Biology 

● Full Notes + IA (HL) (23/24) -​ ​https://thesciencecodex.wordpress.com/  

+ Genetics Notes: 
https://drive.google.com/open?id=0BxgKFTrIv0CMeWk3RDZxVXdZMzg  
● Topic 6 notes, by learning point 
https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/0B7GYYAwXfw8FTEhzRTU1Si10d0U?usp=sharing 
● Topic ​2 notes, by learning point 
https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B8lHqMoG3pMbVHRFR3pkN3dncGc/view?usp=sharing 
 
● ​Websites 
○ Bioninja.com 
○ biologyelite.com 
● Bioknowledgy.info = slideshows for each topic point 
● IBWorld.Me is a pretty good site (based off the Oxford textbook exactly) 
● https://learn.ib.academy/subjects/biology-hl/​ is pretty good, it’s essentially a condensed 
version of the textbook 
● http://moniquelowesib.weebly.com/topic-1-cell-biology.html​ has almost everything 
(Google the link to unlock site if necessary) 
Online notes: BioKnowledgy (website) 
Online Notes: ​http://www.biology.arizona.edu/DEFAULT.HTML 
online notes: 
https://thesciencecodex.wordpress.com/ib-biology-notes/ 
Youtube: 
Alex Lee 
Cheryl Haus 
Dan Rott 
IB Blueprint (exam question type of videos) 
Stephanie Castle  
 
IB bio guide  
http://sdgj.cdhuaying.com/ckfinder/userfiles/files/9a6ff27578e18e3f1023a4dc046beef1.pdf 
 
 

 
   
 Chemistry 
 
YouTube: 
MSJChem 
Mr. Weng Chemistry 
Richard Thornley 
Paul Anderson (Bozeman Science) 
 
Chem textbook suggestions and additional resources:  
https://www.sharingtheidea.com/best-ib-chemistry-textbooks/ 
 
Calculations template for IB Chemistry -- do these, and you’ll be set for every quantitative 
question on the IB HL and SL Chem exams: 
 
http://www.mrwengibchemistry.com/uploads/8/1/5/3/8153863/ib_chemistry_calculation_setting
_out_templates_2.docx 
 
Great flashcards to help you learn the differences between the enthalpies and their definitions: 
https://quizlet.com/5747743/flashcards 
Flashcards for most general terms (HL terms): 
https://quizlet.com/11529663/hl-chemistry-ib-definitions-flash-cards/  
Good collection of notes for some areas: ​http://chemguide.co.uk/  
 
I made these notes for chemistry SL: 
https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/0B-6sZS5ggZpUQmVwcTVjTTdTMFk?usp=sharing 
 
Online website for SL notes: 
https://thesciencecodex.wordpress.com/ib-chemistry/ 
 
Some videos made by my chem teacher 
Note: It is directed toward the AP Exam, but there is a ton of overlap in its topics 
http://chemistrynut.weebly.com/ 
 
 
 
Chapter 11: Measurement and Uncertainties 
11.3; spectroscopy 
 
Within spectroscopy, there are three main times that need to be known. These are mass 

spectroscopy, infrared spectroscopy and proton nmr (h nmr). Each of these have diverse functions 

and are used to investigate different properties of organic compounds.  

For example, . the mass spectrometer, in this it is not as simplified as in other chapters. Here, as the 

ion is entered through the spectrometer, it breaks down into certain fragments. For example, if the 

mass of a sample is 60, and the mass spectrometer detects a fragment at 45, then this is a mass 

difference of 15. Each mass difference correlates to a particular ion. A mass difference of 15, for 

example, is for the CH3. (check table 28 of data booklet) 

Secondly, for infrared spectroscopy, this is quite similar to physics. By a process called resonance, 

greenhouse gases in the atmosphere absorb incoming infrared photons from electromagnetic 

radiation. This causes them to, on average, increase their temperature and as they re-radiate this 

energy to earth, these greenhouse gases contribute to global warming. So for infrared spectroscopy, 

usually you will be given a graph of % transmittance against wave number. Where the 

transmittance is at a peak low, then greenhouse gases have absorved it here. Compare the wave 

number to the actual value by data booklet and this will help identify.  

 
 
Notes Partially Submitted By : /u/AyySam 
 
Chapter 2 : Atomic Structure  
 
Atoms consist of three kinds of particles  
● The proton  
● The neutron 
● The electron 
 
The Atomic Number​ : Number of protons in the nucleus of an atom in an element. Different elements have 
different atomic numbers.  
 
The Mass Number​ : Number of protons plus the number of neutrons make up the mass number. 
 
Radioisotopes​ : Elements having an unstable nucleus are termed as radioactive. They have various uses.  
 
Relative Atomic Mass (in AMU) ​: Mass of an atom compared to 1/12th the mass of a Carbon - 12 atom is 
called the relative atomic mass.  
 
Mass​ ​Spectrometer​ : An instrument used to determine the relative atomic mass of an element. It has total 
of 5 stages.  
 
- Vapourization​ : The sample is injected into the system where is is vapourized and heated, 
producing gaseous atoms or molecules  
 
- Ionization​ : Gaseous atoms are bombarded with high energy electrons, generating positively 
charged species.  
 
- Acceleration​ : Positively charged species are attracted to the negatively charged plates and are 
then accelerated in the electric field.  
 
- Deflection​ : The positive ions are deflected by a magnetic eld perpendicular to their path. The 
degree of deflection depends on the mass-to-charge ratio (the m/z ratio). The species with the 
smallest mass, m, and the highest charge, z, will be defected the most. Particles with no charge 
are not defected in the magnetic field.  
 
- Detection​ : Detector detects the species. Ion hits the counter and the signal is generated.  
 
The Electromagnetic Spectrum (EMS) ​: A spectrum of wavelengths that comprise the various types of 
electromagnetic radiation 
 
Chapter 3 : Periodicity 
 
Periodic Table (Names)  
 
  
 
       
Valence Electrons : The number of electrons in the outer shell of an atom which it loses or gains to attain 
a stable electronic config are termed as Valence Electrons  
 
Atomic Radius : The radius of a circle, Rc, is the distance from the centre of the circle to a point on the 
circumference. It is easily measured and has a definite value. 
- Across a period : Atomic radius decreases as effective nuclear charge increases which implies 
that the attraction between valence shell electrons and the nucleus increases which reduces the 
atomic radius 
- Down a group the atomic radius increases as the number of shells increase. (Shielding Effect) 
 
The ionization energy (IE) : The minimum energy required to remove an electron from a neutral gaseous 
atom in its ground-state. 
- Across a Period : As the effective nuclear charge, Ze, increases from left to right across a period 
the valence electrons are pulled closer to the nucleus, so the attraction between the electrons and 
the nucleus increases. This makes it more difficult to remove an electron from the atom. 
 
- Atomic radii increase down a group, making it easier to remove an electron from the atom.  
       
The Electron Affinity (Eea) : The energy required to detach an electron from the singly charged negative 
ion in the gaseous phase. The trends are same as the ionization energy mentioned above. 
 
Electronegativity : Electronegativity is the tendency of an atom to gain a shared pair of electrons from its 
covalent bond. Most electronegative element is Fluorine.  
- Down a group from top to bottom electronegativity values decrease because atomic radii increase 
and although the nuclear charge, Z, increases, its effect is shielded by the core electrons 
Exothermic Reaction : A type of reaction where heat is given out to the surroundings. The products are 
much more stable in an exothermic reaction rather than the reactants.  
 
Enthalpy : The internal energy stored in reactants is called an enthalpy.  
 
Q = MC(Delta)T 
 
Energetics  
 
The standard enthalpy change of formation of a compound : The enthalpy change when one mole of the 
compound is formed from its elements in their standard states at 298 K and 100 kPa pressure.  
 
The standard enthalpy change of combustion, H , is the enthalpy change when one mole of a substance is 
completely combusted in oxygen under standard conditions (298 K and 100 kPa pressure).  
 
Average Bond Enthalpy : This is defined as the energy needed to break one mole of a bond in a gaseous 
molecule averaged over similar compounds.  
 
 
Chemical Kinetics  
Factors Affecting Rate of a Reaction  
 
- Temperature : As temperature increases, there will be more collisions per second. More number 
of particles have a greater activation energy now which leads to more number of successful 
collisions, which increases the overall rate of a reaction  
 
Notes Submitted By : /u/AyySam 
Full notes for the HL Chemistry course and IA (23/24) - https://thesciencecodex.wordpress.com/ 
 
Organic Chemistry 
-​ ​Homologous series:​ series of compounds that can be grouped together based on similarities in 

their structure and reactions 

-  Functional group:​ reactive parts of the molecules (commonly contain elements such as O, N, C 
or rarely a halogen) 
-​ ​Fractional distillation:​ physical separation process that uses differences in boiling points to 

separate the mixture into fractions of similar boiling point 

-​ ​Structural isomers:​ compounds that have the same ​chemical​ formula but a different ​structural 

formula 
-​ ​Saturated compound:​ contains carbon-carbon single bonds 

-​ ​Unsaturated compound:​ contains double and/or triple carbon-carbon bonds 

-​ ​When determining whether a compound is primary, secondary, or tertiary, look at the carbon 

attached to the ​functional group 

-​ ​Hydrogenation:​ addition of hydrogen to unsaturated hydrocarbons in the presence of a catalyst 

o​ ​If benzene contained three carbon-carbon double bonds, the enthalpy change of 
hydrogenation would be ~3 times that of cyclohexane 
o​ ​However, experiments show that it is much less than this 
o​ ​Difference in energy is known as the ​resonance energy​ or ​delocalization energy 
 o​ ​Describes the enhanced stability of the benzene molecule resulting from the delocalization 
of the electrons 
-​ ​Homolytic fission:​ two electrons of a covalent bond are split evenly between two atoms 

resulting in two free-radicals that each have a ​single​ electron 

o​ ​Free-radical:​ species that is formed when a molecule undergoes ​homolytic fission 
-​ ​Heterolytic fission:​ bond creates a cation and an anion, as the electrons involved in the bond are 

unevenly split between the two atoms (both electrons move together to form a new bond) 
  
-​ ​Substitution reaction:​ replacement of individual atoms with other single atoms or with a small 
group of atoms 
-​ ​Addition reaction:​ two molecules are added together to produce a single molecule 

-​ ​Elimination reaction:​ removal of two substituents from the molecule 

 
3 stages in ​free-radical substitution​ (e.g. ): 
1.  Initiation 
-​ ​Homolytic fission of the chlorine molecule in the presence of UV light produces two chlorine 

radicals 
2.  Propagation 
-​ ​Reaction between methane and a chlorine free-radical 

-​ ​Production of methyl radical 

-​ ​Methyl radical reacts with a chlorine molecule, producing the desired halogenoalkane 

(chloromethane), along with a chlorine radical that can now take part in the first propagation 
reaction 
3.  Termination 
-​ ​Reduces concentration of radicals in the reaction mixture 

-​ ​Slow down rate of reaction, eventually stopping it 

  
-​ ​Addition polymerization:​ reaction of many small ​monomers​ that contain a carbon-carbon 

double bond, linking together to form a ​polymer 

-​ ​e.g. ethene monomer undergoes addition polymerization to produce the monomer polyethene 

-​ ​NOTE: 

o​ ​When drawing diagrams to represent polymerization, you must draw continuation bonds 
through the brackets 
o​ ​Indicate to show that the polymer repeats 
-​ ​Any monomer that contains a carbon-carbon double bond can undergo polymerization 

-​ ​Polyester: condensation polymerization of a diol and a dicarboxylic acid 

  
-​ ​Alkanes: 

o​ ​Halogenation (free-radical substitution) 

-​ ​Alkenes: 

o​ ​Test for unsaturation 

o​ ​Hydrogenation 
o​ ​Halogenation 
 o​ ​Addition polymerization 
-​ ​Alcohols 

o​ ​Oxidation 
o​ ​Esterification (condensation reaction): carboxylic acid + alcohol 
  
Reaction of Alkyl Halides 
-​ ​Nucleophiles:​ contain a lone pair of electrons and may carry a full negative charge; seeks 

positive​ center 
-​ ​Highly electronegative halogen atom creates polar carbon-halogen bond 

o​ ​Partial positive charge makes carbon atom susceptible to attack by nucleophiles 

-  Decreasing stability of carbocation from due to diminishing inductive effects 
o​ ​Inductive effects​ have a significant effect on which nucleophilic substitution mechanism 
takes place 
o​ ​Electronegative halogen has a very polarizing effect on the sigma bond 
o​ ​Alkyl groups bonded to a carbocation have a positive inductive effect, stabilizing the 
charged carbocation by donating electron density and reducing the positive charge on the 
carbon atom 
o​ ​Reason why tertiary halogenoalkanes have a tendency to undergo reactions via the 
mechanism 
-  Secondary​ and ​tertiary​ alkyl halides undergo reactions 
-​ ​"flipped umbrella" 

-  Primary​ and ​secondary​ alkyl halides undergo reactions 

-​ ​Rate of reaction depends on concentration of both reactants 

-​ ​Rate of reaction depends on structure of reactants 

o​ ​Primary alkyl halides react faster than secondary alkyl halides 

o​ ​Tertiary alkyl halides ​do not​ react because they are too bulky at the end 
  
Factors affecting the rate of nucleophilic substitution 
1.  Identity of the halogen 
-  In mechanisms, rate-determining step involves the heterolytic fission of the carbon-halogen 
bond, in which two bonding electrons move to the more electronegative atom 
-​ ​Better leaving group will help achieve this step quicker 

2.  Classes of halogenoalkane: primary, secondary, tertiary 

3.  Choice of solvent 
-  reactions are best performed in ​protic​, ​polar solvents 
o​ ​Can hydrogen bond 
o​ ​e.g. ethanol, carboxylic acids, ammonia 
o​ ​Can solvate the nucleophile, therefore it cannot attack the electrophile (surrounds 
nucleophile) 
-  reactions are best performed in ​aprotic​, p ​ olar solvents 
o​ ​No H-bonding 
o​ ​e.g. ethoxyethane, ethanenitrile, dimethyl sulfoxide 
o​ ​Can solvate positive ions, but not negative ions 
 o​ N
​ ot good at forming a solvent shell around the nucleophile 

  
-​ ​Solvation:​ process by which solvent molecules surround the dissolved ions 
o​ ​The smaller the nucleophile, the more effective the solvation 
o​ ​Because nucleophile is encapsulated by the solvation shell, it is less effective in forming an 
intermediate, therefore reactions would be favored 
-​ ​Hydroxide ion is a better nucleophile than the water molecule 

o​ ​Negatively charged ion has a far greater attraction for an electrophile than a neutral 
molecule 
-​ ​Steric hindrance:​ more alkyl groups on a carbon create more steric hindrance; measure of 

resistance to an attacking nucleophile/electrophile on an atom 

  
Electrophilic addition reactions 
-​ ​Electrophile:​ electron-poor species capable of accepting an electron pair; seeks ​negative​ center 

-​ ​Alkenes are more susceptible to electrophilic attacks because of the delocalized electrons above 

and below the plane of nuclei of the bonding atoms due to bonding 
o​ ​Provides reduced level of steric hindrance to the attacking electrophile 
-​ ​Markovnikov's rule:​ hydrogen atom will preferentially bond to the carbon atom of the alkene 

that is already bonded to the largest number of hydrogen substituents 

o​ ​"the rich get richer" 
-  Interhalogens:​ compounds in which two or more halogens are combined in a molecule 
  
Electrophilic substitution reactions 
-​ ​Benzene prefers substitution reactions 

-​ ​Nitration of benzene 

-​ ​First step requires nitronium ion electrophile to be generated 

o​ ​Pure nitric acid contains only a small concentration of this electrophile 

o​ ​Nitrating mixture​ of sulfuric acid and nitric acid at generates a higher concentration of 
nitronium ions 
o​ ​Sulfuric acid ​protonates​ nitric acid, which releases a water molecule to generate the 
electrophile 
  
Reduction of carboxylic acids 
-​ ​Commonly used reducing agents: 

o​ ​ - lithium aluminum hydride 

§​ ​Stronger - can reduce carboxylic acids to primary alcohols 
o​ ​ - sodium borohydride 
§​ ​Not as strong - can reduce only aldehydes and ketones to alcohols 
o​ ​Reduction of aldehyde to primary alcohol 
o​ ​Reduction of ketones to secondary alcohols 
Chiral carbon:​ carbon that is hybridized with four ​different​ groups attached to it 
-​ ​To determine whether the groups attached to a carbon are identical or different, look at each 

entire group​ attached to the carbon, not just the atoms bonded directly to that carbon 
  
-​ ​Constitutional isomers: 
o​ ​Skeletal:​ different structural backbone 
o​ ​Positional:​ different position of substituent or functional group 
o​ ​Functional group:​ different functional group 
-​ ​Stereoisomers: differ in the 3-D arrangement of their atoms in space 

-​ ​Enantiomers:​ non-superimposable, mirror images of each other 

-​ ​Diastereomers:​ non-superimposable, non-mirror images; molecules with more than one chiral 

center; different configurations at one or more but not all chiral centers 
-​ ​Optically active organic compound can be identified by finding a chiral carbon (enantiomers and 

diastereomers) 
-​ ​Racemic mixture (racemate):​ 50:50 mixture of two enantiomers which does ​not​ rotate 

plane-polarized light 
 
Option D: Medicinal Chemistry  
 
D.1 Pharmaceutical products and drug action 
Medicines and Drugs: Terminology 
 
Drug:​ a chemical that affects how the body works. This can include for positive and negative changes.  
 
Medicine:  ​a  substance  that  improves  health.  Medicines  can  be  natural  or  synthetic  (contain  beneficial 
drugs).  Synthetic  medicine  contain  other  ingredients  that  are  inactive  but  help  with  the  presentation  and 
administration of the drug. The beneficial effect of a medicine is called its ​therapeutic effect.  
 
Drugs Can be Administered in Different Ways  
 
The  way  a  drug  is  delivered  to  a  patient’s  body  depends  on  factors  like  the chemical nature of the drug, 
the condition of the patient and the most effective way of getting the drug to the target organ.  
 
Methods:  
- Oral  
- Taken by the mouth.  
- Ex. Pills, capsules, tablets, liquids. 
- Inhalation  
- Vapour breathed in / smoking  
- Ex.  medication  for  respiratory  conditions  like  asthma,  drugs  of  abuse  like  cocaine  or 
nicotine.  
- Skin patches  
- Absorbed directly from the skin into the blood.  
- Ex. hormone treatments like estrogen or nicotine patches.  
- Suppositories  
- Inserted into the rectum.  
 - Ex. treatment of digestive illnesses  
- Eye or ear drops  
- Liquids delivered directly to the opening.  
- Ex. treatment of eye or ear infections.  
- Parenteral - by injection  
- Intramuscular - into muscle (ex. many vaccines)  
- Intravenous - into the blood, the fastest method of injection (ex. Local anaesthetics)  
- Subcutaneous - under the skin (ex. dental injections) 
 
 

 
 
Bioavailability of Drugs: the Amount That Reaches the Target  
 
- Not  all  of  an  administered  drug  reaches  its  target  in  the body because the drug may be be broken 
down in metabolic processes or may be incompletely absorbed into the blood.  
- The fraction of an administered drug that reaches the blood supply is known as its bioavailability.  
- Drugs  that  are  administered  by  intravenous  methods  have  a  bioavailability  of  100%,  so  this  is 
used as a point of comparison.  
- Bioavailability  is  important  when  calculating  how  much  of  a  drug  should  be  administered  - 
known as the dosage.  
 
Factors that Influence Bioavailability  
 
Administration of the Drug  
- The  relatively  low  bioavailability  of  a  drug  taken  orally  is  known  as  the  first-pass  effect  which 
means that only 20%-40% of an orally ingested drug may reach the bloodstream  
 - This  is  because  these  drugs  pass  into  the  digestive  system  where  biological  catalysts  known  as 
enzymes may alter them chemically.  
- Once  absorbed  from  the  digestive  system,  they  are  passed  in  the  blood  to  the liver where further 
metabolic breakdown reactions occur.  
 
- Other  methods  avoid  the  first-pass  effect  because  they  can  provide  more  direct  routes  into  the 
bloodstream.  
- Therefore,  an  oral  dose  of  a  drug need to be 4 times more than the dosage of the same drug given 
intravenously.  
 
Solubility of the Drug  
- Water  solubility  is  important  for  circulation  in  the  aqueous  solution  in  the  blood  but  lipid 
solubility helps in the passage of the drug through membranes during absorption.  
 
Functional Groups in the Drug  
- Functional groups in the drug can also influence bioavailability, especially in acid-base groups.  
- The  pKa  and  pKb  values  of  these  groups  in  the  molecules  determine  the  charges  carried  on  the 
drug at different pH values and hence, the reactivity and solubility in different parts of the body.  
 
Side Effects  
- The  physiological  effects  of  a  drug  can  be  either  a  therapeutic  effect  (the  intended physiological 
effect) or a side effect (unintended physiological effect).  
 
- Side  effects  are defined as physiological effects which unintended and they vary from one drug to 
another and with the same drug in different people.  
- Sometimes side effects can be helpful (ex. aspirin helps protect against heart disease).  
- Side effects can be benign (ex. causing drowsiness, nausea or constipation)  
- Side effects can also be adverse such as causing damage to organs.  
 
Tolerance and Addiction  
- When  a  person  is  given  doses  of  a  drug,  tolerance  can  develop,  which  can  lead  to  a  reduced 
response to the drug for the same dose.  
- Higher  doses  are  needed  to  produce  the  same  effect  and  this  increases  the  chances  of  toxic 
side-effects.  
 
- A related condition is dependence or addiction.  
- This  happened  when  a  patient  becomes  dependent  on  the  drug  in  order  to  feel  normal  but  they 
undergo withdrawal symptoms if the drug is not taken.  
- Withdrawal  symptoms  can  be  mild  like  headaches  because  of  withdrawal  from  dependence  of 
caffeine.  
- These symptoms can also be serious if the drug is toxic or shown tolerance like opiates.  
 
Dosage  
 - The  dosing  regime  for  a  drugs  is  the  specific  quantity  of  drug  to  be  take  at  one  time,  and  the 
frequency of administration.  
- Calculation  of  dosage  must  consider  bioavailability  as  well  as  the  possible  side-effects  and 
potential problems of tolerance and addiction.  
 
- There are quite a few complication for determining dosage that come from:  
- Variables like age, sex, weight  
- Environmental factors and diet  
- Interactions with other drugs  
- The  dosage  should  result  in  constant  levels  of  drug  in  the  blood  but this is impossible to achieve 
unless  you  use  an  IV  drip  -  other  methods  lead  to  fluctuations  between  administrations  of  the 
drug.  
- It’s  important  that  the  concentration  of  the  drug  in  the bloodstream should stay in a certain range 
and  if  it  is  above  this  range  that  side-effect  may  occur  and  below  it,  the  drug  may  not  be 
therapeutically effective.  
- The target range is known as the ​therapeutic window​.  
 
- The  range  of  concentrations  that  defines  the  therapeutic  window  varies  from  one  drug  to  the 
other.  
- For  drugs  with  a  small  therapeutic  window,  drug  levels  in  the  blood  have  to  be  monitored  very 
closely to maintain an effective dosing without giving a toxic dose.  
 
- The therapeutic window can be quantified as the ​therapeutic index (TI).  
- This  is  the  ratio  of  the  dose  that  produces  toxicity  to  the  dose  that produces a clinically effective 
response in a population.  
 
Important terms:  
- The  minimum  effective  dose ED 50, is the dose that produces the therapeutic effect in 50% of the 
population.  
- The lethal dose, LD 50 is the dose that is lethal to 50% of the population - used in animal trials.  
- The  toxic  dose  TD  50,  is  the  dose  that  is  toxic  to  50%  of  the  population  -  this  is  used  in  human 
studies.  
 
- In animal studies, lethal doses are determined but in human trials the upper limit is the toxic dose.  
 
- Therapeutic index:  
- In animals TI = LD50/ED50  
- In humans TI = TD50/ED50  
- The  therapeutic  index  is  a  measure  of  a  drug’s  safety  because  a  higher  value  indicates  a  wide 
margin between doses that are effective and doses that are toxic.  
- A low TI means a low margin of safety, where a slight change in the dose may produce a negative 
side-effect.  
 
 
How drugs work 
1. Signal transmission - Brain, spinal cord, peripheral nerves  
a. At the synapse of neuron  
i. Blocking a neurotransmitter  
ii. Change shape of neurotransmitter  
iii. Increase the activity/effect of the neurotransmitter  
2. Cellular action  
a. Metabolic reaction inside cell - stop or enhance  
b. Attach to cell receptors to initiate metabolic reaction inside cell. 
3. Endocrine  
a. Inhibit hormones  
b. Mimic hormones  
 
Therapeutic index = LD50/ED50  
Ex. 100/10 - just a ratio  
 
The lowes a TI the more lethal a drug is.  
Therapeutic window = the range at which the dose of the drug is actually therapeutic.  
 
Drug Action Depends on Interactions with Receptors  
- The activity of most drugs is determined by their ability to bind to a specific receptor in the body.  
- Receptors are usually proteins which includes enzymes, chemical structures on cell membranes or 
DNA.  
- The  binding  of  the  drug  prevents  or  inhibits  normal  biological  activity  and  so  it  interrupts  the 
developments of the disease.  
- Drug-receptor interactions depend on a chemical fit between the drug and the receptor.  
- The better the fit, the greater the activity of the drug.  
- The  binding  of  drug  and receptor usually involves different types of noncovalent bonding such as 
ionic bonds, hydrogen bonds, van der Waal’s forces and hydrophobic interactions. 
 
Development of Synthetic Drugs  
- Most  drug  research  focuses  on identifying a suitable molecular target in the body and designing a 
drug to interact with it.  
- Once  a  target  molecule  has  been  identified,  the  next  step  is  to  find  a  lead  compound  (one  that 
shows  the  desired  pharmaceutical  activity  which  will  be  used  as  a  start  for  the  drug  design  and 
development process).  
- The  effectiveness  of  the  lead  compound  is  optimized  by  synthesizing  and  testing  many 
chemically related compounds known as ​analogues.  
- A  process  called  combinatorial  chemistry  enables  the  production  and  testing  of  many  candidate 
medicines in a very short time.  
- Following the extensive lab testing, a potential medicine is then tested on animals.  
 - Data  on  the  safety  and  effectiveness  of  a  drug  enables  researchers  to  predict  the  clinical 
therapeutic index for humans and the dose to be administered in human trials are determined.  
- The  effectiveness  of  the  drugs  is  judged  by  the  relative  improvement  in  the  patients  who  had 
received the real medication as compared with those on placebo.  
 

 
 
 
 
Full of Below is here ----> ​Option C: Energy (SL & HL)  

Another good reference for Option C: Energy (aka my class website) 

http://masseychem.weebly.com/option-c.html 
(contains powerpoints, practice worksheets, etc) - The study guides are password protected, but you can 
email me and I can get you a copy (emmabarbee17@gmail.com) 
 
 
 
Submitted by u/deekofox 
I anticipated SL Chem last year so here’s all my notes for all the topics. 
Good luck friends. 
  

Chemistry Topic Summaries 

Topic 1: Stoichiometry 
Formulas: 
·​ ​n = m/M 

·​ ​n = N/N​A 

·​ ​m = n x M 

·​ ​N = n x N​A 

  
n = mole number 
N = # of atoms/molecules/ions 
M = molar mass 
m = real/given mass 

Topic 1.1: Stoichiometric relationships 

Key concepts: 
·​ ​Atoms of different elements combine in fixed ratios to form compounds, which have different properties 
from their component elements. 
·​ M
​ ixtures contain more than one element and/or compound that are not chemically bonded together and so 

retain their individual properties. 

·​ M
​ ixtures are either homogeneous or heterogeneous. 

  

An element is a pure substance that cannot be broken down into anything simpler by chemical (or 
physical) means. ​Elements​ are composed of atoms that have the same ​atomic number​ (i.e. the same 
number of ​protons ​in the ​nucleus​ of an ​atom​.) An atom is an uncharged particle, meaning that it is 
electronically neutral, but not electronically stable (excluding noble gasses.) 
  
Most ​elements​ consist of more than one isotope. An isotope is an atom with a certain number of neutrons 
and protons. Atoms with the same number of protons but varying number of neutrons are isotopes of the 
same element. 
  
To work out percentage composition: 
Divide the thing you’re trying to find, by the mass of the compound it is in, and then multiply the answer 
by 100. 
E.g. (O/H​2​O) *100 = (16.00/18.02) *100 = 88.79% 
 To work out empirical formula: 
Elements  O  C  H 

%  41.36%  52.04%  6.6% 

g  41.36g  52.04g  6.6g 

n  41.36/16.00  52.04/12.00  6.6/1.01 

Mole  2.585  4.33  6.53 

number 

/ by small  2.585/2.585  4.33/2.585  6.53/2.85 

# 

ratio  1  1.5  2.5 

The empirical formula would then be: 2:3:5, which is, O​2​C​3​H​5​. 

Topic 1.2: The mole concept 

Key concepts: 
·​ ​The mole is a fixed number of particles, and refers to the amount, n, of substances. 
​ asses of atoms are compared on a scale relative to ​ C and are expressed as relative atomic mass (A​r​) and 
12​
·​ M
relative formula/molecular mass (M​r​). 
​ olar mass (M) has the units g mol ​
-1 
·​ M
·​ T
​ he empirical formula and molecular formula of a compound give the simplest ratio and the actual number 

of atoms present in a molecule respectively. 

Relative Molecular Mass​: the weighted average of the mass of the individual molecules expressed in 
​ C is taken as exactly 12. 
terms of the scale on which the mass of 12​
The Mole: ​the amount of a substance containing the same number of specified entities (atoms, molecules, 
​ C. 6.02*10​23 
ions and electrons) as there are atoms in 12 g of 12​
Molar Mass: ​The molar mass is the mass in grams of one mole of a pure substance. 
Empirical Formula: ​The empirical formula of a compound gives the ratio of the number of atoms (and 
the ratio of the number of moles of atoms) of each element present in a sample of that compound. 
Molecular Formula:​ The molecular formula of a pure substance (element or compound) gives the actual 
number of atoms of each element present in one molecule of the substance. 
Law of Conservation of Mass:​ Within the limits of experimental error there is no change in mass as a 
result of a chemical reaction. 
  
 The law of conservation of mass dictates that within a chemical reaction, the mass of the reactants and the 
mass of the products should be equal to one another. 

  

  

  

  

  

  

  
  
  
  
  
  

Topic 1.3 
Key Concepts: 
·​ ​Reactants can be either limiting or excess. 
·​ T
​ he experimental yield can be different from the theoretical yield. 

·​ A
​ vogadro’s law enables the mole ratio of reacting gases to be determined from volumes of the gases. 

·​ T
​ he molar volume of an ideal gas is a constant at specified temperature and pressure. 

·​ T
​ he molar concentration of a solution is determined by the amount of solute and the volume of the 

solution. 
·​ A
​ standard solution is one of known concentration. 
  
The concept of completely independent gas particles applies to what are called ideal gases. No particles 
can be totally independent in reality, otherwise liquefaction would not occur. However, at low pressures 
and high temperatures the kinetic molecular theory adequately describes most of the real (actual) gases, 
especially those with relatively low molecular masses. Under room temperature and pressure the KMT is 
accurate to 1%. 
 concentration = number of moles / volume in dm​3 
number of moles = concentration (molarity) s volume (in dm​3​) 
n = cV 
c = n/V 
  
Concentration is equivalent to molarity. 
Pressure: 
Pressure is force per unit area. 
Pressure = force / area 
Pressure is defined as the number of collisions of gas molecules per unit on the wall of a container. 
Molecular bombardment causes the gas to exert a pressure on the inner walls of the container, but because 
the vessel is rigid its volume cannot change. The symbol that represents pressure is: ​P 

Units of pressure  Symbol 

Pascal  Pa (N m​-2​) 

Atmosphere  atm 

Millimetres of mercury  mmHg 

  
Conversion: 760 mmHg = 1 atm = 101325 Pa 
  
Volume: SI unit = m​3 
Conversion: 0 o​​ C = 273 K 
  
  
  
  
  

Topic 2: Atomic Structure 

2.1 The Nuclear Atom 

Key Concepts: 
·​ ​Atoms contain a positively charged dense nucleus composed of protons and neutrons (nucleons). 
·​ T
​ he mass spectrometer is used to determine the relative atomic mass of an element from its isotopic 

composition. 
Relative atomic mass: ​The relative atomic mass of an element is the weighted average of all of it’s 
isotopes. 
  
Formula for RAM: 
E.g. 
(27*x) + (43*y) + (30*z) / 100 
  
Each of the numbers represents the prevalence of the isotopes as given by the mass spectrometer. Each 
variable represents the isotopic mass of the isotopes. 
  
Many different models of the atom were proposed through history. Some people who made models of 
the atom were Democritus, Rutherford, Thomson and Bohr. 

2.2 Electron configuration 

Key Concepts: 
·​ ​Emission spectra are produced when photons are emitted from atoms as excited electrons return to a lower 
energy level. 
·​ T
​ he line emission spectrum of hydrogen provides evidence for the existence of electrons in discrete energy 

levels, which converge at higher energies. 

·​ T
​ he main energy level or shell is given an integer number, n, and can hold a maximum number of 

electrons, 2n​2​. 
·​ A
​ more detailed model of the atom describes the division of the main energy levels into s, p, d and f 
sub-levels of successively higher energies. 
·​ S
​ ub-levels contain a fixed amount of orbitals, regions of space where there is a high probability of finding 

an electron. 
·​ E
​ ach orbital has a defined energy state for a given electronic configuration and chemical environment and 

can hold two electrons of opposite spin. 

  
  
  
  
  
   
  
  
  
  
The Pauli Principle or the Pauli exclusion principle: No orbital may contain more than 2 electrons. 
The order of energies of subshells goes like this: s < p < d < f 
Aufbau Principle 
The basic method of filling up subshells is that for the ground state, each electron goes into the lowest 
available energy level. 
Full electron configuration:​ This is the layout of an atom’s electrons, written out using the shell 
numbers and names. Eg. 1s​2​2s​2 
Condensed electronic configuration: ​The condensed form is the full electronic configuration, except 
rewritten to the closest noble gas, with the valence electrons remaining in the normal configuration form. 
E.g. [Ne] 3s​2​3p​4 
Ionization energy: ​the ionization energy of an atom is the minimum amount of energy required to 
remove an electron in a gaseous atom in the ground state. 
Effective nuclear charge: ​The number of protons minus the number of electrons, excluding the valence 
electrons. Also can be worked out via group number. 

Topic 3: Periodicity 
Topic 3.1: Periodicity 
Key concepts: 
·​ ​The periodic table is arranged into four blocks associated with the four sub-levels: s, p, d and f. 
·​ ​The periodic table consists of groups (vertical columns) and periods (horizontal rows) 

·​ ​The period number (n) is the outer energy level that is occupied by electrons 

·​ ​The number of the principal energy level and the number of the valence electrons in an atom can be 

deduced from its position on the periodic table. 

·​ ​The periodic table shows the positions of metals, non-metals and metalloids. 
You can use the periods and groups of an element to figure out it’s electronic configuration and vice 
versa. 
Eg. Chlorine Cl: 1s​2​2s​2​2p​6​3s​2​3p​5 
-​ ​3 occupied shells give ​period 3 
-​ ​7 outer shell electrons gives ​group 17 
   

  

  

  

  
  
  

Topic 3.2: Periodic trends 

Key concepts: 
·​ ​Vertical and horizontal trends in the periodic table exist for atomic radius, ionic radius, ionization energy, 
electron affinity and electronegativity. 
·​ ​Trends in metallic and non-metallic behaviour are due to the trends above. 
·​ ​Oxides change from basic through amphoteric to acidic across a period 
  
Ionization energy is affected by 2 factors. Distance and ENC. The ENC is found through getting the total 
number of protons, minus the number of electrons, excluding the valence electrons. 
Down a group: ​Down a group the ionisation energy, electronegativity and electron affinity decrease, 
while the atomic radii and the ionic radii increase. 
Across a period: ​Across a period the ionisation energy, electronegativity and electron affinity increase, 
while the atomic radii and ionic radii decrease. 
Electronegativity: ​the ability of an atom to attract a pair of electron in a covalent bond 
First Ionisation Energy: ​the minimum amount of energy required to remove the most loosely bound 
electron from an (mole of) atom (s) in the ground and gaseous state. 
First Electron affinity:​ The first electron affinity of an element is the energy change when one mole of 
electrons is added to one mole of gaseous atoms to form one mole of gaseous ions (anions) 
  

  

  
   

  

  

  
  
  
  
  
  
  

Topic 4: Bonding 
All bonding is electrostatic in nature 
è​ ​the attraction between positive and negative charges 
  
Monoatomic ions are composed of one element E.g. P​3- 
Polyatomic ions are composed of more than one element E.g. OH​- 

4.1: Ionic Bonding and Structure 

  
Key Concepts: 
·​ ​Positive ions form by metals losing valence electrons 

·​ ​Negative ions form by non-metals gaining electrons 

·​ ​The number of electrons lost or gained is determined by the electronic configuration of the atom. 

·​ ​The ionic bond is due to electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions 

·​ ​Under normal conditions, ionic compounds are usually solids with lattice structures. 

  
Common properties of ionic compounds: 
  
High melting point: ​Due to the​ ​extremely strong bonds between the positive ions and the negative ions, a 
lot of thermal energy is required to break the ions free. 
Hard and Brittle: ​A strong force is needed to disrupt the regular arrangement of the crystal lattice. A 
shearing force can destroy a lattice. The shearing force causes the ions to move, which then sets up 
repulsion between similarly charged ions. This can then cause the crystal lattice to split or shatter. 
Conducts when molten but not when solid: ​The ions in the solid crystal are held in position within the 
lattice and are not free to move. When the solid melts (or is in solution) the ions are free to move and 
complete an electric circuit. Electricity cannot flow without the movement of charged particles, and in 
this case the charged particles are the ions. 
  
Ionic bonding is formed between a metallic element with low/high electronegativity and a non-metallic 
element with low/high electronegativity. 
Metallic atoms often lose electrons, due to their low group numbers, meaning that they have low numbers 
of valence electrons, while the non-metallic atoms often gain electrons due to their high number of 
valence electrons. 
  
Once the oppositely charged ions have been formed by the electron transfer between the atoms, they go 
on to attract each other strongly, to form a three dimensional ionic lattice. In the ionic network lattice, the 
total positive charge must equal the total negative charge; no free electrons floating around. 
  
  
  
  
The effect of ion charge on melting point and lattice energy 
  
Definition Lattice energy: ​The lattice energy is the amount of energy required to split up a mole of solid 
lattice into gaseous ions. 
E.g. the amount of energy required to split one mole of NaF (s) into Na​+​ (g) ions and F​-​ (g) ions. 
Ionic  Melting temperature /​0​C  Lattice energy /kJ mol​-1  Ion size / x 10​-12​ m 
compound 

Na​+​F​-  995  930  Na​+ ​: 102 F​-​ : 133 

Ca​2+​O​2-  2700  3401  Ca​+2​ : 100 O​2-​ : 140 

There is little difference in ion size but double charges in the ions of CaO cause the attraction to be 4 
times as strong and hence the lattice energy to be approximately 4 times as great. 
  
The term coordination number is used to express the number of ions that surround a given ion in the 
lattice. Most ionic substances can be dissolved in water, due to water’s polar nature. 
 4.2: Covalent bonding 
  
Key concepts: 
·​ ​A covalent bond is formed by the electrostatic attraction between a shared pair of electrons and the 

positively charged nuclei. 

·​ ​Single, double and triple covalent bonds involve one, two and three shared pairs of electrons respectively. 

·​ ​Bond length decreases and bond strength increases as the number of shared electrons increases. 

·​ ​Bond polarity results from the difference in electronegativity’s of the bonded atoms. 

  
Covalent substances are formed by non-metallic atoms joining together. The substances can be either 
elements, or compounds. 
A covalent bond is formed by the electrostatic attraction between a shared pair of electrons and the 
positively charged nuclei. 
The covalent bonds are strong bonds – a significant chemical reaction has to occur before the bonds 
break. However, the molecules themselves are held together by weaker forces – which are known as 
intramolecular forces. 
  
Molecular/ionic shape is concerned with the arrangement of atoms in space. This is known as the 
molecular geometry. 
Electron domain geometry arrangement is concerned with the arrangement of electron domains. 
  
Pairs of electrons act as sites of high electron density known as electron domains, and repel each 
other. 
Lone non-bonding pairs of electrons repel more than bonding pairs of electron. 
Double and triple bonds act as one electron domain. 
  
Lewis structures​ are made up of dots and crosses indicating the singular valence electrons, while ​valence 
structures​ use dashes, and each dash represents a pair of electrons. Structural formula is the same as 
valence structure, except it doesn’t show any of the valence electrons. 
  
Properties of covalent substances (usually) 
·​ ​Can be solids, liquids or gases at room temperature 

·​ ​Have low melting and boiling points 

·​ ​Are poor conductors of electricity and heat. 

  
Different types of molecular geometry 
  
Four single bonding pairs of electrons: 
 If all four pairs of electrons are made up of bonding electrons the shape of the molecular geometry is 
tetrahedral. The angle between electron pairs is approximately 109.5​o​. The electron domain geometry is 
tetrahedral. 
  
Three bonding pairs of electrons and one non-bonding pair of electrons: 
If three pairs of electrons are bonding and one pair is non-bonding the molecular geometry is trigonal 
pyramid. The bond angle is approximately 107​o​. The electron domain geometry is tetrahedral. 
  
Two bonding pairs of electrons and two non-bonding pairs of electrons: 
If two pairs of electrons are bonding and two pairs are non-bonding the molecular geometry is V – shape 
or bent. The bond angle is approximately 104.5​o​. The electron domain geometry is tetrahedral. 
  
One bonding pair and three non-bonding pairs of electrons: 
If three pairs of electrons are non-bonding and one pair of electrons is bonding the molecular geometry is 
linear. The bond angle is 180​o​. The electron domain geometry is tetrahedral. 
  
Three electron domains around a central atom: 
Where there are 3 electron domains around an atom, the electrons pairs spread out in a planar distribution. 
The molecular geometry is trigonal planar and the bond angle is 120​o​. 
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  

4.4: Intermolecular forces 

  
Key concepts: 
·​ ​Intermolecular forces include dispersion forces, dipole-dipole forces and hydrogen bonding. 
·​ ​The relative strengths of these interactions are dispersion forces < dipole-dipole forces < hydrogen bonds. 
  
The attractive forces between molecules are called intermolecular forces. 
  
Dipole-dipole forces 
 If a covalent bond is formed between different elements, then the shared electrons are pulled towards the 
more electronegative atom and the bond is said to be ​polar. ​ The molecule is considered as being polar, if 
the dipoles inside the molecule are asymmetrical in that they don’t cancel each other out. 
  
Hydrogen bonding 
When any of the three smallest, most electronegative atoms ​fluorine, nitrogen or oxygen​ is bonded to a 
hydrogen atom, the largest possible polarity is set up within the bond. If the molecule has at least one lone 
pair of electrons, the strongest possible dipole is set up. The lone pair of electrons is attracted to the 
positive end of the dipole on an adjacent molecule – forming an attraction that is almost as strong as a 
covalent bond. This is a hydrogen bond. 
  
Dispersion forces 
Dispersion forces are short range, intermolecular forces and are thought to be electrostatic in nature. The 
electron clouds of the molecules experience moments of being unevenly distributed. This generates a 
temporary, instantaneous dipole with a slightly positive charge at one end and a slightly negative charge 
at the other. These temporary dipoles can attract each other but because they are not permanent, the 
attraction is very weak. 
The larger the molecule, the greater the number of covalent bonds, so the greater the dispersion forces. 
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  

4.5: Metallic bonding 

  
Key concepts: 
·​ ​A metallic bond is the electrostatic attraction between a lattice of positive ions and delocalised electrons. 

·​ ​The strength of a metallic bond depends on the charge of the ions and the radius of the metal ion. 

·​ ​Alloys usually contain more than one metal and have enhanced properties. 

Common properties of metals: 

·​ ​They have a shiny surface 

·​ ​They are good conductors of electricity 

·​ ​They are good conductors of heat 
·​ ​They can be hammered into sheets without breaking (malleable) 

·​ ​They can be drawn out into a wire (ductile) 

·​ ​The are rigid and tough 

·​ ​They display thermionic emission (emit electrons when heated) 

·​ ​Difference between melting temperature and boiling temperature is very large. 

  
Explanation of properties: 
Electrical conductivity: ​When a potential difference is applied the delocalised mobile valence electrons 
are able to flow from the end of the metal conductor to the other. Electrons in the conducting wire then 
replace them. 
  
Good conductor of heat:​ The close packing within the lattice assists to transfer heat from high to low 
temperature regions. 
  
Malleable and ductile:​ The metal can be bent or beaten into different shapes without breaking. When a 
force is applied to a piece of metal, the layers of positive ions can slip over each other. This is due to the 
presence of the delocalised valence electrons, which move with the layers, preventing the cations from 
coming into contact with one another, and preserving the metallic bonds. 
  
High melting point: ​There is a strong attraction between the delocalised valence electrons and the 
positive ions and a large amount of heat energy is required to overcome these attractions before the metal 
melts. 
  
In the structure of a metallic lattice, many atoms are packed closely together into a three-dimensional 
network lattice. ​Electrons in the outer shell are not held tightly to their specific metal atom. This means 
that they can flow around freely between the atoms and are not bonded to any particular atom. These 
electrons are ​delocalised​. The metal atoms are present as ​cations​ (positively charged ions) 
  
The strong bonding in metals is due to the strong attraction between the positive cations and the 
delocalised valence electrons. 
  
Alloys 
A metal alloy is a mixture of two or more metals. Alloys are usually less malleable and ductile than pure 
metals and they tend to have lower melting points. They do, however, have other properties that make 
them more useful than pure metals. Alloys can be better than pure metals in different ways, either by 
being tougher and harder to break, or more malleable/ductile, or more resistant to heat. 
  
When elements are in the elemental form they have no charge. When they form an ionic compound, 
they either lose or gain electrons to become ions before bonding. 
 Topic 5: Energetics / thermochemistry 
5.1: Measuring energy changes 
Key Concepts: 
·​ ​Heat is a form of energy 

·​ ​Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles. 

·​ ​Total energy is conserved in chemical reactions. 

·​ ​Chemical reactions that involve the transfer of heat between the system and the surroundings are described 

as ​endo​thermic or ​exo​thermic. 
​The enthalpy change (ΔH)​ ​for chemical reactions is indicated in kJ mol​ . 
-1​
·​
·​ ​ΔH values are usually expressed under standard conditions, given by ΔH, including standard states. 

  
A chemical reaction can be described as a rearrangement of atomic partnerships. In the initial stages of a 
chemical reaction, bonds that are present must be broken. This process requires an input of energy. The 
second stage of the reaction involves the formation of the new bonds of the products. Since this second 
process involves a lowering of potential energy, the energy of the system will be lowered during this 
stage. 
  
Where the energy required for initial bond breaking is less than that evolved in forming the new bonds, 
there will be a net loss of potential energy from the system. A reaction such as this is known as an 
exothermic reaction​. 
ALL COMBUSTION REACTIONS AND NEUTRALISATION REACTIONS ARE 
EXOTHERMIC. 
  
Where the energy required for initial bond breaking exceeds that evolved in forming the new bonds, there 
will be an increase in energy required by the system for the reaction to proceed, therefore this energy must 
be supplied from some external source. The reaction is said to be ​endothermic. 
  
The ​breaking of bonds​ always ​absorbs energy​ and the ​making of bonds​ always ​evolves energy. 
  
Enthalpy is a measure of the total energy of a system and is given the symbol H. Enthalpy is defined as: H 
= U + PV; where U is the internal energy, P is the pressure of the system and V is the volume of the 
system. 
  
Assuming that pressure is constant, the change in enthalpy of a system is equal to the energy change 
measured as heat.  
Therefore for a chemical reaction (at constant pressure) the enthalpy change is given by the relationship: 
  
ΔH = H(products) – H(reactants) 
  
When ΔH is +ve, the reaction is endothermic. 
When ΔH is -ve, the reaction is exothermic. 
  
The ​activation energy​ (E​A​) is the energy required to break bonds within the reactants and start the 
reaction. 
The activation energy can be lowered using a ​catalyst.​ A catalyst increases the rate of reaction by 
providing an alternate reaction pathway. Note that a catalyst has no effect on the ​ΔH ​value. A catalyst 
decreases the energy needed to break the bonds of the reactants. 
  
In exothermic reactions, the products have a lower enthalpy and are more stable than the reactants. 
In endothermic reactions, the reactants have a higher enthalpy and are more stable than the 
products. 
  
ΔH​ ​is the enthalpy change for a given system. It refers to the enthalpy change per mole(s) as defined by a 
chemical equation. The commonly used unit of ΔH​ ​is kJ mol​-1​. When the theta (θ) is added to the ΔH 
(ΔH​θ​) it references the fact that this is determining the enthalpy change in standard conditions. 
  
The symbol ​q​ is used to represent the heat change for a given system. It refers to any specified quantity of 
reactants rather than per mole. 
The values ​ΔH ​and ​q​ can be related to each other using the relationship: 
  
q = (ΔH) / mole 
  
Definition of ΔH: 
ΔH is the quantity of heat that needs to be evolved or absorbed to return the temperature to its 
initial value​ when the number of mole reactants in the physical state and allotropic forms are specified in 
the stoichiometric equation, completely react. 
  
ΔH = energy / mol = kJ mol​-1 
  
Energy change = m x c x ΔT 
  
m = mass of substance being heated (grams) 
c = specific heat capacity of substance (unit J K​-1​ g​-1​) 
ΔT​ = temperature change (​o​C or K) 
  
The heat capacity of water is 4.18 J K​-1​ g​-1 
  

When working out the enthalpy of a solution one needs to ensure that they use the heat capacity value ​of 
water​ namely 4.18 J K​-1​ g​-1​. When calculating off of a temperature/time graph, you need to extrapolate 
the line backwards to ensure that you are getting the temperature without heat loss. 
  
The ​change in energy​ of a reaction = mass x specific heat capacity x Δ temperature. 
q = m x c x ΔT 
  
  
Enthalpy changes (ΔH)​ relate to the number of moles in the reaction. 
  
∆ H = -(q / n) 
Where q is the energy change, and n is the moles.  
change in energy = mass x specific heat capacity x change in temperature --> E = mc∆T 
Enthalpy changes (∆H) are related to the number of moles in the reaction...if all the coefficients 
are doubled, then the value of ∆H will be doubled (attention must be paid to limiting reagents 
though). 
When a reaction is carried out in water, the water will gain or lose heat from (or to) the reaction. 
Therefore, the change in energy, and so the ∆H value, can be calculated with E = mc∆T where E 
is equal to ∆H, m is the mass of water present, and c = 4.18 kJ Kg-1 K-1. This ∆H value can then 
be calculated back to find the enthalpy change for each mol of reactants. The specific heat 
capacity of water is used due 
When trying to measure the enthalpy change of a reaction the solution should be placed in a 
container as insulated as possible, to keep as much heat as possible from escaping. The 
temperature should be measured continuously , and the value used in the equation is the 
maximum change in temp from the initial position. 
The results will be a change in temperature. This can be converted into a change in heat (or 
energy) by using the above equation and a known mass of water. This can be used to calculate 
the ∆H for the amount of reactants present, and then this can be used to calculate for a given 
number of mols. 
  

  

  

  
  
  
 5.2: Hess’s Law 
Key Concepts: 
·​ ​The enthalpy change for a reaction that is carried out in a series of steps is equal to the sum of the enthalpy 
changes for the individual steps. 
·​ ​ΔH​1​ = ΔH​2​ + ΔH​3​ + ΔH​4 
The ​change in energy​ of a reaction = mass x specific heat capacity x Δ temperature. 
q = m x c x ΔT 
  
Enthalpy changes (ΔH)​ relate to the number of moles in the reaction. 
  
∆ H = -(q / n) 
Where q is the energy change, and n is the moles.   
change in energy = mass x specific heat capacity x change in temperature --> E = mc∆T 
Enthalpy changes (∆H) are related to the number of moles in the reaction...if all the coefficients 
are doubled, then the value of ∆H will be doubled (attention must be paid to limiting reagents 
though). 
When a reaction is carried out in water, the water will gain or lose heat from (or to) the reaction. 
Therefore, the change in energy, and so the ∆H value, can be calculated with E = mc∆T where E 
is equal to ∆H, m is the mass of water present, and c = 4.18 kJ Kg-1 K-1. This ∆H value can then 
be calculated back to find the enthalpy change for each mol of reactants. The specific heat 
capacity of water is used due 
When trying to measure the enthalpy change of a reaction the solution should be placed in a 
container as insulated as possible, to keep as much heat as possible from escaping. The 
temperature should be measured continuously , and the value used in the equation is the 
maximum change in temp from the initial position. 
The results will be a change in temperature. This can be converted into a change in heat (or 
energy) by using the above equation and a known mass of water. This can be used to calculate 
the ∆H for the amount of reactants present, and then this can be used to calculate for a given 
number of mols. 
  

  

  
   

  

  

  
  

5.3: Bond enthalpies 

Key Concepts: 
·​ ​Bond-forming releases energy and bond-breaking requires energy. 
·​ ​Average bond enthalpy is the energy needed to break one mol of a bond in a gaseous molecule averaged 
over similar compounds. 
·​ ​It is possible to calculate the enthalpy change of a reaction from known bond enthalpy values, however 
there is a difference between the theoretical enthalpy change and the experimentally measured values. 
  
  

Topic 6: Chemical Kinetics 

6.1: Collision theory and rates of reaction 
Key Concepts: 
·​ ​Species react as a result of collisions of sufficient energy and proper orientation. 
·​ ​The rate of reaction is expressed as the change in concentration of a particular reactant/product per unit 
time. 
·  Concentration changes in a reaction can be followed indirectly by monitoring changes in mass, volume 
and colour. 
·  Activation energy (E​A​) is the minimum energy that colliding molecules need in order to have successful 
collisions leading to a reaction. 
·​ B
​ y decreasing E​A​, a catalyst increases the rate of a chemical reaction, without itself being permanently 

chemically changed. 
  
 Base information 
A homogenous reaction is one that occurs in a single phase in either the gaseous or liquid states. Since all 
gases are mutually miscible, gases can only exist in single phase, meaning that all gaseous reactions will 
be homogenous. 
  
Liquid reactions may be either homogenous or heterogenous depending on whether their reactants exist in 
one or more phases. 
  
Reactions involving solid reactants are always heterogenous reactions. 
  
The rate of reaction decreases with time because: 
At the start of the reaction: 
·​ ​Greater amount of substance and greater number of collisions per unit time 

·​ ​Greater number of collisions with the correct geometry per unit time. 

·​ ​Greater number of fruitful/succesful collisions per unit time. 

·​ ​Greater chance of reaction. 

  
  
  
As the reaction proceeds: 
·​ ​Smaller amount of substance. 

·​ ​Fewer number of collisions per unit time. 

·​ ​Fewer number of collisions with the correct geometry per unit time. 

·​ ​Fewer number of fruitfuk.succesful collisions per unit time. 

·​ ​Less chance of reaction. 

  
Collision theory 
1.​ ​Particles must collide before they can react. The more particles there are in a given volume, the more 

likely they are to collide and react together. 

2.​ ​The colliding particles between them must contain enough energy to cause one or more of the original 

bonds to break. Breaking bonds require energy. 

3.​ ​The particles must collide with the appropriate collision geometry. That is, the particles must ba aligned in 

the right way for a reaction to occur. 

  
The minimum energy that chemicals must have to cause a reaction to occur is called the activation 
energy. 
  
·​ ​An increase in reactant concentration leads to an increase in reaction rate. 

·​ ​An increase in temperature leads to an increase in reaction rate. 

·​ ​An increase in surface area leads to an increase in reaction rate. 

·​ ​A cataltst can speed up the rate of a reaction (at a given temperature). 

  
  
Rate of reaction 
The speed of a process is defined as the ​change in a given quantity over a specific period of time.​ For 
chemical reactions, the quantity that changes is the amount or concentration of a reactant or product. 
  
Definition of Rate: ​The rate of a chemical reaction is the time rate of change of concentration of one 
of the reactants or products. 
The unit for rate is mol dm​-3​ s​-1​ (or M​-1​). 
  
Factors affecting the rate of reaction 
  
Concentration 
The rates of most reaction involving reactants in solution, or in the gaseous state, depend on the 
concentration of the reagents. In general, increasing the concentration of reactants increases the rate at 
which reactants are converted to products. 
  
  
  
  
  
  
Surface area 
As the surface area of solid reactants increase, the rate of the reaction for most chemical reactions will 
also increase. 
A greater surface area of a solid means a larger number of particles exposed. Therefore, there will be a 
larger number of successful collisions per unit time, between the particles. 
  
Temperature 
The rates of most chemical reactions increase with temperature. The temperature of a system is a measure 
of the available kinetic energy to the particles of the system. Therefore, as the temperature of a system 
increases the average kinetic energy of the particles of the system also increase, increasing the proportion 
of molecules/particles with energy exceeding that of the E​A​. 
NOT ALL MOLECULES IN A SAMPLE HAVE EXACTLY THE SAME AMOUNT OF 
KINETIC ENERGY AT A PARTICULAR TEMPERATURE. 
  
The effects of temperature on a reaction 
For reactants to undergo reaction they must have enough kinetic energy to break the existing chemical 
bonds. This amount of chemical energy is called the activation energy of the reaction. 
  
The greater the temperature, the more likely the particles will have enough kinetic energy to react. Hence, 
more collisions between particles will result in ‘succesful’ collisions- a chemical reaction. 
  
Secondary effect 
 As the temperature increases, particles move faster andcollide more frequently ​and with greater energy​, 
resulting in more succesful collisions per unit time and a greater rate of reaction. 
  
  
Catalysts 
A catalyst is a substance that lowers the activation energy of a reaction by providing an alternate reaction 
pathway. This alternate reaction pathway has a lower activation energy than the original pathway. The 
catalyst must remain chemically unchanged for it to be classified as a catalyst. 
  
A catalyst is a substance that: 
·​ ​increases the rate of the reaction 

·​ ​does not undergo permanent chemical change during the reaction (i.e. does not generally get consumed in 

the reaction.) 
·​ ​is needed in only small quantities to have an effect 

·​ ​increases the rate of both forward and reverse reactions equally. 

·​ ​lowers the activation energy for the new pathway. 

  
There are two main kinds of catalysts. ​Homogenous catalysts​ are in the same physical state as the 
reactants and the products. Heterogenous catalysts are in different states to the reactants. 
  

Topic 7: Equilibrium 
7.1: Equilibrium 
Key Concepts: 
·​ ​A state of equilibrium is reached in a closed system when the rates of the forward and reverse reactions are 

equal. 
·​ ​The equilibrium law describes how the equilibrium constant (K​c​) can be determined for a particular 

chemical reaction. 
·​ ​The magnitude of the equilibrium constant indicates the extent of a reaction at equilibrium and is 

temperature dependent. 
·​ ​The reaction quotient (Q) measures the relative amount of products and reactants present during a reaction 

at a particular point in time. Q is the equilibrium expression with non-equilibrium concentrations. The 
position of the equilibrium changes with changes in concentration, pressure and temperature. 
·​ ​A catalyst has no effect on the position of the equilibrium constant. 

  
When a system is at equilibrium, no changes in the concentrations of reactants or products occur. A 
system at equilibrium ​does not​ mean that the reaction has stopped. 
  
 There are important differences between the rate and the extent of a reaction. The rate describes ​how fast 
the reactants are converted into products; the extent describes ​how far​ a reaction proceeds. A catalyst 
increases​ the rate of a reaction, but has no effect on the extent of the reaction (the position of 
equilibrium). 
  
Dynamic equilibrium 
Dynamic equilibrium is the state that a reaction can reach when both the products and reactants are in a 
state of ​equilibrium.​ When dynamic equilibrium has been reached in a reaction, the following things 
occur: 
·​ ​macroscopic properties are ​constant​ e.g. colour, density 

·​ ​concentration of reactants and products is ​constant​. 

·​ ​the rates of the forward and back reactions are ​equal. 

  
“⇌” emphasises that the reaction can be in a state of equilibrium. This also informs you that the reaction 
does not have 100% completion rate in terms of the transformation of reactants to products. 
  
The ​rate of a reaction​ is the speed of the reaction; how quickly the reaction achieves equilibrium. 
The ​extent of a reaction ​is the degree that the reactants had been converted to products. 
  
Equilibrium can be reached from either direction; 
·​ ​from products only 

·​ ​from reactants only 

·​ ​a mixture of reactants and products 

K​c​ and the concentration fraction 

  
The concentration fraction is only equal to K​c​ when the system is at equilibrium. 
When writing the concentration fraction the coefficients in the equation become the powers in the 
equilibrium law expression. 
  
Example 1 
N​2(g)​ + ​3​H2(g)​
​ ⇌ ​2​NH​3(g) 
  
Kc = ​[NH​3​]​2 
[N​2​] [H​2​]​3 
  
If Kc >> 1 there is almost complete conversion of reactants to products. 
If Kc << 1 only a neglible amount of reactants have been converted to products. 
  
For Kc values slightly less than 1 (e.g. 10​-2​ à 1) there is a higer proportion of reactants, and for Kc values 
slightly greater than 1 (e.g. 1 à 100) there is a higher proportion of products. If K​c​ > 10​5​ the reaction has a 
greater than 99% completion rate. 
  
General rules regarding the manipulation of K​c​ values: 
 1. If the equation is reversed, the new K​c​ = 1/K​c1 
2. If the original equation is doubled, the new K​c​ = (K​c1​)​2 
​
3. If the original equation is halved, the new K​c​ = (K​c​) ½ 
4. When equations are added, the new K​c​ = K​c1​ x K​c2 
  
Catalysts 
Catalysts reduce the E​A​​ of a reaction by providing an alternate reaction pathway which has a lower E​A​​. 
When catalysts are used to increase the rate of the reaction the rate of both the ​forward and backwards 
reactions are increased ​equally​ because the E​A​ for each is also reduced equally. Catalysts only affect the 
rate​ of the reaction and do not affect the ​extent​ of the reaction. 
  
Le Chatelier’s Principle 
  
The effects of a change can be summed up by ​Le Chatelier’s Principle​ In essence it predicts that when a 
change occurs to a system at equilibrium, then the system will (partially) oppose that change until 
equilibrium is restored. 
  
Factors affecting the position of equilibrium 
1.​ ​The addition of reactants (​constant temperature and pressure​) 

2.​ ​The removal of products (​constant temperature and pressure​) 

3.​ ​The change in pressure (​gas​) or concentration (​aq​) (​constant temperature​) 

4.​ ​The change of temperature (​constant volume and pressure​) 

  
  
  
  
  
Le Chatelier’s Principle dictates that when one of the factors that affect the position of equilibrium is 
introduced to the reaction, the reaction will compensate in the other direction. 
  
For example, using the Haber Process: N​2(g)​ + 3H​2(g)​ ⇌ 2NH​3(g)​ one can illustrate Le Chatelier’s Principle in 
action. When excess amounts of a reactant is added to the reaction environment (N​2​) the reaction 
automatically compensates by ​moving the position of equilibrium forward​. The effect that this has on 
the reaction environment is that it increases the amount of product produced due to the increased rate of 
completion of reaction. 
  
An important example is the way that changes in pressure are expressed by Le Chatelier’s Principle. If the 
pressure of the system ​decreases​, the position of equilibrium ​shifts towards more gaseous molecules. 
  
3  : 1 --> 2 
e.g. 3H​2(g)​ + N​2(g)​ ⇌ 2NH​3(g) 
  4  : 2 
  
 As the reactants have a greater number of gaseous molecules, the reaction will move backwards towards 
the reactants. 
  
The opposite will occur if pressure ​increases​ with the reaction shifting towards ​less gaseous molecules. 
  
The only factor that affects the K​c​ value is temperature. 

Topic 8: Acids and Bases 

8.1: Theories of acids and bases 
Key Concepts: 
+​ +​
·​ ​A Brønsted-Lowry acid is a proton/H​ donor and a Brønsted-Lowry base is a proton/H​ acceptor. 

·​ ​Amphiprotic species can act as both Brønsted-Lowry acids and bases. 

·​ ​A pair of species differing by a single proton is called a conjugate acid-base pair. 

·​ ​An indicator can be used to show the presence of acids and bases. 

  
When an acid is added to a base (or vice versa) the properties of both the acid and the base are lost. The 
acid is neutralised by the base. 
  
The hydronium ion (H​3​O​+​) represents the existence of a hydrogen ion (proton) in water. 
  
  
  

8.2: Properties of Acids and Bases 

Key Concepts: 
·​ ​Most acids have observable characteristic chemical reactions with reactive metals, metal oxides, metal 

hydroxides, hydrogen carbonates and carbonates. 

·​ ​Salt and water are produced in exothermic neutralization reactions. 

  
Acids and bases can be identified according to their respective properties. 
The common properties of acids are that they: 
·​ ​taste sour 

·​ ​dissolve in water to form solutions which conduct electricity 

·​ ​are corrosive 

·​ ​turn litmus red 

·​ ​turn blue litmus paper red 

·​ ​have a pH of less than 7 

  
 The common properties of bases are that they: 
·​ ​feel soapy 

·​ ​dissolve in water to form solutions which conduct electricity 

·​ ​are corrosive 

·​ ​turn litmus blue 

·​ ​turn red litmus paper blue 

·​ ​have a pH of greater than 7 

  
Reactions 
ACID​ + ​BASE​ à ​SALT​ + ​WATER 
E.g. ​HCl​(aq)​​ + ​NaOH​(aq)​ à ​NaCl​(aq)​ + ​H2​​ O​(l) 
  
ACID​ + ​CARBONATE (base)​ à ​SALT​ + ​WATER ​+ ​CO​2 
E.g. ​2HCl​(aq)​ + ​Na​2​CO​3(aq)​ à ​2NaCl​(aq)​ + ​H​2​O​(l)​ + ​CO​2(g) 
Ionic equation: ​2H​+​(aq)​ + ​CO​3​2-​(​aq)​ à ​H2​​ O​(l)​ ​+ ​CO​2(g)= 
  
ACID + METAL à SALT + H​2 
E.g. 2HCl​(aq)​ + Mg​(s)​ à MgCl​2(aq)​ + H​2(g) 
Ionic equation: 2H​+​(aq)​ + Mg​(s) ​à Mg​2+​(aq)​ + H​2(g) 
  
ACID + METAL OXIDE à SALT + WATER 
E.g. 2HNO​3(aq)​ + CuO​(s)​ à Cu(NO​3​)​2(aq)​ + H​2​O​(l) 
Ionic equation: 2H​+​(aq)​ + CuO​(s)​ à Cu​2+​(aq)​ + H​2​O​(l) 
  
ACID + SULFITE à SALT + WATER + SULFUR DIOXIDE 
E.g. 2HCl​(aq)​ + CaSO​3(s)​ à CaCl​2(aq)​ + H​2​O​(l)​ + SO​2(g) 
Ionic equation: 2H​+​(aq)​ + CaSO​3(s)​ à Ca​2+​(aq)​ + H​2​O​(l)​ + SO​2(g) 
  
ACID + SULFIDE à SALT + HYDROGEN SULFIDE 
E.g. 2HCl​(aq)​ + FeS​(s)​ à FeCl​2(aq)​ + H​2​S​(g) 
Ionic equation: 2H​+​(aq)​ + FeS​(s)​ àFe​2+​(aq)​ + H​2​S​g) 
  
Polyprotic acids 
Acids such as sulphuric acid (H​2​SO​4​) are capable of losing more than one hydrogen ion (H​+​). It forms the 
hydrogen sulfate ion HSO​4​-​, which then loses a further H​+​ to form the sulphate ion SO​4​2-​. 
  
E.g.  H​2​SO​4(aq)​ + H​2​O​(l)​ à HSO​4​-​(aq)​ + H​3​O​+​(aq) 
  HSO​4​-​(aq)​ + H​2​O​(l)​ à SO​4​2-​(aq)​ + H​3​O​+​(aq) 
  
Amphiprotic substances 
Amphiprotic substances can act as either acids or as bases depending on the species they are reacting 
with. 
  
 E.g.  HSO​4​-​(aq)​ + H​2​O​(l)​ à SO​4​2-​(aq)​ + H​3​O​+​(aq)​ ​in which HSO​4-​ ​ acts as an acid. 
  HSO​4​-​(aq)​ + H​3​O​+​(aq)​ à H​2​SO​4(aq)​ + H​2​O​(l)​ ​in which HSO​4-​ ​ acts as a base. 
  
Amphoteric substances 
Amphoteric substances can also act as an acid or a base but has no protons to donate. 
E.g. Al​2​O​3 
  

8.3: The pH scale 

Key Concepts: 
·  pH = -log​10​[H​3​O​+​] 
+​
·​ ​A change of one pH unit represents a 10-fold change in the hydrogen ion concentration [H​ ]. 

·​ ​pH values distinguish between acidic, neutral and alkaline solutions. 

-​ +​ -14​
·​ ​The ionic product constant, K​w​ = [OH​ ] x [H​ ] = 10​ mol​2​​ dm​-6​ at 298 K. 
  
The concentration of an acid is the amount of hydronium ions (H​3​O​+​) in a certain volume of solution. The 
pH scale measures the concentration of H​3​O​+​ ions in solution. 
  

8.4: Strong and weak acids and bases 

Key Concepts: 
·​ ​Strong and weak acids and bases differ in the extent of ionization 

·​ ​Strong acids and bases of equal concentrations have higher conductivities than weak acids and bases. 

·​ ​A strong acid is a good proton donor and has a weak conjugate base. 

·​ ​A strong base is a good proton acceptor and has a weak conjugate acid. 

  
The strength of an acid is how extensively the substance is ionised (donates H​+​ ions) in water. A ​strong 
acid​ has close to 100% ionisation. Sulphuric acid, hydrochloric acid and nitric acid are all strong acids. In 
weak acids, the extent of the ionisation is far less than in strong acids. 
  
  
  
Methods to distinguish between strong and weak acids: 
·​ ​Test the conductivity of each acid 

·​ ​Measure the pH of each acid 

·​ ​React each acid with a reactive metal and observe the extent of reaction 

·​ ​React each acid with strong base and observe heat produced. 

8.5: Acid deposition 

Key concepts: 
·​ I​ ncreasing industrialization has led to greater production of nitrogen and sulfur oxides leading to acid rain, 
which is damaging to our environment. 
·​ ​Rain is naturally acidic because of dissolved CO​2​ and has a pH of 5.6. 
·​ ​Acid deposition includes all forms of precipitation from the atmosphere that has a pH < 5.0 
·​ ​Acid deposition results from oxides of nitrogen and sulfur: SO​2​, SO​3​, NO​2​ dissolved in water produce 
HNO​3​, HNO​2​, H​2​SO​4​ and H​2​SO​3​. 
·​ ​Sulfur oxides are produced mostly from the burning of fossil fuels, and the majority is produced by the 
burning of coal. 
·​ ​Nitrogen oxides are produced mostly from internal combustion engines. 
·​ ​Acid deposition negatively impacts structures, especially limestone and metals due to the processes of 
erosion and corrosion.  
  
Eutrophication​ is the process by which a body of water becomes enriched in dissolved nutrients (such as 
phosphates) that stimulate the growth of aquatic plant life, usually resulting in the depletion of dissolved 
oxygen. 
  
Responses to acid deposition: 
There are a number of ways to reduce the amount of oxides getting deposited in the atmosphere which 
will ultimately help reduce the amount of acid deposition that occurs. 
  
For sulfur the methods that help reduce oxide emissions are: 
·​ ​Washing the coal before combustion to help clean the coal and ensure less sulfur oxides are released 
during combustion. 
  
For nitrogen: 
·​ ​The use of a catalytic converter to help reduce emissions 
·​ ​Lower reaction temperatures which will help reduce the amount of NO​x​ emissions 
  
  
  
  
  
  

Topic 9: Redox processes 

9.1: Oxidation and reduction 
Key Concepts: 
·​ ​Oxidation and reduction can be considered in terms of oxygen gain/hydrogen loss, electron transfer or 
change in oxidation number. 
·​ ​An oxidising agent is reduced and a reducing agent is oxidised. 
·​ ​Variable oxidation numbers exist for transition metals and for most main-group non-metals. 

·​ ​The activity series ranks metals according to the ease with which they undergo oxidation. 

·​ ​The Winkler Method can be used to measure biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), used as a measure of the 

degree of pollution in a water sample. 

·​ ​When conjugate redox pairs are compared, the oxidising agent listed lower on the reactivity series is the 

stronger oxidising agent while the reducing agent listed higher on the series is the stronger reducing 
agent. 
·​ ​The stronger an oxidising agent of a given redox pair is, the weaker its conjugate reducing agent will be 

and vice versa. 

·​ ​The stronger oxidising agent always reacts with the stronger reducing agent forming the weaker pair. 

(​weaker oxidising agent, weaker reducing agent​) 

·​ ​For a spontaneous reaction the oxidising agent must be stronger than the conjugate oxidising agent of the 

reducing agent. 
  
The combined half-equations which detail the transfer of electrons are called ​redox reactions​. 
  
Reducing agents​ cause reduction, causing the reducing agent to undergo oxidation. 
Oxidising agents​ cause oxidation, causing the oxidising agent to undergo reduction. 
Conjugate pairs​ – The conjugate pairs are the oxidising agent and the reducing agent of an equation and 
they differ by the number of e​-​ in the equation. 
Eg. Zn and Zn​2+​ are conjugate pairs and differ by 2e​-​. 
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
OXIDATION 
  
Oxidation can be defined in 4 different ways: 
1. The loss of electrons 
2. The increase of oxidation number 
3. The loss of hydrogen 
4. The gain of oxygen 
  
a)​ ​In terms of changes in oxygen (O) or hydrogen (H) content. 
Oxidation is the process of gaining oxygen and/or losing hydrogen. 
  
e.g.  CH​4(g)​ + 2O​2(g)​ --> CO​2(g)​ + 2H​2​O​(l) 
  CH​3​CH​2​OH​(l)​ + O​2(g)​ --> CH​3​CHO​(aq)​ + H​2​O​(l) 
  
b)​ ​In terms of electron transfer. 
Oxidation is the process of losing electrons. 
  
e.g. Zn​(s)​ --> Zn​2+​(aq)​ + 2e​- 
  
c)​ ​In terms of oxidation numbers. 
Oxidation is an increase in oxidation number. 
+2  +3  -2  +6 
e.g.   Fe​Cl​2​ --> ​Fe​Cl​3​;  H​2​S​ --> H​2​S​O​4 
  
REDUCTION 
  
Reduction can be defined in 4 different ways: 
1. The gain of electrons 
2. The decrease of oxidation number 
3. The gain of hydrogen 
4. The loss of oxygen 
  
d)​ ​In terms of changes in oxygen (O) or hydrogen (H) content. 
Reduction is the process of losing oxygen and/or gaining hydrogen. 
  
e.g.  CH​4(g)​ + 2O​2(g)​ --> CO​2(g)​ + 2H​2​O​(l) 
  CH​3​CH​2​OH​(l)​ + O​2(g)​ --> CH​3​CHO​(aq)​ + H​2​O​(l) 
  
e)​ ​In terms of electron transfer. 
Reduction is the process of gaining electrons. 
  
e.g. Cu​2+​(s)​ + 2e​-​ --> Cu​(s) 
  
f)​ ​In terms of oxidation numbers. 
Reduction is a decrease in oxidation number. 
+6  +4  +5    +3 
e.g.   S​O3​​ --> ​S​O3​​ ; 2-​
P​Cl​5​ --> ​P​Cl​3 
  

  
   
OXIDATION NUMBERS 
Oxidation numbers are directed numbers (​always + or – in sign​), which are assigned to atoms using a set 
of rules. 
  
1. ​The oxidation number of any atom in the elemental form is zero. 
  0  0 
e.g. Cl​2  O​2 
  
2. ​The oxidation number of a monoatomic ion is the same as the charge on the ion. 
  +1  -2 
e.g. Na​+    ​
S​2- 
  

3.​ The oxidation number of ​oxygen​ in compounds is normally ​-2​. 

  
The exception to this rule occurs in F​2O
​ where it is +1 and in H​2O
​ ​2​ where it is -1. 
  
4.​ The oxidation number of combined hydrogen is +1. 
  
Exceptions to this rule occur in the metallic hydrides of Group I and II where it is -1. 
  
5.​ In a molecule or molecular ion, the negative oxidation number is assigned to the more electronegative 
element. 
+4 -1 
e.g. CCl​4​; As chlorine is the more electronegative element, it receives the negative oxidation number. 
6.​ The sum of the oxidation numbers in a molecule is zero. 
  
7. ​The sum of the oxidation numbers in a molecular ion is equal to the charge on the ion. 
  
WRITING BALANCED PARTIAL EQUATIONS 
1.​ ​Write the formula of the species being reduced (the oxidising agent) and its conjugate (reduced form). 

2.​ ​Balance the equation for oxygen by compensating the other side of the equation with H​2​O. 
+​
3.​ ​Balance the atoms, showing the hydrogen in H​2​O as coming from H​ on the other side. 

4.​ ​Balance the charges, adding electrons to make the total charge on both sides of the equation the same. 

  
  
  
  
  
  
  
 9.2 Electrochemical cells 
Key concepts: 
  
Voltaic cells: 
·​ ​Voltaic cells convert chemical energy into electrical energy. 

·​ ​Oxidation occurs at the anode (negative electrode) and reduction occurs at the cathode (positive 

electrode) in a voltaic cell. 

  
Electrolytic cells: 
·​ ​Electrolytic cells convert electrical energy into chemical energy. 

·​ ​Oxidation occurs at the anode (positive electrode) and reduction occurs at the cathode (negative 

electrode) in an electrolytic cell. 

  
Voltaic cells:​ As the reaction proceeds, the amount of chemical energy in the system decreases and the 
amount of electrical energy increases. 
Electrolytic cells:​ As the reaction proceeds, the amount of electrical energy in the system decreases and 
the amount of chemical energy increases. 
  
VOLTAIC CELLS 
Voltaic cells consist of two ​half-cells​. Each half-cell contains an oxidising agent and its conjugate 
reducing agent. Reduction occurs in one half-cell and oxidation occurs in the other half-cell. 
  
For voltaic cells: 
·​ ​Oxidation always occurs at the anode 

·​ ​Reduction always occurs at the cathode 

·​ ​It is conventional in all cell diagrams to show the anode on the left of the cathode 

·​ ​Cations flow towards the cathode and anions flow towards the anode. 

·​ ​Electrons always flow from the anode to the cathode in the external circuit. 

  
  
The functions of the salt bridge 
  
1. The salt bridge completes the circuit electrically.​ Negative charges (electrons in the wire and 
electrodes, negative ions in the solution and slat bridge) flow in one direction and positive charges 
augment the current by flowing through the solutions and salt bridge in the opposite direction. 
  
2.​ ​The salt bridge supplies ions in the correct stoichiometric amount to maintain electrical 
neutrality in the solutions of each half-cell. 
Around the anode, positive charges are being produced and the electrical balance would be lost unless if 
the negative ions were not flowing out of the salt bridge. 
 Topic 10: Organic Chemistry 
10.1: Fundamentals of Organic Chemistry 
Key Concepts: 
·​ ​A homologous series is a series of compounds of the same family, within the same general formula, which 

differ from each other by a common structural unit (CH​2​). 

·​ ​Structural formulas can be represented in full and condensed format. 

·​ ​Structural isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different arrangements of atoms. 

·​ ​Functional groups are the reactive parts of molecules. 

·​ ​Saturated compounds contain single bonds only and unsaturated compounds contain double or triple 

bonds. 
Definitions 
Homologous series: 
·​ ​Same general formula 

·​ ​Similar chemical properties / same functional group. 

·​ ​Trends in the physical properties of successive members in the series. 

·​ ​Successive members differ by – CH​2 

  
Functional group: ​The site of chemical reactivity 
  
Saturated / Unsaturated: 
·​ ​A saturated hydrocarbon has only single C – C bonds. 
·​ ​An unsaturated hydrocarbon has multiple carbon bonds, meaning either double or triple bonds. 
  
Structural isomers: ​ Same molecular formula but different structural formula. 
  
Empirical formula:​ The ratio of each type of atom (element) in the molecule. 
e.g CH| 1:1 
Molecular formula: ​Provides the actual number of each type of atom (element) in the molecule. e.g. 
C​6​H​6 
Semi-structural formula:​ butane | CH​3​(CH​2​)CH​3​ or CH​3​CH​2​CH​2​CH​3 
  
Prefixes: 
1 - meth 
2 - eth 
3 - prop 
4 - but 
5 - pent 
6 - hex 
 7 - hept 
8 - oct 
9 – non 
10 - dec 
  
  
  
  
Alkanes 
Alkanes have the functional group ​C​n​H​ ​ 2n+2​. 
They are a homologous series, meaning that the successive members of the series differ by the structural 
unit of CH​2​. This homologous series is composed of saturated molecules, as all of the bonds between the 
atoms in the molecule are single bonds. Alkanes can undergo combustion reactions when in the presence 
of oxygen. They can also undergo substitution reactions with halogens. In these reactions, a hydrogen 
atom is replaced by a halogen e.g. chlorine. This reaction usually takes place in the presence of U.V light. 
 
Alkanes can undergo: 
1.​ ​Combustion reactions: 

Alkanes can undergo both complete combustion, which causes the production of water vapour and CO​2 
and incomplete combustion, which causes the production of water vapour, CO​2(g)​ and CO​(g)​,​ or the 
production of carbon solid. 
Example: C​3​H​8​ + 5O​2​ à 3CO​2​ + 8H​2​O 
  
2. Substitution reactions: 
An atom or a group of atoms is substituted for another atom or group of atoms. Substitution reactions 
need U.V radiation for the reaction to occur. 
Example: CH​4​(g) + Cl​2​(g) àCH​3​Cl(g) + HCl(g) 
  methane  U.V  chloromethane 
  
Alkenes 
Alkenes are a homologous series of hydrocarbons, which are unsaturated, because they contain at least 
one carbon-carbon double bond. ​The general formula is C​n​H​2n​.​ ​Alkenes can also combustion reactions 
with oxygen. Due to the carbon-carbon double bond in alkenes, they are much more reactive than alkanes. 
The individual bonds in the double bond are weaker than the single C-C bond and require less energy to 
break them. Alkenes undergo ​addition reactions​, which involve breaking the double bond and adding the 
atoms of the reacting species. The smallest alkene possible is ethene: CH​2​CH​2 
  
Alkenes can undergo: 
1. Addition reactions: 
In addition reactions, the double bond between the alkenes is broken allowing lots of new reactions to be 
formed. 
  
2. Combustion reactions: 
 Alkenes can undergo both complete and incomplete combustion. 
  
Example: CH​2​CH​2​(g) + Br​2​(aq) à CH​2​BrCH​2​Br(l) 
  
In this reaction the bromine solution is an orange/brown colour. After reaction with an alkene the solution 
loses it’s colour. The decolourisation is a good chemical test for the presence of unsaturation (in the 
molecules). Alkanes do not react with bromine, so mixing bromine water and alkanes des not result in a 
colour change. 
Ethene can also undergoes addition polymerisation, which is when ethene molecules effectively add to 
each other producing a long chain of carbon atoms. 
  
Alkynes 
Alkynes are an unsaturated homologous series that contain at least one carbon-carbon triple bond. The 
general formula for alkynes is ​C​n​H​2n-2​. 
The smallest alkyne you can make is ethyne. 
  
Alkynes can undergo: 
1.​ ​Addition reactions 
2.​ ​Combustion reactions 
  
Alcohols 
Alcohols are a homologous series. ​The functional group of alcohols is –OH; the hydroxyl group.​ The 
functional group determines the chemical properties of the homologous series, and the chain length 
(number of carbon atoms) causes the variation in physical properties such as boiling point and density 
within the homologous series. Methanol and ethanol are very soluble in water. This is largely due to the 
very polar nature of the hydroxyl functional group, which forms hydrogen bonds with water molecules. 
As the non-polar hydrocarbon chain of the alcohol becomes larger, the alcohols become less soluble in 
water as they become less polar. Propanol is just polar enough to dissolve in water, but butanol is not 
sufficiently polar and forms an emulsion in water.   
  
Ethanol can be produced by addition reactions or substitution reactions. 
Addition to ethene: CH​2​=CH​2​ + H​2​0 àCH​3​CH​2​OH (​with a solid phosphoric acid catalyst) 
Alcohols can also readily undergo combustion reactions with oxygen. 
 
Oxidation reactions: 
Alcohols can be readily converted into many important groups of compounds. Two important examples 
are the oxidation of ​primary alcohols​ to aldehydes and carboxylic acids. Aldehydes contain the 
functional group – CHO. 
Carboxylic acids contain the carboxyl functional group – COOH 
Varying the reaction conditions can produce these two functional groups. Milder conditions produce the 
aldehydes and under harsher oxidation conditions, carboxylic acids can be produced. 
  

Primary alcohols can be oxidised to: aldehydes and then: carboxylic acids 
Secondary alcohols can be oxidised to: ketones 
Tertiary alcohols ​cannot be oxidised. 
  
A primary alcohol is when the carbon atom attached to the hydroxyl group is attached to one other 
carbon atom. 
A secondary alcohol is when the carbon atom attached to the hydroxyl group is attached to two 
other carbon atoms. 
A tertiary alcohol is when the carbon atom attached to the hydroxyl group is attached to two other 
carbon atoms. 
  
Halogenoalkanes 
The general formula for halogenoalkanes is ​C​n​H​2n-1​X. ​ Halogenoalkanes are alkanes which have halogens 
bonded to them. 
Halogenoalkanes can undergo nucleophilic substitution reactions. There are primary, secondary and 
tertiary halogenoalkanes. 
  
Aldehydes 
The functional group for aldehydes is CHO. This consists of a C double bonded to an O whilst also being 
bonded to an H. The ending is​ al​ for example, ethan​al. 
  
  
  
Ketones 
The functional group for ketones is R​2​C=O, where the R stands for the alkyl groups. The ending is called 
a carbonyl. The ending is ​one​ for example, propan​one​. 
  
Carboxylic acids  
The functional group for carboxylic acids is COOH, which is a C double bonded to an O, which is also 
bonded to an O that is bonded to an H. The functional group is called a carboxyl. 
  
  
  
Esters 
Esters have the functional group COOR. Or a C double bonded to an O which is bonded to an O and then 
the alkyl strand. 
  
  
  
Amines: 
Amines have a functional group of RNH​2​. 
  
Benzene: 
​Benzene is C​6​H​6. ​Benzene 
Esters: 
 Esters also have a carbonyl group. 
Esters are formed when an alcohol and a carboxylic acid undergo reactions with one another. 
  
E.g ethyl ethanoate 
The ​ethyl​ name comes from the alcohol, and the ​ethanoate​ comes from the carboxylic acid. 
  
Concentrated sulphuric acid is used as a catalyst, and also acts as a dehydration agent and a drying agent. 

10.2: Functional group chemistry 

Key Concepts: 
·​ ​Alkanes have low reactivity and undergo free-radical substitution reactions. 
·​ ​Alkenes are more reactive than alkanes and undergo addition reactions. Bromine water can be used to 
distinguish between alkanes and alkenes. 
·​ ​Alcohols undergo nucleophilic substitution reactions with acids (also called esterification or condensation) 
and some undergo oxidation reactions. 
·​ ​Halogenoalkanes are more reactive than alkanes. They can undergo (nucleophilic) substitution reactions. A 
nucleophile is an electron-rich species containing a lone pair that it donates to an electron-deficient 
carbon. 
·​ ​Addition polymers consist of a wide range of monomers and form the basis of the plastics industry. 
·​ ​Benzene does not readily undergo addition reactions but does undergo electrophilic substitution reactions 
(with NO​2​-​ and CH​3​). 
·​ ​Free radicals are uncharged particles with an unpaired valence electron (donated by the small dot sign E.g. 

.​
CH​3​ )Topic 8: Acids and Bases 

  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
FREE RADICAL SUBSTITUTION MECHANISM​ – ALKANE + HALOGEN 
  

.​
denotes a free radical 

  
Initiation ​is the formation of the free radical via homolytic fission. U.V radiation is needed to break the 
bonds between the chlorine atoms causing each atom to become a free radical due to each atom receiving 
one electron from the bond homolytic process. 
   
 

  

. 
Cl – Cl --> 2Cl​ ​

  
Propagation ​is the continued propagation of the free radicals throughout the alkane/halogen pairings. 
  

.​ .​
CH​4​ + ​ Cl --> ​ CH​3​ + HCl 

.​ .​
CH​3​ + Cl​2​ --> CH​3​Cl + ​ Cl 

.​
CH​3​Cl + ​ Cl --> CH​2​Cl + HCl 
 etc... 
  
Termination​ is the part of the mechanism which causes the ending of the free radical substitution 
method, eliminating all free radicals and causing the production of stable products. 
  

.​ .​
Cl + ​ Cl --> Cl​2 

.​ .​
Cl + ​ CH​3​ --> CH​3​Cl 

.​ .​
CH​3​ + ​ CH​3​ --> C​2​H​6 

  

Topic 11: Measurement and Data Processing 

11.3: Spectroscopic analysis of compounds 
Key concepts: 
·​ ​IHD = Index of Hydrogen Deficiency 
·​ ​Infrared spectrometry 
  
  
  

Option B: Biochemistry 
B.1: Introduction to biochemistry 
·​ ​The diverse functions of biological molecules depend on their structures and shapes. 
·​ ​Metabolic reactions take place in highly controlled aqueous environments. 
·​ ​Reactions of breakdown are called catabolism and reactions of synthesis are called anabolism. 

·​ ​Biopolymers form by condensation reactions and are broken down by hydrolysis reactions. 

·​ ​Photosynthesis is the synthesis of energy-rich molecules from carbon dioxide and water using light energy. 

·​ ​Respiration is a complex set of metabolic processes providing energy for cells. 

  
Photosynthesis: 
Photosynthesis is a redox reaction.  ​UV/chlorophyll 
The reaction for photosynthesis is: ​6CO​2(g)​ + 6H​2​O​(l)​ à C​6​H​12​O​6(aq)​ + 6O​2(g)  
Photosynthesis is an ​endothermic​ reaction, as it requires energy for the process to be completed. 
Organisms such as plants use this process to synthesize the food that they need, using the energy supplied 
by sunlight. As plants can synthesize their own food, plants are called autotrophs. 
  

Humans are heterotrophs, which means that we are unable to synthesize our own foods. Due to this, 
humans must consume other organisms for a source of complex molecules. 
Carbohydrates and fats are both oxidised by the body to give energy. 
Fats are the more efficient source as they have much more energy available per gram, but carbohydrates 
are more easily obtainable. 
  
Oxidation: 
Glucose is used as a fuel by the cells to provide energy. The glucose is used by cells in the process of 
respiration to produce energy.   
Oxidation by oxygen is ​aerobic respiration​ and is represented by the equation, 
C​6​H​12​O​6​ + 6O​2​ à 6CO​2​ + 6H​2​O ΔH = -2860 kJ mol​-1 
  

In times of physical exertion the oxygen might not reach the cells quickly enough to provide sufficient 
energy, and an alternate form of respiration, ​anaerobic respiration​ takes place. 
C​6​H​12​O​6​ à 2C​3​H​6​O​3 ΔH = -120 kJ mol​-1 
The product, lactic acid, builds up in muscles causing fatigue. 
  
Determining the energy content of food: 
Each food can have its energy content calculated by combustion. A simple way is to burn the food and 
use the energy generated to heat up water. The energy released can then be calculated due to the 
temperature change that the water undergoes. 
A more precise method to determine the energy content of food is using a bomb calorimeter. 
Anabolism:​ Anabolism is the part of metabolism concerned with building up or synthesis. The reactants 
are small molecules called precursors, and the products are larger, more complex molecules of higher 
energies. Anabolic pathways need energy to function. Examples include the synthesis of proteins from 
amino acids. 
  
Catabolism: ​Metabolic reactions concerned with breaking things down are known as catabolism. 
Catabolic reactions release energy and produce more simple, lower energy products. Examples include 
the breakdown of glucose in respiration. 
  
The energy from a catabolic reaction is used to drive anabolic reactions. This is known as energy coupling 
and involves an energy carrier called adenosine triphosphate, which is commonly known as ATP. 
  
Condensation reactions:​ A condensation reaction is where a molecule of water is lost for each covalent 
bond that forms between two monomers. Condensation polymerization is when condensation reactions 
are used to create biopolymers. 
  
 Hydrolysis:​ The breakdown of these molecules reverses the condensation reaction by adding a molecule 
of water for each covalent bond broken. The water is split with –H and –OH attaching seperately to the 
product molecules.  

B.2 - Proteins and enzymes 

·​ ​Proteins are polymers of 2-amino acids, joined by amide links (also known as peptide bonds). 
·​ ​Amino acids are amphoteric and can exist as zwitterions, cations and anions. 

·​ ​Protein structures are diverse and are described at the primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary levels. 

·​ ​A protein’s three-dimensional shape determines its role in structural components or in metabolic processes. 

·​ ​Most enzymes are proteins that act as catalysts by binding specifically to a substrate at the active site. 

·​ ​As enzyme activity depends on the conformation, it is sensitive to changes in temperature and pH and the 

presence of heavy metal ions. 

·​ ​Chromatography separation is based on different physical and chemical principles. 
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
Proteins 
Proteins are the most abundant organic molecules found in human cells. They are organic compounds 
containing the elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sometimes sulfur. They are found in all 
parts of the body. Proteins in the body can perform a variety of functions such as: providing cell structure, 
acting as enzymes for control of a variety of processes and helping with the growth and maintenance of 
body tissue. 
  
Proteins are condensation polymers of 2-amino acids. There are twenty different 2-amino acids used to 
synthesize all the proteins found in nature. Amino acids are molecules which contain both an amino and a 
carboxyl functional group. 
  
Basic 2-amino acid structure: 
  
The characteristics of 2-amino acids are that both the amino and the carboxyl groups are attached to the 
same carbon atom. Proteins have both acidic and basic groups present within the same molecule. At a low 
pH, the basic amino group acts as a base and becomes positively charged. At a high PH, the carboxyl 
group acts as an acid and becomes negatively charged. In a solution of approximately neutral pH the 
 amino acid will have both a single positive charge and a single negative charge on it. That is the amino 
acid contains charged groups but is neutral overall. This form is called the zwitterion form. 
  
Common properties of 2 – amino acids: 
·​ ​Colourless 

·​ ​Crystalline solids 

·​ ​Generally soluble in water but insoluble in organic solvents 

·​ ​They form zwitterions 

·​ ​Acts as buffers – a weak acid/weak base conjugates resist change in pH when small amounts of acid or 

base are added to them. 

·​ ​Are commonly amphiprotic 

·​ ​Relatively high melting points for organic compounds 

  
  
  
  
  
pI = isoelectric point is the pH at which the amino acid is in the zwitterion form. 
When the pH of a 2- amino acid is above its isoelectric point, the 2 – amino acid becomes negatively 
charged due to the 2 – amino acid acting as an acid. When the pH is lower than the isoelectric point, the 2 
- amino acid becoming positively charged due to the 2 – amino acid acting as a base. 
  
Peptide links 
Two amino acid monomers can link together via a condensation reaction between the ​amino group​ of 
one amino acid and the ​carboxyl group​ of the other. The ​peptide bond​ is the area of the compound 
where H​2​O was removed from the compound during the condensation reaction. This reaction can also be 
called an esterification reaction. 
  
Protein structure 
There are many different types of proteins, and many different possible structures that these proteins can 
take. However proteins normally tend to fall into two categories, structural or globular. ​Structural 
proteins​ tend to be insoluble and often have rope-like structures. ​Globular proteins​ have a more 
spherical form and are often soluble in the aqueous environment of living organisms. Examples of 
structural proteins are muscle, cartilage and hair while examples of globular proteins are hormones, 
enzymes and antibodies. 
  
A protein’s structure is determined by the: 
·​ ​number of amino acid units in the chain 

·​ ​the types of amino acids making up the chain 

·​ ​and the sequence of amino acids in the chain 

  
Primary structure 
 The primary structure of a protein can be defined as the type, number and sequence of the amino acids in 
it. Primary structure is determined by the genetic code carried on the DNA molecules. The genetic code is 
code for amino acids which helps our bodies know what order and type of amino acids should be chained 
together to produce different types of proteins. 
  
Secondary structure 
The secondary structure of a protein relates to the coiling, folding and pleating caused by hydrogen 
bonding within the protein chain. The two most common examples of secondary structure are the ​α-helix 
and the ​β-pleated sheet. 
  
The ​α-helix​ occurs mostly within globular proteins. It normally involves hydrogen bonds forming 
between the peptide bonds within the protein molecule. 
  
The ​β-pleated sheet ​is more common in structural proteins. β-pleated sheets form when hydrogen bonds 
are formed between sections of the protein molecule that lie side by side. 
  
  
  
Tertiary structure 
The ​three-dimensional​ folding of a protein, superimposed on the α-helix and the β-pleated sheet is 
called the tertiary structure. The overall shape is composed of: 
·​ ​covalent bonding between different parts of the protein chain such as disulfide bridges 

·​ ​ionic bonds 

·​ ​dipole-dipole attraction and hydrogen bonding 

·​ ​ion-dipole attractions 

  
The hydrophobic side chains of the amino acid will be found on the internal part of the protein when it is 
folded into the tertiary structure, while the hydrophilic side chains will be on the outside. 
  
Quaternary structure 
Quaternary structure is the interaction that occurs between different protein chains. The types of 
inter-protein interactions that can occur are: 
+​ - 
·​ ​ionic bonding between charge groups such as NH​3​ and COO​

·​ ​hydrogen bonding between H bonded to O or N with another O or N 

·​ ​disulfide bridges between two S atoms (in cysteine or methionine) 

  
Denaturation of Proteins 
Denaturation is a change in the tertiary structure of the protein such that the protein cannot fulfill its 
biological activity/function. Proteins can be denatured by a: 
·​ ​change in pH to either ​very high or very low 

·​ ​change in temperature – ​increase in temperature 

·​ ​reaction with other chemicals. For example the ​heavy metals; Hg, Pb 

  
 These factors will interfere with the attractive forces that stabilize the tertiary structure. 
  
Functions of proteins 
In the body, proteins can serve a variety of functions and can exist in a variety of forms such as: 
·​ ​structural proteins e.g. keratin in skin 

·​ ​storage proteins e.g. ferritin: storage of iron in the spleen 

·​ ​transport proteins e.g. haemoglobin: transports O​2​ in the blood 

·​ ​enzymes e.g. pepsin: hydrolyses peptide bonds of certain amino acids 

·​ ​hormones e.g. insulin: regulates glucose metabolism 

·​ ​protective proteins e.g. antibodies 

·​ ​energy sources 

  
  
  
  
  
  
  
Enzymes 
Enzymes are protein molecules that act as biological catalysts. They increase the rate of biochemical 
reactions whilst not being used up in the process. Enzymes are ​highly specific​ for the reactions that they 
catalyse. They are globular proteins and their shape is determined by their tertiary and quaternary 
structures. 
  
Enzymes have faster reaction rates than inorganic catalysts and only work within the narrow ranges of 
temperature and pH found in the body. They become inactive at higher/lower temperatures and pH values 
due to changes in the tertiary and quaternary structure of the protein. This process is called the 
denaturation of the protein​. 
  
Enzymes usually catalyse ​one step​ of a metabolic process. The substance whose reaction is catalysed is 
referred to as the ​substrate.​ The substrate binds to a specific region of the enzyme molecule known as the 
active site.​ The enzyme and substrate molecules fit by a ​lock and key ​mechanism, with the shape and 
interactions between the functional groups holding them together. 
A refined version of the lock and key model is known as the ​induced fit model.​ In this model, the active 
site changes its shape as the substrate approaches, in direct response to the substrate. 

B.3 – Lipids 
Key concepts: 
·​ ​Fats are more reduced than carbohydrates and so yield more energy when oxidized. 

·​ ​Triglycerides are produced by condensation of glycerol with three fatty acids and contain ester links. 

·​ ​Phospholipids are derivatives of triglycerides. 

·​ ​Steroids have a characteristic fused ring structure known as a steroidal backbone. 

  

Triglycerides 
Fats and Oils are members of a group of lipids known as triglycerides. 
Triglycerides are esters of fatty acids. These esters form through a condensation reaction between the 
fatty acid and glycerol, a molecule with 3 –OH groups. 
  

Triglycerides made from ​saturated fatty acids ​ tend to be solids at room temperature. Saturated fatty 
acids contain only carbon-carbon ​single bonds​ in the hydrocarbon chain and are relatively unreactive. As 
the hydrocarbon chains have a zig zag structure, this enables the triglyceride molecules to align closely 
with one another, strengthening the dispersion forces between the molecules. 
  
Triglycerides made from ​unsaturated fatty acids​ can be either monounsatured or polyunsaturated. 
Triglycerides containing unsaturated fats have lower melting temperatures and are commonly liquid at 
room temperature. This is because the hydrocarbon chains cannot align as closely due to the ‘kink’ in the 
chain caused by the double bond. This leads to fewer dispersion forces between the molecules. 
  
Saturated fatty acids have the general formula C​n​H​2n+1​COOH. 
Oxidative Rancidity 
Unsaturated fats can react with oxygen in the atmosphere. This reaction occurs at the C=C double bond. 
Things such as light, enzymes and metal ions can accelerate the process and catalyse its occurrence. 
Antioxidants are added to unsaturated fats in an effort to reduce the amount of oxidation that occurs. 
Unsaturated fats are less stable than saturated fats because they can undergo auto-oxidation. 
  
Iodine number 
Iodine solution can be used to determine the number of double bonds (degree of unsaturation) in fatty 
acids. ​The iodine number of a fat/oil is the mass of iodine (I​2​) that reacts with 100g of the lipid. 
Higher iodine numbers mean a higher degree of unsaturation. 
  
E.g. Calculation of iodine number for linoleic acid (Molar mass = 280 g mol​-1​) 
  
  For 100g of linoleic acid ​C17​​ H​31​COOH 
  n(linoleic acid) = 1--/280 = 0.357 mol 
  
  n(I​2​) to react = 2 x 0.357 = 0.714 mol (2 mol of double C=C bonds) 
  
mass (I​2​) = n x M = 0.714 x 254 = 181g 
  
Iodine number = 181 g 
  
E.g. Derivation of double bond number using iodine number 
  
  Iodine number of arachidonic acid = 333g 
  Mole of I​2​ = 333/254 = 1.31 mol 
  
  Mole of arachodinic acid = 100/304.5 = 0.3284 mol 
  
  Ratio of mole of acid: mole of I​2​ = 1.31 / 0.3284 = 3.99 
  
  Number of double bonds = 4 
  
Omega-3 and Omega-6 fatty acids 
Omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids are unsaturated “Essential Fatty Acids” (EGAs) that need to be 
included in the diet because the human metabolism cannot create them from other fatty acids. 
These fatty acids use the Greek alphabet to identify the location of the double bonds. The ‘alpha’ carbon 
is the carbon closest to the carboxyl group (carbon number 2) and the ‘omega’ is the last carbon of the 
chain. 
  
Linoleic acid is an omega-6 fatty acid because it has a double bond six carbons away from the ‘omega’ 
carbon. Linoleic acid plays an important role in the lowering of cholesterol levels within the body. 
Alpha-linoleic acid is an omega-3 fatty acid because it has a double bond 3 carbons away from the omega 
carbon. 
  
Essential Fatty Acids 
Essential fatty acids are important as they are used to produce the body’s required lipids. Essential fatty 
acids are also needed as precursors for important hormone-like chemicals such as the prostaglandins and 
the leukotrienes. 
  
Phospholipids 
Phospholipids are a class of lipids that consist of a ​hydrophilic polar head​ group and a ​hydrophobic 
tail.​ The polar head group contains one or more ​ phosphate groups​ while the hydrophobic chain is made 
up of two ​fatty acyl chains​. When many phospholipid molecules are placed in water, their hydrophilic 
heads tend to face water and the hydrophobic tails are forced to stick together forming a bilayer. 
Phospholipids are fat derivatives in which ​one fatty acid has been replaced by a phosphate group​ and 
one of several ​nitrogen-containing molecules. 
  
HDL and LDL cholesterols 
HDL (high density lipoproteins) remove cholesterol from the walls of the arteries, and transport the 
cholesterol to the liver. LDL (low density lipoproteins) transport cholesterol to the arteries where it leads 
to the thickening of the artery walls, causing health issues. The main sources of LDL cholesterol are 
saturated fats such as lauric acid. 
  
Hormones 
A hormone is a chemical messenger substance that is produced by the endocrine glands. Hormones 
circulate throughout the body via the blood and influence only the target tissue which they have receptors 
for. 
  
 Two hormones that are very important are the hormones of Progesterone and Testosterone. Both of these 
hormones are steroids and are derived from cholesterol which causes them to display the characteristic 
four ring structure of steroids. 
  
Steroids 
The negative side effects from taking anabolic steroids can include: 
·​ ​high blood pressure 
·​ ​heart attacks 
·​ ​a potential for liver disease 
·​ ​impotency 
·​ ​for women, the development of secondary male sexual characteristics such as facial hair 
  
  
  
  
  
  
  

B.4 Carbohydrates 
Key Concepts: 
·​ ​Carbohydrates have the general formula C​x​(H​2​O) 

·​ ​Haworth projections represent the cyclical structure of monosaccharides. 

·​ ​Monosaccharides contain either an aldehyde group or a ketone group and several –OH groups. 

·​ ​Glycosidic links can form between monosaccharides causing the formation of disaccharides and 

polysaccharides. 
·​ ​Carbohydrates are used as energy sources and energy reserves. 

  
Carbohydrates 
Carbohydrates are compounds containing carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, and typically contain multiple 
hydroxyl functional groups. Plants use the energy of sunlight to synthesize carbohydrates from carbon 
dioxide and water. This process is known as ​photosynthesis.​ Examples of carbohydrates are cellulose, 
glycogen and sucrose. 
  
Monosaccharides 
Monosaccharides have the empirical formula CH​2​O and molecular formulas of (CH​2​O)​n​ where n = 3 or 
greater. The carbon chain is unbranched and all carbon atoms in the chain except one contain a hydroxyl 
group. 
  

Glucose 
Glucose has the molecular formula of C​6​H​12​O​6​ as do all hexoses (monosaccharides with 6 carbons). There 
are 2 different forms of glucose known as alpha-glucose and beta-glucose. 
  
  

The differences between alpha-glucose and beta-glucose lie in the positioning of the –OH group in the 
molecule and whether it is up-facing or down-facing. 
Disaccharides 
Monosaccharides are able to undergo ​condensation reactions ​causing the formation of a disaccharide. 
  
The –O- linkage between the monosaccharides is called a ​glycosidic link​. 
Polysaccharides 
Polysaccharides are condensation polymers of monosaccharides such as glucose. They have high molar 
masses and differ from simple sugars in that most of them are insoluble. 
  
The main storage carbohydrate in plants is starch, while in animals it is glycogen. Both starch and 
glycogen are polymers of alpha-glucose. Cellulose is a polysaccharide formed from the polymerisation of 
beat-glucose. 
  
Energy 
The digestion of carbohydrates such as start and sucrose provides glucose which then passes into the 
blood stream where it can then be transported to the tissues where it can act as an energy source. 
  
Cellular respiration is the process by which aerobic cells obtain energy from the oxidation of molecular 
oxygen of foodstuffs that serve as fuel. Such energy production is a basic requirement for life, as all living 
things need energy to function. The main source of energy comes from the oxidation of glucose. The 
cellular oxidation of glucose is a lengthy process involving numerous enzymes but it can be summed up 
in one equation. 
  
Respiration: ​C6​​ H​12​O​6(aq)​ + 6O​2(g) ​--> 6CO​2(g)​ + 6H​2​O​(l)  ΔH =-2803 kJ mol​-1 
  

Functions of carbohydrates 
The main functions of carbohydrates in the human body lie in it’s potential as an energy source, it’s 
application as an energy reserve, and it’s usage as a precursor for other biologically important molecules. 
As an energy source, carbohydrates are normally in the form of glucose. As energy reserves and storage, 
they are normally in the form of glycogen. 
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
   
  
  
  
  
  
  

B.5 Vitamins 
Key concepts: 
·​ ​Vitamins are organic micronutrients which (mostly) cannot be synthesized by the body but must be 

obtained from suitable food sources. 

·​ ​The solubility of a vitamin (in either water or fat) can be predicted from its structure. 

·​ ​Most vitamins are sensitive to heat 

·​ ​Vitamin deficiencies in the diet cause particular diseases and affect millions of people worldwide. 

  
Definitions 
Micronutrients​ are substances required in small amounts (mg or micro grams). They are required in 
roughly <0.005% of body weight. Examples of micronutrients include ​vitamins​ and ​trace minerals​ such 
as Fe, Cu, F, Zn, I, Se, Mn, Mo, Cr, Co and B. Minerals and most vitamins ​are not​ synthesised by the 
body and must be take in in the diet (excluding ​vitamin D​). 
  
Macronutrients​ are chemical substances that are required in relatively large amounts (>0.005% body 
weight). Examples include ​proteins, fats and carbohydrates​ and ​minerals​ such as Na, Mg, K, Ca, P, S 
and Cl. Macronutrients such as carbohydrates supply energy and are required for the growth and 
maintenance of the body. 
  

B.6 Biochemistry and the environment 

Key concepts: 
·​ ​Xenobiotics refer to chemicals that are found in an organism that are not normally present there. 

·​ ​Biodegradable/compostable plastics can be consumed or broken down by bacteria or other living 

organisms. 
·​ ​Host-guest chemistry involves the creation of synthetic host molecules that mimic some of the actions 

performed by enzymes in cells, by selectively binding to specific guest species, such as toxic materials in 
the environment. 
·​ ​Enzymes have been developed to help in the breakdown of oil spills and other industrial wastes. 

·​ ​Enzymes in biological detergents can improve energy efficiency by enabling effective cleaning at lower 

temperature. 
·​ ​Biomagnification is the increase in concentration of a substance in a food chain. 
·​ ​Green chemistry, also called sustainable chemistry, is an approach to chemical research and engineering 
that seeks to minimize the production and release to the environment of hazardous substances. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

    
 
   
 Computer Science 
SUBMITTED BY u/pranayshahxyz 
 
Although it is hard to find resources for Computer Science (both HL and SL), I have a few links which I 
refer to very frequently for revision: 
 
● http://bwagner.org​ (Has both SL and HL notes; VERY HELPFUL) 
● https://dokuwikimatyas.no-ip.org/​ (Check if it works, has almost all topics) 
● http://ib.compscihub.net/​ (Helpful for Paper 3) 
● https://drive.google.com/drive/u/0/folders/0B9jMq1QUTjXrY2paLTdvZWZnLWM​ (Mr Teacher 
Wachs from YouTube) 
● https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/IB/Group_4/Computer_Science​ (Has almost all topics) 
● http://gen.lib.rus.ec/book/index.php?md5=006FCC8CBD00393AFD90F3375795F3D5​ (Core 
Computer Science IB Text Book - only for the SL syllabus) 
● http://www.mrpudaloff.com/uploads/1/4/0/1/14010214/barrons_ap_computer_science_2008-200
9_1.pdf​ (This is the AP Computer Science book. Has a similar syllabus as IB CS HL, quite long 
yet extremely helpful). 
 
Please add any more links. 
 
Cheers, 
u/pranayshahxyz  
 
   
 Design Technology 
Flashcards: ​https://quizlet.com/subject/ib-design-technology/ 
Notes: ​http://www.ruthtrumpold.id.au/destech/ 
 

ESS 
 
Physics 
For physics, after much deliberation on papers, one of the most important skills is mathematical 
manipulation. Make sure you know how to divide ratios, and quantities. For example, the ratio of heights 
if one takes twice the time for free fall, etc. While knowing the physics behind is expected, if you can 
manipulate your answer using the formula, all the better.   
Chris Doner on YT is your God 
Flash cards for SL (Laws and definitions): 
https://quizlet.com/79796928/ib-physics-laws-and-definitions-flash-cards/ 
Flash cards for SL (Definitions) (also has for Option Astrophysics): 
https://quizlet.com/133523384/ib-physics-sl-definitions-flash-cards/  
Study guide: ​https://ibphysics2016.wikispaces.com/  
Revision guide by the guy who made the Physics revision app: ​https://ibphysicsnotes.wordpress.com/  
Lectures of all topics: 
https://www.youtube.com/user/CampbellMitch/playlists?&ab_channel=MitchCampbell  
Extra resources from Cambridge: ​http://ibdiploma.cambridge.org/ 
A​n​o​t​h​e​r​ ​g​o​o​d​ ​r​e​s​o​u​r​c​e​ ​f​o​r​ ​b​a​s​i​c​ ​c​o​n​c​e​p​t​u​a​l​ ​u​n​d​e​r​s​t​a​n​d​i​ng ​o​f​ ​c​e​r​t​a​i​n topics : CrashCourse vids on 
youtube. Relatively simple, but they get the job done.  
 
I have some notes for Core waves and Electricity: 
https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/0B-6sZS5ggZpUNVNUSGxuX0RyRnM?usp=sharing 

  
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