximum transfer of power from the inverter by implementing a 1st
order filter and increasing the PWM carrier frequency in the inverter stage.
Kyron Fogarty 44
7. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
A number of people have provided assistance and advice to me over the course of this project,
and I would like to thank them for their help. In particular, I would like to thank Steve
Buckland, Rayner Page, Nick Wynwood, Michael Lemon, and the rest of the engineering
team at Tyco Tamar for their continued technical support and comprehensive advice. My
academic supervisors, Dr. Mohammed Kashem and Mr. David Edwards (first semester, and
work on harmonics and their mitigation), also deserve special thanks for their guidance and
expertise. Others who have contributed to the success of this project have been workshop
supervisor Steve Avery, John McCulloch, UTAS engineering PhD candidate Aktar Uj Jaman,
Brian Dabner from Power and Automation, and Graeme Hanna from Teco. I also would like
to thank my wife Rebecca for her patience and encouragement.
Kyron Fogarty 45
APPENDIX A: EXPERIMENTAL TEST EQUIPMENT

SPECIFICATIONS
Electric Generator
7.5HP Crompton Parkinson Induction Machine, Wound Rotor type
4 Pole | 1400RPM
Stator Ratings: Voltage – 415Volts | Current – 11.5Amps | ∆-connected
Rotor Ratings: Current – 35Amps
Machine Equivalent Circuit
ES = 415 Vrms
RS = 1.115 Ω
LS = 5.974 mH
RR` = 1.083 Ω
LR` = 5.974 mH
LM = 203.7 mH
Prime Mover
10HP MacFarlane DC motor
1200/2400RPM
Variable Frequency Drive

Danfoss 22kW VSD Model NO. VLT6000 HVAC
Capacitor Bank Calculations

Induction Generator Magnetising Inductance = 203.7mH
For complete VAr compensation, QReq’d = QSupp’d:
V2 V2
∴ QSupp 'd = = = QRe q 'd
XC XL
1
∴ XC = XL ⇒ = 2πfLm
2πfC
1
∴C = ≈ 49.74 µF
(2πf ) 2 Lm
Kyron Fogarty 46
APPENDIX B: MATLAB® SIMULATION MODELS
Baseline Model
Model Data:
%%Initialisation
V_base = 415; %Base Voltage
P_base = 5e3; %Base VA
I_base = P_base/(sqrt(3)*V_base); %Base Current
Z_base = V_base^2/P_base; %Base Impedance
F_base = 50; %Base Frequency
%% Asynchronous machine data

Pnom = 5e3; %Nominal power (VA)
Vnom = 415; %Line-Line voltage (Vrms)
Fnom = 50; %Hz
Rs = 1.115; %Ohms
Lls = 0.005974; %Henries
Rr = 1.083; %Ohms
Llr = 0.005974; %Henries
Lm = 0.2037; %Henries
H = 0.089; %Inertia constant (kg.m^2)
F = 0.00; %Friction factor (N.m.s)
p = 2; %Number of pole pairs
%% Local Load data

V_load = Vnom; %Load nominal voltage (V)
F_load = Fnom; %Load nominal frequency (Hz)
P_load = 3e3; %Load active Power (W)
Ql_load = 0; %Load Inductive Reactive Power (+VArs)
Qc_load = 0; %Load Capacitive Reactive Power (-VArs)
%% distribution system data

Vnom_m = 33e3; %grid Line-to-line voltage
F_g = 50; %grid frequency (Hz)
Pnom_t = 10e6; %Distribution transformer VA rating
t_prim_param = [Vnom_m 0.067466 2.7343e-005]; %Transformer Primary parameters
t_sec_param = [Vnom 9.4917e-010 3.8469e-013]; %Transformer Secondary parameters
%% END OF FILE
Kyron Fogarty 47
Doubly-Fed Induction Generator Model
Kyron Fogarty 48
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Kyron Fogarty 52
MATLAB® Variable Specifications File

% Asynchronous machine data
Pnom=150e3; % Nominal power (VA)
Vnom=415; % Line-Line voltage (Vrms)
Fnom=50; %Hz
Rs=0.00706; %pu
Lls=0.171; %pu
Rr=0.005; %pu
Llr=0.156; %pu
Lm=2.9; %pu
H=5.04; %Inertia constant (s)
F=0.01; %Friction factor (pu)
p=3; %Number of pairs of poles
%PWM data
PWM_freq=27*Fnom;
%DC link
Vdc_nom=1200; %Volts
C_DClink=10000e-6; %Farads
%Choke data
R_RL=0.30/100; %pu
L_RL=0.30; %pu
%Turbine data
Pmec=150e3/0.9; % Nominal power (W)
power_C=0.93; %pu
speed_C=1.2; %pu
Kyron Fogarty 53
APPENDIX C: COMPONENT PRICE LIST

The prices below are an estimation of market value current at the time of writing this report.
A comparison is made on materials only (except known turbine manufacturing costs) for a
system using the proposed DFIG strategy and a reversible pump and casing, and a
synchronous generator system using a Kaplan turbine including casing. For simplicity, only a
single size system is compared (100kW). Costs are broken down into separate components
where possible, and do not include protection equipment, installation costs, pipe work, or
other components common to both systems. Where possible, make and part numbers are also
shown. Prices are exclusive of GST.
Fixed Speed/Fixed Frequency Generating System

155kVA/140kW Synchronous Generator (Marelli $29500
Motori, Italy, 6 pole)
Programmable Logic Controller & Electronic $9800
Speed Governor (Allen Bradley Compact
Logix 1769-series)
Kaplan Turbine Runner & Casing (Tyco) $185000
Total $224300
Variable Speed/Constant Frequency Generating System

132kW Wound Rotor Induction Machine ~$74000
(Seimens 6 Pole 6S/46142 Slip-ring Motor,
from Elektro-Maschinen-Zentrale GmbH, Germany)9
30kW Inverter Power Electronics Components $16000
2x Line Choke/filter (Allen Bradley, 1321-3R160B) $2000
Microcontroller (Texas Instruments, includes $2600
programming board)
9
Elektro-Maschinen-Zentrale GmbH offer new and used rotating machines on an auction-style basis. Customers
make an offer for items, which are either accepted or rejected. EMZ would not reply to email queries, and so the
price shown is three times the price for an equivalent cage rotor machine. This seemed to be a reasonable cost
assumption as shown ahead.
Kyron Fogarty 54
Reversible Pump & Casing (Thompsons Kelly $26982

& Lewis, Super Titan 450x500-375, 980RPM)
Total $121582
Materials Price Difference: $102718
For a 150 kW system, it is clearly advantageous (cost-wise) to utilize the VSCF technology
on the proviso that an equivalent wound rotor induction machine is less than $176718 (the
price difference shown + the estimated price of the Seimens WRIG). Significant cost savings
can be initially channeled into R&D, thereafter flowing into business profits.
Kyron Fogarty 55
APPENDIX D: PUMP EFFICIENCY DYNAMICS

The data used in the turbine models was based on the information contained in table D.1 and
figures D.1 & D.2. The data relates to the pump selected for this project, indicated in
Appendix C. Torque applied by the hydrodynamic force to the generator is determined by the
equations D.1 & D2.
Q = av
d
v= iω
2
πd '2 d i
∴Q = ω (D.1)
8
8Q
∴ω =
πd '2 d i
60ω 240Q
∴ Nη = =
2π (πd ')2 d i
9.55Pt
T= (D.2)
Nη
Fig. D.1: Relationship between head and flow rate
Kyron Fogarty 56
Fig. D.2: Relationship between flow rate & applied turbine speed & torque
Kyron Fogarty 57
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Kyron Fogarty 59
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Kyron Fogarty 60

Bachelor of Engineering (Electrical Power) Honours Research Project 2006 Variable Speed Constant Frequency Generating System For Small Hydro

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Variable Speed Constant

Final Report and Thesis

6.1 Hydro-dynamics and reversible pumps (mechanical/civil) ............................................ 41

3. GENERAL SYSTEM OVERVIEW

supplemented or recovered depending on whether the machine is operating at sub- or super-

[30-32], resulting in the equations below:

4.1.1 Reversible Pump Selection

4.2.2 Synchronous Generators

4.2.3 Induction Generators

4.2.3.1 Squirrel Cage Induction Generators

4.2.3.2 Doubly-fed Wound Rotor Induction Generators

4.3 Frequency Control

4.3.2 Frequency Converters

A simple bridge rectifier circuit using power diodes is typically used;

Fig. 4.6: Circuit for a typical Buck-Boost converter.

4.3.2.2 Variable Speed/Frequency Drives

4.4 Harmonic Effects

Fig 4.8: Frequency domain analysis of PWM waveform

5. RESULTS & DISCUSSIONS

5.1 Design Outline

5.2 Baseline Comparison

5.3 Doubly Fed Connection

5.3.1 Model Description

5.3.2 Initial Results at Various Flow Rates

5.3.3 Reactive Power Generation

Fig. 5.4 Control system block from Simulink DFIG model

5.3.4 Sub-Synchronous Operation

Fig. 5.6:Reactive power for various Q_ref set points at sub-synchronous

5.3.5 Model Shortcomings & Improvements

5.4 Harmonic Considerations

5.4.1 Theoretical Design and Simulation

Fig. 5.7: Simple L-C filter with capacitor shunt resistance

Fig 5.8: Frequency response curves of the three filters tested

Fig 5.9: Load model used in filter simulations

5.4.2 Harmonic Analysis of Real Data

Table 5.4: Total Harmonic Distortion of Inverter Inputs

5.4.3. Harmonic Distortion Mitigation Optimisation

5.5 Difficulties Faced

6.1 Hydro-dynamics and reversible pumps (mechanical/civil)

6.2 DFIG control system (mechatronics, electronic & communications)

6.3 DFIG practical machine tests (power)

6.3.3 Transient Stability

6.4 Harmonic mitigation and frequency domain analysis (power/electronics)

APPENDIX A: EXPERIMENTAL TEST EQUIPMENT

Variable Frequency Drive

Capacitor Bank Calculations

APPENDIX B: MATLAB® SIMULATION MODELS

%% Asynchronous machine data

%% Local Load data

%% distribution system data

Doubly-Fed Induction Generator Model

MATLAB® Variable Specifications File

APPENDIX C: COMPONENT PRICE LIST

Fixed Speed/Fixed Frequency Generating System

Variable Speed/Constant Frequency Generating System

Reversible Pump & Casing (Thompsons Kelly $26982

Materials Price Difference: $102718

APPENDIX D: PUMP EFFICIENCY DYNAMICS

Fig. D.1: Relationship between head and flow rate

[18] D. Kastha and T. B. Isha, "Analysis and simulation of a novel stand-alone