Mining and Rock Stability - Stract Applied Geology

762618S
493301A Mining Geophysics

Lecturer: Prof. Elena Kozlovskaya (Oulu Mining School)
(elena.kozlovskaya@oulu.fi)
Time schedule: 05.09.2016-‐26.10.2016
Lectures: Monday, 08:15-‐10:00
Wednesday, 10:15-‐12:00

Literature in mining geology:
Abzalov, M., 2016. Applied Mining Geology. Springer InternaSonal Publishing
Switzerland.
Rock Mechanics:
Brady, B.H.G, Brown, E.T., 2004. Rock Mechanics for Underground Mining. Kluwer
Academic Publishers.
Literatute in mining seismology:
Mendecky, A.J., 1997. Seismic Monitoring in Mines. Chapman&Halls, London
Literature in petrophysics:
3. Schön, J.H.. 1996. Physical properSes of rocks: fundamentals and principles of
petrophysics
Literature in well-‐logging:
Darwin V. Ellis, 2008, Well Logging for Earth ScienSsts. Springer InternaSonal Publishing
Switzerland.
Modern Approaches in Solid Earth Sciences
Modern Approaches in Solid Earth
Sciences
Volume 12
Series Editors
Yildirim Dilek, Department of Geology and Environmental Earth Sciences,
Marat Abzalov Miami University, Oxford, OH, U.S.A
Franco Pirajno, Geological Survey of Western Australia, and The University
Applied
of Western Australia, Perth, Australia
Brian Windley, Department of Geology, The University of Leicester, UK
Responsible Series Editor: F. Pirajno
Mining
Additional material to this book can be downloaded from http://extras.springer.com.
ISSN 1876-1682 ISSN 1876-1690 (electronic)

Modern Approaches in Solid Earth Sciences
ISBN 978-3-319-39263-9 ISBN 978-3-319-39264-6 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-39264-6
Library of Congress Control Number: 2016943190
Geology
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Lecture 3. Mining methods

1) Brief review of mining methods
2) Rock mechanics in mines
3) Mechanical properSes of rocks
The mining method selected for exploitaSon of a mineral
deposit is determined by several factors.

TradiSonal mining methods fall into two broad categories:

1) surface mining
2) underground mining.

Geological characterisScs of the ore body, including

•  The geotechnical competency of host rocks and the spaSal
distribuSon of ore and waste
•  Depth of the ore body and thickness of the cover material
•  ProducSon rates and mine life
•  Available technologies and comparaSve costs

Mining methods are traditionally grouped into deepens with the walls formed by cascading
open pit and underground mining. This subdivi- Open pit
benches mining
(Fig. 2.1a).is The a process of fully
flat surface opening
of the benchan the angle of the i
sion will be followed in this chapter. In addition, ore body and
remaining on the excavating
pit wallit fromis called the topographic
the berm ters (Fig. 2.1b). Bo
a brief introduction is made to ‘unconventional’
mining methods, including in-situ leach (ISL)
Open Pit Mines
surface (Fig. 2.1). The open
(Fig. 2.1b). The berms create safe zones in case
ofsteps,
rockscalled
spallingbenches away (Fig. from 2.1a).
pit is
the walls
mined
A bench
using
and also
acteristics of open
is a berm width and t
and dredging of unconsolidated sediments. horizontal
used slice of the
for developing an haulopenroads pit which
(ramp)iswhich mined the safety and econ
as aneeded
unit. Bench heights typically vary offrom 2 to They largely depe
Open pit mining is a process of fully oare pening
30 m2.1a).
(Fig.
for accessing
a n o re b the bottom
ody a nd
(Table 2.1), with smaller benches generally istics e the pit
xcavaSng it from
of the rocks
the topographic
2.1 Open Pit Mines surface (Fig. 2.1). The oThe pen
slopepit ofis the
mined
pit wall using
is describedsteps, bycalled
more geotechnicall
steeper the pit slop
benches (Fig. 2.1a). A bench is a horizontal the two angles:slice othef aoverall
n open
pit wallpit angle
which andis m ined as
The depth of the
Open pit mining is a process of fully opening an the angle of the individual bench faces or bat-
a uore
nit.
body Bench heights
and excavating typically
it from vary from
the topographic 2 to
ters (Fig. 30 Both
2.1b). m, w ith saremaller
angles important benches
char- several tens of me
generally
surface (Fig. reserved for pit
2.1). The open selecSve mining
is mined using and larger
acteristics of open bpits enches
and together for bwithulk mtheining.
(Table The
2.1). Pit de
steps, called benches (Fig. 2.1a). A bench is a berm width and the bench height they control of the ore body a
bench c an b e f urther s ub-‐ d ivided i nto fl itches i f
horizontal slice of an open pit which is mined the safety and economics of the open pit mining. m ore s elecSve m ining i s
the needed.
project for wh
as a unit. Bench heights typically vary from 2 to They largely depend on geotechnical character- remains one of th
30 m (Table 2.1), with smaller benches generally istics of the rocks and equipment selection. The factors.
more geotechnically competent the wall rocks the Another commo
steeper the pit slope can be. parameter called ‘s
The depth of the modern open pits varies from as a ratio of the
several tens of metres to more than a kilometre the tonnes of ore (
(Table 2.1). Pit depth depends on the geometry parameter is that it
of the ore body and the overall economics of value of a metal o
the project for which the overall pit wall angle other parameter (2.
remains one of the most important controlling this limitation of th
factors.
Stripping ratio
Another common term in open pit mining is a
parameter called ‘stripping ratio’. It is estimated D Tonnes of w
as a ratio of the tonnes of waste in the pit to
Fig. 2.1 Layout of the open pit: (a) general view of the Stripping index
the
Fig. 2.1 Layout of the open pit: (a) general tonnes
openvpitiew of ore
of Fort
at the (2.1.1).
the Knox
open A disadvantage
goldpmine,
it at Alaska; of
the F(b) this
ort Knox
cross-
parameter
section through is that
theitpit does
wallnot take into account the D Stripping rat
gold mine, Alaska; (b) cross-‐ secSon through t he p it w all
value of a metal or mineral mined therefore an-
factors.
Another common te
Open Pit Mines parameter called ‘strip
as a ratio of the tonn
the tonnes of ore (2.1.
parameter is that it doe
value of a metal or m
other parameter (2.1.2)
this limitation of the c
Stripping ratio
D Tonnes of wast
Fig. 2.1 Layout of the open pit: (a) general view of the Stripping index
•  The slope of the pit wall is described by the two angles: Dthe
open pit at the Fort Knox gold mine, Alaska; (b) cross-
Stripping ratio =
section through the pit wall
overall pit wall angle and the angle of the individual bench faces
or bafers
•  Both angles are important characterisScs of open pits and
together with the berm width and the bench height they control
elena.kozlovskaya@oulu.fi
the safety and economics of the open pit mining.
•  They largely depend on geotechnical characterisScs of the rocks
and equipment selecSon.
Open Pit Mines
Another common term in open pit mining is a parameter called
‘stripping raSo’. It is esSmated as a raSo of the tonnes of waste
in the pit to the tonnes of ore:
Stripping raSo = Tonnes of waste / Tonnes of ore
Stripping index = Stripping raSo / Average ore grade
2.2 Underground Mines 7
Table 2.1 Characteristics of the selected open pits (Compiled by M. Abzalov using information collected at the visited
mines)
Mine Country Deposit type Depth Bench height Strip ratioa
Bingham USA Copper-porphyry stockwork 1200 m (in 2008) 15 m, in
Canyon places 30 m
Escondida Chile Copper-porphyry stockwork 15 m
Argyle Australia Diamond-bearing lamproite pipe 15 m 2.6 : 1
Yandi Australia Pisolitic iron-ore 70 m (final pit) 10 m 1:3
Rossing Namibia Uranium, alaskite hosted 300 m (interim pit) 15 m 2:1
Taparko Burkina Faso Orogenic gold 5m 7:3
Bissa Burkina Faso Orogenic gold 240 m (final pit) 12 m (flitches 3:2
2 – 2.5 m)
Geita Tanzania Orogenic gold, BIF hosted 10 m 8:1
Tarkwa Ghana Gold-bearing conglomerates and 6 m (2 – 3 m
sandstones flitches)
a
estimated using the final pit design
Fig. 2.2 General layout of

Faso Orogenic gold 240 m (final pit) 12 m (flitches 3:2
2 – 2.5 m)
a Orogenic gold, BIF hosted 10 m 8:1
Gold-bearing conglomerates and
sandstones
Underground Mines
6 m (2 – 3 m
flitches)
nal pit design
Underground mines are used
ut of
for accessing and exploiSng ore
rin
bodies that are generally not
exposed on surface and due to
technical or economic reasons
cannot be mined by open pit
methods.
A main feature of an
underground mine is a shal,
which is a verScal or subverScal
access to the underground
workings or an inclined tunnel,
called a decline. Both types of
developments, shal and
pits. A typical layout of an underground mine is
round Mines shown on the Fig. 2.2. decline, can be present in the
shaft, which is a vertical or subvertical accesssame mine
A main feature of an underground mine is a
s are used for accessing and to
dies that are generally not the underground workings or an inclined tunnel,
o Orogenic gold 240 m (final pit) 12 m (flitches 3:2
2 – 2.5 m)
Orogenic gold, BIF hosted 10 m 8:1
Gold-bearing conglomerates and 6 m (2 – 3 m
pit design
of Aler accessing the ore body,

underground workings are
conSnued on successive horizontal
planes, referred to as levels.
Drive or dril is a horizontal or
nearly horizontal underground
opening developed on the
underground levels along the strike
of ore body.
The drives are subdivided into
hanging-‐ wall (located at the upper
ore-‐waste contact, ‘hanging’ above
the ore body) and footwall (located
at the lower ore-‐waste contact, at
the ‘foot’ of the ore body) drives. A
footwall drive is also commonly
und Mines shown on the Fig. 2.2. called an ore drive.
re used for accessing and shaft, which is a vertical or subvertical access to
s that are generally not the underground workings or an inclined tunnel,
it design
A crosscut is a horizontal underground

tunnel intersecSng the ore body
across its strike. The crosscuts are
usually developed to connect the
drives with the area in which stoping
occurs.
• A raise is underground opening
driven up-‐ ward.
• A stope is an underground
excavaSon made by removing ore
from the host rocks. Development of
stopes olen starts from blasSng a
slot, which is a steeply dipping to
verScal excavaSon at one boundary of
the ore body. Mining then conSnues
by blasSng rings or slides of the
nd Mines shown on the Fig. 2.2. orebody into the slot.
e used for accessing and shaft, which is a vertical or subvertical access to
that are generally not the underground workings or an inclined tunnel,
and due to technical or called a decline. Both types of developments,
nnot be mined by open shaft and decline, can be present in the same mine
it design
A pillar is block of ore or barren

rock lel intact in the mined out
stope or between two stopes to
act as a mean of support. It
required to provide structural
integrity to the stoping process
and prevent the stope walls
from collapsing.
Pillars may be removed aler
stopes are mined out, but some
pillars may be lel in place
permanently.
• A draw point is a place from
which the ore is extracted from
the stope and loaded onto
trucks or conveyors for further
nd Mines shown on the Fig. 2.2. transportaSon.
e used for accessing and shaft, which is a vertical or subvertical access to

it design
An ore pass is a steeply dipping

underground opening for passing
ore from one level to another
under gravity. The ore is loaded
through the chutes, which are
the loading arrangements that
uSlise gravity. Important element
of the ore loading and
transportaSon system is a coarse
steel graSng, called a grizzly, for
screening out oversize rock
fragments.
• A winze is a small verScal
excavaSon which can be
developed in underground mines
by driving it downward from one
nd Mines shown on the Fig. 2.2. level to another, or it can be
e used for accessing and shaft, which is a vertical or subvertical access to driven from a surface to a level.
Fig. 2.3 Examples of the underground machineries and equipment: (a) two beams Jumbo; (b) air leg; (c) LHD truck;
(d) underground working supported by meshing and rock bolting (RB)
EXAMPLES OofF theM

collapse ASHINERY
rocks in the underground Iworkings
N UNDERGROUND MINES:
allowing the excavation of large volumes of ore.
they must be strengthened and reinforced using These techniques enable high production rates
the common roof support techniques of rock in underground mines, but are less effective in
•  Jumbo bolting
dInrilling r igs, w hich
and wire meshing (Fig. 2.3d).
m ay h ave one or two beams (Fig. 2.3a).
separating ore and waste so are preferentially
the case of extremely loose rocks the over- used in extracting massive ore bodies.
•  Hand hhead eld d
surfacerilling
and the sideewalls
quipment
of the drives cancalled air-‐legs (Fig. 2.3b).
be reinforced by the spraying a fluid cement or
•  A load-‐haul-‐dump
cement fibre mixing ontom theachine
rock surface.(LHD),
method commonly referred to as shotcreting. A
A 2.2.1 Fig. 2 .3c
Underground
Mining Methods
Selective
MAING GROUPS OF UNDERGROUND MINING METHODS:

1) Underground SelecTve Mining Methods

Narrow steeply dipping veins are usually mined using cut-‐and-‐fill
and shrinkage stoping methods, which allow highly selecSvely
excavaSon of the ore while minimising diluSon by the waste
material.

2) Underground Bulk Mining Methods

Where the ore body is large, massive and has regular shape, selecSve mining is
not necessary nor desirable from a cost perspecSve.
The ore body can be efficiently mined in large volumes and with higher
producSvity using larger underground equipment and the bulk mining methods.
There are several methods for bulk underground mining, the most common being
block caving, long hole open stoping, sublevel open stoping, sublevel caving and
verScal-‐crater-‐retreat.
The method removes the ore in
Cut-‐and-‐Fill Method horizontal slices, starSng from
the bofom undercut and
advancing upward on a backfilled
10 2 Mining Methods
base (Fig. 2.4). Every slice is
mined by drilling and blasSng the
Fig. 2.4 Cut-and-fill
mining procedure face aler which the broken ore
(muck) is removed from the
stope.
The process is repeated unSl the
enSre slice (lil) is excavated
along the strike of ore body.
When the lil is mined out the
resultant void is backfilled by
advancing upward on a backfilled base (Fig. 2.4). tion is limited to the steeply dipping regular ore waste rocks or, most commonly,
Every slice is mined by drilling and blasting
the face after which the broken ore (muck) is
bodies in the very stable host rocks. Regular
shape of the ore body is also important for effec-
by sand tailings or by sand-‐
removed from the stope. The process is repeated
until the entire slice (lift) is excavated along the
tive use of this technique.
cement mixture.
strike of ore body. When the lift is mined out
the resultant void is backfilled by waste rocks 2.2.2 Underground Bulk Mining
The backfill acts to support the
or, most commonly, by sand tailings or by sand-
cement mixture. The backfill acts to support the
Methods stope walls and it also used as a
stope walls and it also used as a working platform
for equipment to mine the next slice (Fig. 2.4).
Where the ore body is large, massive and has
regular shape, selective mining is not necessary
working plaporm for equipment
Drilling of the stope face can be done by nor desirable from a cost perspective. The ore to mine the next slice (Fig. 2.4).
either a Jumbo or an air-leg, depending on the body can be efficiently mined in large volumes
Similarly to cut-‐and-‐fill method,
shrinkage stoping starts from
Shrinkage Stoping
2.2 Underground Mines 11
the bofom of the ore body and
Fig. 2.5 Shrinkage
advances upward excavaSng the
ore in horizontal slices (Fig. 2.5).
stoping

The key difference is that the
broken ore is not removed
completely from the shrinkage
stope. Approximately 60 % of
the broken ore is lel in the
stope where it is used as a
Fig. 2.6 Block caving,
working plaporm for mining the
generalised after Hamrin
(1982, 2001) next slice of the ore. The broken
ore remaining in the stope, also
serves as a support for the
stope walls.
Block Caving
Fig. 2.6 Block caving, The method uses gravity force in
(1982, 2001) conjuncSon with internal rock
stress which leads to fracturing
of the rocks and eventually
breaks them into small enough
pieces which can be extracted
from draw points by LHD’s (Fig.
2.6). The term ‘block’ refers to
the enSre volume of the ore
which is prepared for excavaSon
as a single block (Fig. 2.6).
Caving is induced by undercutng

from draw points by LHD’s (Fig. 2.6). The term of a ore
of the blasted block. This This
(Fig. 2.6). is m ade a by blasSng the narrow ore
creates
slice located underneath of avoid
‘block’ refers to the entire volume of the ore block
beneath and
the rblock
emoving
(undercut)oandf the
leavesblasted ore (Fig. 2.6). This
which is prepared for excavation as a single block the overlaying rock mass unsupported. As a
creates a void beneath the bconsequence
(Fig. 2.6). lock (undercut)
of removal thisand leaves
support the overlaying rock mass
the rocks
unsupported. As a consequence
Caving is induced by undercutting of a block.
This is made by blasting the narrow ore slice
of removal this support the rocks fracturing, which was
fracturing, which was induced by the undercut
blasting, starts spreading through the entire block
induced by the undercut blasSng,
located underneath of a block and removing due to thesgravity
tarts force.
spreading
The rock mass through
in a block the enSre block due to the
gravity force.
The rock mass in a block breaks into small pieces which falls to the bofom of a stope
elena.kozlovskaya@oulu.fi
(cave) where they are extracted through draw points (Fig. 2.6).
Sublevel Open S2toping When block caving is not suitable for mining
Mining Methods the ore body but its large size is sSll
favourable for large scale producSon the
methods like bighole open stoping and
sublevel open stoping (SLOS) can be
tockwork
tockwork
considered.
tockwork Both methods subdivide the ore body into
tockwork several large stopes. Each of the stopes are
tockwork mined either using sublevels (sublevel open
tockwork
tockwork
stoping) or as a single large void (bighole open
hyry stoping).
The SLOS stopes are distributed along the
strike of ore body with the pillars lel between
imberlite the stopes to support the hanging wall.
Horizontal secSons of the ore, known as
imberlite
crown pillars, are also lel to support the mine
imberlite workings above the producing stope.
The stopes are developed using the sublevel
drives which are prepared inside the ore body
e bottom
Fig. 2.7 Sublevel open stoping, generalised after Hamrin
(1982, 2001)
be tween the main levels (Fig. 2.7). The blast
d through holes are drilled from the sublevel drives
distributed as a Sght fan pafern covering the
hnique is can be considered. Both methods subdivide the
ore body into several large stopes. Each of the
whole stope.
bly of a
This technique uses sublevels developed
Sublevel Caving through the enSre ore body at regular
2.2 Underground Mines
intervals.
13
Fig. 2.8 Sublevel caving,

On each sublevel a system of the drives and
(1982, 2001)
crosscuts is developed following a
geometrically systemaSc layout.
The drives are developed along the footwall
and hangingwall of the ore body and joined
by series of the parallel and regularly
distributed crosscuts (Fig. 2.8).
ProducSon of the sublevel caves is made by
drilling the long blastholes into the
hangingwall from the sublevel crosscuts. The
long blastholes are charged and blasted to
same cross-sections, usually referred to a firing2.2.2.3 Sublevel Caving
generate a controlled caving when
ring. The SLOS mining advances in a horizontal Sublevel caving is another method available forhangingwall fractures and collapses following
direction, usually along the strike of the ore body,
mining of the large steeply dipping ore bodies
by drilling of the next firing ring, charging the(Fig. 2.8). This technique uses sublevels devel-the cave. Ground on the top of the ore body
blast holes and blasting them (Fig. 2.7).
The broken ore is removed by LHD from the
must be permifed to subside.
oped through the entire ore body at regular inter-
vals. On each sublevel a system of the drives and
draw points distributed along the stope bottom crosscuts is developed following a geometricallyThe ore body can be mined by retreaSng
(Fig. 2.7). The recovery of the ore from the systematic layout. The drives are developed along
stopes is facilitated by trough shaped bottom the footwall and hangingwall of the ore bodyfrom the hangingwall to footwall, which is
of the stope (Fig. 2.7). This technique creates and joined by series of the parallel and regularly
large open voids, in particular in a vertical di-distributed crosscuts (Fig. 2.8). referred to as transverse sublevel caving (Fig.
rection. In order to prevent their collapsing after Production of the sublevel caves is made by2.8), or, conversely, retreaSng the stopes
the ore was recovered the stopes are normally drilling the long blastholes into the hangingwall
backfilled. from the sublevel crosscuts. The long blastholesalong the strike of ore body.
The method is used for steep dipping ore bod- are charged and blasted to generate a controlled
VerScal crater retreat method
14 VerTcal Crater Retreat 2 Mining Methods
(VCR) is used at the deposits that
have competent steeply dipping
Fig. 2.9 Vertical crater
retreat mining, generalised ore hosted by the competent wall
rocks (Fig. 2.9).
after Hamrin (1982, 2001)
The method is based on the crater

blasSng which is made by firing the
large diameter blast holes drilled
downward from the overcut de-‐
veloped on the top of a stope (Fig.
2.9). The blast holes are charged by
explosives which is placed into the
short secSons of the holes which is
referred to as crater charge. The
explosive is posiSoned in the each
hole at the same distance above
the open surface (Fig. 2.9).
support, usually a local rock bolting and meshing positioned in the each hole at the same distance
The blasSng loosens the ore slice of ore creaSng a crater which is verScally retreated.
of the most unstable areas. It general, the method
can be used instead of the SLOS technique if
above the open surface (Fig. 2.9). The blasting
loosens the ore slice of ore creating a crater
Ore is conSnuously extracted from the draw points together with rigorous recording of
the rock mass competence is insufficient for open which is vertically retreated. Ore is continuously
stoping. extracted from the draw points together with rig-
the blasSng progress in each hole.
orous recording of the blasting progress in each
2.2.2.4 Vertical Crater Retreat hole.
Vertical crater retreat method (VCR) is used at
Mining of the Gently Dipping Ore Bodies:
Room-‐and-‐pillar Method The room-‐and-‐pillar method is used
2.3 Unconventional Mining
for
15
mining flat bedded deposits using
the flat open stopes. Hangingwall of
such stopes extends for large areas
and therefore have to be prevented
from collapsing by leaving pillars,
which support the hangingwall of the
stopes (Fig. 2.10).
In order to minimise the mining
losses the pillars are usually lel
where low-‐grade material or internal
waste present in the ore. In case if
the ore grade material has been lel
in the pillars it is unrecoverable and
therefore mine geologists have to
Fig. 2.10 Room-and-pillar methods, generalised after Hamrin (1982, 2001)
exclude these volumes from the ore
reserves.
2.2.3.1 Room-and-pillar Method The
efficient for mining of the coal seams hosted
The room-and-pillar method is used for mining the soft sedimentary rocks. Excavation of such
in flat ore body and large open
flat bedded deposits using the flat open stopes. deposits does not require blasting and can areas
be allows to establish several
Hangingwall of such stopes extends for large fully mechanised. The large length of the working
areas and therefore have to be prevented from faces allows to use conveyor belts for haulage of
producSon areas with an easy
collapsing by leaving pillars, which support the the ore. The method also allows the hangingwall communicaSon between different
hangingwall of the stopes (Fig. 2.10). In order to to collapse at some distance behind the working
minimise the mining losses the pillars are usually face which decreases the mining costs sites.
16
Longwall Mining 2 Mining Methods
Fig. 2.11 Longwall mining, generalised after Hamrin (1982, 2001): (a) plan showing general layout of the longwall
stope; (b) gold reef mined by longwall method in South Africa
mining approach is broadly used for extraction A significant advantage of the ISL operations
of the dissolvable minerals hosted in the water over conventional mining is their low capital
Narrow gently dipping ore bodies of a uniform thickness can also be mined using
permeable rocks. In particular, this is the main and production costs. The favourable economics
production method for the sandstone hosted ura- of the ISL technology coupled with a specific
longwall mining technique. The ore is extracted from a long straight front using system
nium deposits (Abzalov 2012). technical characteristics of the method allow to
of the long flat stopes (Fig. 2.11a). The method was found in parScular efficient for
Another technique, included into the group use it for mining the low grade deposits hosted
of unconventional mining method is dredging, in the unconsolidated sands at the depth up to
mining of the coal seams hosted in the sol sedimentary rocks. ExcavaSon of such
which is also not a mining technology senso 600 m below surface, which cannot be mined by
deposits does not require blasSng and can be fully mechanised.
stricto. In the mining industry, this method is used conventional methods (Abzalov 2012).
for exploitation of the mineral sand deposits. A The method is based in its entirety on the
brief description of these methods is given below. drilling and therefore the surface disturbance at
In South Africa the technique was adapted for mining reef-‐type gold deposits, where
the ISL operations is minimal (Fig. 2.12b). This
is another advantage of the ISL technologies in
gold i2.3.1
s distributed in (ISL)
In situ Leach the thin beds of the quartz conglom-‐ erates, usually less than 1 m
Technique comparison with the conventional mining meth-
thick (Fig. 2.11b). ods. All these features have made the ISL tech-
SUMMARY:

•  The process of underground mining
generates a rock structure consisSng of
voids, support elements and abutments.
•  The mechanical performance of the

structure need to be analysed in order to
ensure the safety of personal and
equipment and conSnuity of producSon.
enginee
InteracTon between technical groups involved in marily
mine i
engineering mining s
and sequ
Management
to unan
constitu
Mine
Rock
Production
planning that perm
and
design advice f
personn
neering
Mine Rock are, first
geology mechanics
the othe
(Brady& Brown, 2004)
Rock mechanics and mining engineering
Rock mechanics is the theoreScal and applied science of the

mechanical behaviour of rock and rock masses;
it is that branch of mechanics concerned with the response of
rock and rock masses to the force fields of their physical
environment.
Rock mechanics itself forms part of the broader subject of
geomechanics which is concerned with the mechanical
responses of all geological materials, including soils.
This definiSon of geomechanics is almost synonymous with the
term geotechnical engineering, which has been defined as
“the applicaSon of the sciences of soil mechanics and rock
mechanics, engineering geology and other related disciplines
to civil engineering construcSon, the extracSve industries and
t h e p r e s e r v a S o n a n d e n h a n c e m e n t o f t h e
environment” (Anon, 1999).
ROCK MECHANICS IN UNDERGROUND MINING
ApplicaSon of rock mechanics principles in underground mine
engineering is based on simple and, perhaps, self-‐evident
premises.
•  First, it is postulated that a rock mass can be ascribed a set of
mechanical properSes which can be measured in standard
tests or esSmated using well-‐established techniques.
•  Second, it is asserted that the process of underground mining
generates a rock structure consisSng of voids, support
elements and abutments, and that the mechanical
performance of the structure can be analysed using the
principles of classical mechanics.
•  The third proposiSon is that the capacity to predict and control
the mechanical performance of the host rock mass in which
mining proceeds can assure or enhance the safe and economic
performance of the mine.
(a) Pre-‐mining condiSons around an orebody,
(b) mechanical consequences of mining excavaSons
ROCK MECHANICS AND MINING ENGINEERING
in the orebody.
g condi-
and (b)
f mining

is that the capacity to predict and control the mechanical performance of the host
The ulSmate objecSve in the design of a mine structure is to
rock mass in which mining proceeds can assure or enhance the safe and economic
performance of the mine. These ideas may seem rather elementary. However, even
control rock displacements into and around mine
limited application of the concepts of mechanics in mine excavation or mine structural
design is a comparatively recent innovation (Hood and Brown, 1999).
excavaSons.
The majority of rock mechanics acSvity in mining operaSons is devoted
to resoluSon of quesSons concerned with the evoluSonary design of the
mine structure.

These quesSons include:
•  dimensions of stopes and pillars;
•  layout of stopes and pillars within the orebody, taking due account
of their locaSon and orientaSon relaSve to the geological structure
•  the principal stress direcSons;
•  the overall direcSon of mining advance through an orebody;
•  the sequence of extracSon of stope blocks and pillar remnants,
simultaneously noSng the need to protect service installaSons,
maintain access and preserve mine structural stability; and
•  the need for and specificaSon of the strength parameters of any
backfill in the various mined voids.
Components and logic of a rock mechanics programme in a
mine ROCK MECHANICS AND MINING ENGINEERING
mponents and logic of

cs programme.
Figure 1.5 Definition
of activities and func-
tions in underground
mine engineering (after
Folinsbee and Clarke,
1981).
The difficulTes in designing a structure in rock are as follows:

a) State of stress of subsurface rock is not known due to weight of
overlaying rock and tectonic forces.
b) The informaSon on the mechanical properSes of in situ rocks is
not available before underground excavaSon.
c) The problem that arises in relaSon to calculaSng the stress and
deformaSon in various parts of the rock structure.
The factors to deal with while designing a structure in rock are:
a) The design of the structure must be such that it holds up for a
long span of Sme, all safety factors should be kept high.
b) Design should be such that the structure could be made in a
minimum Sme.
c) In situ stress should be carried out at iniSal stage, so that
modificaSon at later stage could be avoided.
d) For economics of mining it is necessary to exploit the enSre
deposit keeping size and number of pillars, barriers to the
minimum.
STRESS
Consider two types of forces:

a) Body force
b) Surface force.
Body force acts through out the body and does not
require physical contact with other body.

Examples: gravitaSonal, magneSc or inerSal forces.
Surface force acts on the external surface of a body and
result from physical contact with other body. The term
stress means force per unit area.
Types of Loading
Tensile
Compressive
Strain
(For Tension and Compression)

Strain: ε = Δl / lo (× 100 %)

Δl: change in length
lo: original length.

Stress / strain = σ/ ε

Types of Loading
Shear
Torsion
Shear stress: τ = F / Ao

F is applied parallel to upper and lower faces each having
area A0.
Shear strain: γ = tanθ (× 100 %)
θ is strain angle
Torsion: like shear.
Load: applied torque, T
Strain: angle of twist, φ.

Torsion
Shear
Stress-‐Strain Behavior
(Tension)
ElasTc deformaTon
Reversible:
( For small strains)
Stress removed à material
returns to original size
PlasTc deformaTon
Irreversible:
Stress removed à material
does not return to original
dimensions.
ElasTc deformaTon
Gives Hooke's law for Tensile Stress
σ = E ε
E = Young's modulus or modulus of elasTcity
(same units as σ, N/m2 or Pa)
Unload Higher E → higher stiffness

Slope = modulus of
Stress
elasticity E
Load
Strain
Nonlinear elasTc behavior
In some materials (concrete), elasTc deformaTon is not
linear, but it is sTll reversible.
Δσ/Δε = tangent modulus at σ2
Definitions of E
Δσ/Δε = secant modulus

between origin and σ1
Tensile properTes: Yielding
Elastic Plastic
σy
Yield point: P
Where strain deviates from
Stress
P
being proportional to stress
(the proportional limit)
Strain
Yi e l d s t re n g t h : σy
0.002 Permanent strain= 0.002
A measure of resistance
to plastic deformation
ElasTc limit: no longer a linear
relaSonship between stress and
strain-‐ rock behaves in a different
manner

Yield strength: The differenSal
stress at which the rock is no
longer behaving in an elasSc
fashion
Tensile properTes: DucTlity
Ductility ! Deformation at Fracture
'l −l $
%EL = %% f 0 "" ×100
percent elongation & l0 #
or
' A − Af $
percent reduction in %RA = %% 0 "" ×100
area & A0 #
What happens at higher confining pressure and
higher differenTal stress?

PlasTc behavior produces an
irreversible change in shape
as a result of rearranging
chemical bonds in the crystal
latce-‐ without failure!

DucTle rocks are rocks that
undergo a lot of plasSc
deformaSon

Ideal plasTc behavior
Poisson’s raTo
Unloaded Loaded
Tension à shrink laterally

Compression à bulge.
Ratio of lateral to axial strain is called
Poisson's ratio υ.
Poisson’s raTo

εx εy
ν=− =−
εz εz
υ  dimensionless.

Sign:
lateral strain opposite to longitudinal strain

TheoreTcal value:
for isotropic material: 0.25

Maximum value: 0.50,
Typical value: 0.24 -‐ 0.30
Shear Modulus
Δy
Zo
Unloaded
Shear stress to shear strain:

Loaded
τ = G γ, τ
γ = tanθ = Δy / zo
G is Shear Modulus (Units: N/m2)
ElasTc Modulus, Poisson’s RaTo and
Shear Modulus
For isotropic material:

E = 2G(1+υ) → G ~ 0.4E
Two main problem types:
It is necessary to disSnguish between two main types of
structural rock mechanics problems:
1.  Underground excavaSons in solid homogeneous rock,
such as the massive quartzites which occur in the deep-‐
level gold mines in South Africa, in which the stability of
the rock surrounding the excavaSon is primarily
dependent upon progressive failure of the rock
material.
2.  Rock structures such as dam foundaSons and surface

excavaSons in which the material is so faulted and
fissured that the stability of the structure depends upon
the movement of interlocking blocks within the rock
mass rather than upon failure of the rock material.
illustrates a fundamental problem faced when representing a fractured medium. The jo
ns, such as, blocky, irregular, tabular and columnar block shapes of rock mass are shown in Fig
Concept
Different types of Ssets
of joints cale
areashown
s it Pertains
in Figuret2.1(c).
o Rock Mass ProperTes in
Underground ExcavaTon:
underground
Underground
Excavation
excavation
Intact Rock
intact rock
single discontinuity
Single Discontinuity
two discontinuities
Two Discontinuities
Several Discontinuities
several discontinuities
rock mass
Rock Mass
attitudes
presence
Scale effects in rocks mass. Joints and other fractures of geological other ori fo
of rock, and thus the strength and deformation jointed pm
by both the properties of the rock material describe (i.e
those of the various structural geological feature These
The response of rock to imposed load shows a pronounced by considering effect various of scales
the sofize or atorock
loading whicm
scale of the loaded volume. This e ffect i s related
INHERENT COMPLEXITIES IN ROCK MECHANICS
i n p art
practice.t o t
The he d
process isconSnuous
of rock drillingnwill ature
jointed
generr
the intact rock, since the process operates isfactori
by in
of a rock: the drilling tool. Mining a drive in jointed rock m rock ma
mass. Joints and other fractures system. In this case,
of geological the final
origin are cross
ubiquitoussectionfeatur
of the
1.2.3
of rock, and thus the strengthattitudes. and deformation The behaviour of the rock
properties of the around
mass the p
Rock ar is
presence of
by both the properties of the rock material (i.e. the continuous by discrete blocks of rock, whose units stab
its loo
other forces acting on their surfaces. On a large
those of the various structural geological features. These effects may stresses be
jointed mass may demonstrate the properties joints an
of
by considering various scalesdescribed of loading to which a rock mass is subjecte
here are illustrated schematically in Fs
practice. The process of rock drilling will generally reflect the tensile
strength
These considerations suggest that the convent specificp
the intact rock, since the process a rockoperates
mass is by not inducing
a simple matter. rock material
In particula fra
cannot b
the drilling tool. Mining a drive in jointed
jointed rock specimens,rock mayatreflect the properties
scales sufficient to rep
excavati
system. In this case, the final cross section
isfactorily, of thethat
indicates opening
it is necessarywill betodefined
postulas
tensile
attitudes. The behaviour of the rock
rock mass around
Figure properties
1.2theThe from
effectthose
periphery ofofthe
of scale thedrive
on constitue
De-stresma
presence of discrete blocks of rock,rock whose response stability
to imposed is determined
loads: (a) or by
progr fr
The effect of scale on rock
otherresponse
forces actingto imposed loads:
1.2.3
on their surfaces. On (a) a rlarger
Tensile
rock materialock
strength m
failure aterial
scale, in drilling;
e.g. (b)
that of a min
Rock is discontinuities
distinguished controlling
from all the
otherfinal
common en
failure in drilling; (b) disconSnuiSes
jointed mass may controlling
demonstrate tby
he
thefiproperties
nal
its low
shapesof hape of aopseudo-continuum.
the excavation;
tensile strength.
f t he
(c) a mine pil-
Rock materialGroundw
1.2.4Sca
specim
described here are illustrated schematically
excavaSon; (c) a mine pil-‐ lar operaSng as a pseudo-‐conSnuum. lar operating in asFigure 1.2.
a pseudo-continuum.
stresses an order of magnitude lower thanmost when obt
These considerations suggest that the specification
joints and other fractures in rock can offer of the mechanical littlepr
under op
a rock mass is not a simple matter. In particular,
tensile strength of a rockthe massunlikely
can be possibili
between
assumed
jointed rock specimens, at scales sufficient to represent
conventionally described as a ‘no-tension’ the equivalent can be con
mam
isfactorily, indicates that it is necessary cannot be to postulate
generated and verifyinmethods
or sustained a rock lawmassisofo
rock mass properties from those of the constituent
excavation design in rock elements.
is that any zone underident p
tensile stress will, in practice, be de-stressed, the drain a
The joint paferns: blocky, irregular, tabular and columnar block shapes of rock
mass Fundamentals of Rock Mechanics
a) b)
c) d)
Figure 2.1(b): Typical Joint Patterns

c) d)
Example of the Type and Influence the Number of Joints Sets Exert on Rock Mass
Figure 2.1(b): Typical Joint Patterns
1
One Three
Joint Joint
Set Sets
2
3
1
1 2 R
Figure 2.1(c): Example of the Type and Influence the Number of Joints Sets Exert on Rock Mass
The difficulties in designing a structure in rock are as follows:

a) State of stress of subsurface rock is not known due to weight of overlaying rock and
tectonic forces.
b) The information on the mechanical properties of in situ rocks is not available before
underground excavation.
c) The problem that arises in relation to calculating the stress and deformation in various
parts of the rock structure.
Mechanics of faulSng
The rock specimen having Sheargeological
Displacement u
disconSnuity, such as joints, when under
‹
← ←
the loading system causes sliding along the
disconSnuity.
Shear Stress τ

Normal Stress
Angle of Friction The s hear s tress required causing sliding
←
) φ
increases with increase ← of normal stress.
‹
Shear Stress τ
c

The slope of the line relaSng to normal
‹
‹
←
Normal Stress σ
←
stress σ and shear stress τ defines the angle
←
of fricSon φ.
Figure 2.2(a): Relation between Shear Stress, Normal Stress, Cohesion, Angle of Friction
If the disconSnuity surface is cemented or
it is rough, a finite value of shear stress will
be required to cause sliding when the
Tension Crack
normal stress is zero.

‹
This ‹iniSal V value of shear strength defines

U ‹
the cohesive
‹ strength c of the surface
‹
‹
W Sin ψ ‹ R
‹
)β
When the block is on the slope, i.e., block
having weight W, area A resSng on the slope
ground surface inclined at angle ψ then,
Normal stress σ = (W cos ψ) /A

Shear stress τ = c+[(Wcosψ)/A]x tanφ

ResisSng force R= τA=cA+W cosψ tanφ
Uplil force U = uA,
where, u = water pressure

Effect of water pressure:
ResisSng force = (W cos ψ-‐ U) tan φ
When the tension crack is filled up with water, the water pressure increases linearly
with depth.
Then the equilibrium for block
Wsin ψ + V = cA + (W cos ψ-‐ U) tan φ

strength that occurs across a plane following little or no permanent deformation (plastic deformation)
result in Brittle fracture as shown in Figure 2.3 (a). Ductile deformation occurs when rock may sust
STRAIN AND YIELD
result in Brittle fracture as shown in Figure 2.3 (a). Ductile deformation occurs when rock may sustain
furtherpermanent
further permanent deformation
deformation without
without loosing
loosing load carrying
load carrying capacity
capacity as asFigure
shown in shown 2.3in(b).
Figure 2.3 (b).
‹
‹
‹
‹
Stress
Stress Stress Stress
2 2
σy σy
y y
σσ 1 1
3 3
‹ ‹ ‹ ‹
StrainStrain Strain Strain
Figure 2.3(a):
Figure Strain
2.3(a): Softening
Strain Softening Figure 2.3(b):
Figure Strain Hardening
2.3(b): Strain Hardening
FormaSon of planes of separaSon in the 7rock Indian result
7 in fracture.
Bureau
Indian of Mines
Bureau Peak ofstrength
Mines is the
maximum stress reached before failure (Point 2 in the Figure 2.3 (a)).
Beyond the peak strength, the rock may sSll have some strength. The minimum or
residual strength reached aler post peak deformaSon is indicated by Point 3 in the Figure
2.3 (a). Yield occurs when there is a departure from elasSc behaviour, i.e., when some of
the deformaSon becomes irrecoverable at Point 1 in the Figure 2.3 (a).
The yield stress σy in Figure 2.3 (a) is the stress at which permanent deformaSon first
appears.
Sudden loss of strength that occurs across a plane following lifle or no permanent
deformaSon (plasSc deformaSon) result in Brifle fracture as shown in Figure 2.3 (a).
DucSle deformaSon occurs when rock may sustain further permanent deformaSon
without loosing load carrying capacity as shown in Figure 2.3 (b).
stress is applied to the rock material, instantaneous elastic strain appears and curve is concave downward,
creep in this region, i.e., (i) is called the primary or transient creep. The second region (ii), i.e., the
steady state creep, is characterised by a curve of approximately constant slope. It is also called secondary
CREEP
creep. Finally, the curve as shown as (iii) becomes convex leading rapidly to fracture, this is called
tertiary or accelerating creep.
‹
iii
‹ i ii
i Transient Creep
Time
ii Steady State Creep
iii Accelerating Creep
‹
Strain
Creep is the tendency Figureof

2.4: a sTime-Strain
olid material
Plot for to
Creep slowly move or deform
permanently under the influence of stresses
2.4 ELASTICITY AND MATERIAL PROPERTIES
Creep theory is used in design of pillar, slow deterioraSon or closure of mine
Elastic theory provides the solution to a large number of problems that have direct applications in
working.
structure of rock mechanics. Many materials that are linearly elastic at low stress level deviate if they
are putIn
underupper
higherfigure
stress orcreep deformaSon
at prolonged loading system. (or sThe
train) is plofed
deviation against
may indicate Sme. When
an incomplete
constant
instantaneous stress
recovery is applied
of strain upon removal to the
of rstress
ock andmaterial,
variationinstantaneous
in mechanical properties elasSc
with strain
appears
application and
of stress. Thecbehaviour
urve is cofoncave
raw materials downward,
beyond the elastic range is termed as inelastic. The
theory of elasticity can be used to make approximation of the stresses, strains and deformations in the
(i)  creep in this region is called the primary or transient creep.
structure under the given loading condition and that various inelastic theories can be used to estimate
(ii)  The
the ultimate second
loads that a givenrstructure
egion (canii), support
i.e., the
before steady
there arestate
occurrancescreep, is characterised
of excessive deformation, by a
curve of approximately
fracture or disintegration. Inelastic theories chave onstant slope. It mainly
been developed is also called sthe
to describe econdary
mechanicalcreep.
(iii) ofFinally,
behaviour the cand
ductile, plastic urve as ssolids
viscous hown as (iii)
at high stress becomes
where creep convex leading
and permanent rapidly to
deformation
occur in rocks.
fracture, this is called terSary or acceleraSng creep.
Most ductile materials have a fairly long plastic range before fracture occurs whereas brittle materials,
fracture propagation is very similar to that of the equations which define fracture
initiation.
Figure 1. Effects of a rockburst in a deep-level South African gold mine.

Effects of a rockburst in a deep-‐level South
African gold mine 4
Feasibility study for selecSng underground mining methods
require the rock mechanics data, such as, in situ stress, physio
mechanical and elasSc properSes of rock and rock mass
strength. For this,
a) The theoreScal and experimental knowledge of stress
distribuSon around the rock structure may be useful for
interpreSng the early failure of rock. Based on these, remedial
measures could be taken which would enable saving in labour
and cost. For planning and development of new deposits, this
process help providing raSonal approach for designing the
underground openings and supports.
b) For new deposits, the pre-‐exisSng state of stress usually
assumed to be due to weight of overlaying rock would need to
be assessed. ProperSes of subsurface rock can be obtained by
laboratory tesSng core.
c) For underground design, an assessment of a small specimen
of rocks that which would reveal the mechanical defects, such
as, joints, fractures, and faults, which affect the in situ
mechanical properSes of the rock would be a valued input.
MICROSEISMIC MONITORING INFORMATION CAN BE USED FOR PASSIVE IMAGING

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762618S

493301A Mining Geophysics

Responsible Series Editor: F. Pirajno

ISSN 1876-1682 ISSN 1876-1690 (electronic)

Library of Congress Control Number: 2016943190

Printed on acid-free paper

This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature

Fig. 2.2 General layout of

of Aler accessing the ore body,

A crosscut is a horizontal underground

A pillar is block of ore or barren

An ore pass is a steeply dipping

EXAMPLES OofF theM

Caving is induced by undercutng

Fig. 2.8 Sublevel caving,

The method is based on the crater

• The mechanical performance of the

Rock mechanics is the theoreScal and applied science of the

(Brady& Brown, 2004)

mponents and logic of

Consider two types of forces:

Strain: ε = Δl / lo (× 100 %)

Stress / strain = σ/ ε

Shear stress: τ = F / Ao

Unload Higher E → higher stiffness

Δσ/Δε = tangent modulus at σ2

Δσ/Δε = secant modulus

Ductility ! Deformation at Fracture

Tension à shrink laterally

Shear stress to shear strain:

For isotropic material:

2. Rock structures such as dam foundaSons and surface

Figure 2.1(b): Typical Joint Patterns

Figure 2.1(b): Typical Joint Patterns

The difficulties in designing a structure in rock are as follows:

This ‹iniSal V value of shear strength deﬁnes

Wsin ψ + V = cA + (W cos ψ-­‐ U) tan φ

iii Accelerating Creep

Creep is the tendency Figureof

Figure 1. Effects of a rockburst in a deep-level South African gold mine.

S-ar putea să vă placă și

•  The mechanical performance of the

2.  Rock structures such as dam foundaSons and surface

Wsin ψ + V = cA + (W cos ψ-‐ U) tan φ