TOPIC  1.

1:  
STRESS  AND  STRAIN

SOLID  MECHANICS
(ECS226)
 COURSE OUTCOMES

1. Discuss  basic  understanding  of  stresses  and  

strains  in  solid  body,  beam,  shaft  and  column  (C3).

2. Solve  problems  related  to  statically  determinate  beams  

(C5).

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PROGRAMME OUTCOMES / PROGRAMME
LEARNING OUTCOMES

PO1  (PLO1  – Knowledge)

• Apply  knowledge  of  mathematics,  natural  science,  
engineering  fundamentals  and  an  engineering  
specialisation to  wide  practical  procedures  and  practices.

PO2  (PLO3  – Critical  thinking  and  scientific  skills)

• Identify  and  analyse well-­defined  engineering  problems  
reaching  substantiated  conclusions  using  codified  
methods  of  analysis  specific  to  their  field  of  activity.

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 LEARNING OUTCOMES

At  the  end  of  this  topic,  students  should  be  able  to:

1. Define  normal  stress  and  shear  stress  and  the  

difference  between  these  two  stresses  (CO1-­PO1).

2. Describe  allowable  stress  and  factor  of  safety  (CO1-­

PO1).

3. Define  normal  strain  and  shear  strain  and  the  difference  

between  these  two  strains  (CO1-­PO1).

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 INTRODUCTION

Mechanics  of  materials

• A  branch  of  mechanics.

• It  studies  the  relationship  of:

– External  loads  applied  to  a  deformable  body,  and
– The  intensity  of  internal  forces  acting  within  the  body.

• Are  used  to  compute  deformations  of  a  body.

• Study  body’s  stability  when  external  forces  are  applied  to  

it.

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 EQUILIBRIUM OF A DEFORMABLE BODY

External  loads

• Surface  forces:
– Area  of  contact
– Concentrated  force
– Linear  distributed  force
– Centroid  C (or  geometric  
center)

• Body  force  (e.g.,  weight)

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 EQUILIBRIUM OF A DEFORMABLE BODY
Equations  of  equilibrium

• For  equilibrium
– balance  of  forces
– balance  of  moments

• Draw  a  free-­body  diagram  to  account  for  all  forces  acting  

on  the  body

• Apply  the  two  equations  to  achieve  equilibrium  state

∑ F =  0
∑ MO =  0
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 EQUILIBRIUM OF A DEFORMABLE BODY

Internal  resultant  loadings

• Define  resultant  force  (FR)  and  moment  (MRo)  in  3D:

– Normal  force,  N
– Shear  force,  V
– Torsional  moment  or  torque,  T
– Bending  moment,  M

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 EQUILIBRIUM OF A DEFORMABLE BODY

Internal  resultant  loadings

• For  coplanar  loadings:

– Normal  force,  N
– Shear  force,  V
– Bending  moment,  M

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 EQUILIBRIUM OF A DEFORMABLE BODY

Internal  resultant  loadings

• For  coplanar  loadings:

– Apply  ∑  Fx  =  0  to  solve  for  N
– Apply  ∑  Fy  =  0  to  solve  for  V
– Apply  ∑  MO  =  0  to  solve  for  M

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 STRESS

Concept  of  stress

• To  obtain  distribution  of  force  acting  over  a  sectioned  

area.

• Assumptions  of  material:

1. It  is  continuous  (uniform  distribution  of  matter).
2. It  is  cohesive  (all  portions  are  connected  together).

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 STRESS

Concept  of  stress

• Consider  ΔA in  figure  below

• Small  finite  force,  ΔF acts  on  ΔA
• As  ΔA → 0,  Δ F → 0
• But  stress  (ΔF  /  ΔA)  →  finite  limit  (∞)

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 STRESS

Concept  of  stress

• Consider  ΔA in  figure  below

• Small  finite  force,  ΔF acts  on  ΔA
• As  ΔA → 0,  Δ F → 0
• But  stress  (ΔF  /  ΔA)  →  finite  limit  (∞)

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 AVERAGE NORMAL STRESS

• Intensity of  force,  or  force  per  unit  area,  acting  normal to  

ΔA.

• Symbol  used  for  normal  stress, is  σ (sigma).

lim ΔFz
σz =ΔA  →0
ΔA

• Tensile  stress:  normal  force  “pulls” or  “stretches” the  

area  element  ΔA.

• Compressive  stress:  normal  force  “pushes” or  

“compresses” area  element  ΔA.
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AVERAGE NORMAL STRESS

P
s =
A

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 AVERAGE SHEAR STRESS
• Intensity of  force,  or  force  per  unit  area,  acting  tangent to  
ΔA.

• Symbol  used  for  shear  stress  is  t (tau).

lim ΔFx
tzx =ΔA  →0
ΔA

lim ΔFy
tzy =ΔA  →0
ΔA

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 GENERAL STATE OF STRESS

• Figure  shows  the  state  of  stress  acting  

around  a  chosen  point  in  a  body

Units  (SI  system)

• Newtons  per  square  meter  (N/m2)  or  a  

pascal (1  Pa  =  1  N/m2)
• kPa  =  103 N/m2 (kilo-­pascal)
• MPa  =  106 N/m2 (mega-­pascal)
• GPa  =  109 N/m2 (giga-­pascal)

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AVERAGE NORMAL AND SHEAR STRESS
DFx
t zx = lim
DFz DA® 0 DA
s z = lim
DA®0 DA DFy
t zy = lim
DA® 0 DA

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 ALLOWABLE STRESS

• When  designing  a  structural  member  or  mechanical  

element,  the  stress  in  it  must  be  restricted  to  safe  level.

• Choose  an  allowable  load  that  is  less  than  the  load  the  
member  can  fully  support.

• One  method  used  is  the  factor  of  safety  (F.S.).

Ffail
F.S. =
Fallow

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 ALLOWABLE STRESS

• If  load  applied  is  linearly  related  to  stress  developed  

within  member,  then  F.S.  can  also  be  expressed  as:

σfail τfail
F.S. = σ F.S. = τ
allow allow

• In  all  the  equations,  F.S.  is  chosen  to  be  greater  than  1,    
to  avoid  potential  for  failure.

• Specific  values  will  depend  on  types  of  material  used  and  
its  intended  purpose

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 DESIGN OF SIMPLE CONNECTION

• For  normal  force  requirement

P
A=
s allow

• For  shear  force  requirement

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EXAMPLE 1
The  bar  in  Fig.  1–16a  has  a  constant  width  of  35  mm  and  a  
thickness  of  10  mm.  Determine  the  maximum  average  
normal  stress  in  the  bar  when  it  is  subjected  to  the  loading  
shown.

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EXAMPLE 1 (cont)
Solutions
• By  inspection,  different  sections  have  different  internal  forces.

• Graphically,  the  normal  force  diagram  is  as  shown.

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EXAMPLE 1 (cont)
Solutions
• By  inspection,  the  largest  loading  is  in  region  BC,

PBC = 30 kN
• Since  the  cross-­sectional  area  of  the  bar  is  constant,  the  largest  
average  normal  stress  is

s BC =
PBC
=
30 103 ( )
= 85.7 MPa (Ans)
A (0.035)(0.01)

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25
26
 DEFORMATION

Deformation

• Occurs  when  a  force  is  applied  to  a  body.

• Can  be  highly  visible  or  practically  unnoticeable.

• Can  also  occur  when  temperature  of  a  body  is  changed.

• Is  not  uniform  throughout  a  body’s  volume,  thus  change  in  

geometry  of  any  line  segment  within  body  may  vary  along  
its  length.

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28
 STRAIN
Normal  strain
• Consider  line  AB in  figure  below.
• After  deformation,  Δs changes  to  Δs’.

Ds'-Ds
e avg =
Ds
Ds'-Ds
e = lim
B ® A along n Ds

Ds' » (1 + e )Ds

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 STRAIN
Normal  strain
• Defined  as  the  elongation  or  contraction  of  a  line  segment  per  
unit  of  length.
δ
e =  
L0
• When  e is  positive,  initial  line  will  elongate,  if  e is  negative,  the  
line  contracts.

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 STRAIN
Units

• Normal  strain  is  a  dimensionless  quantity,  as  it’s  a  ratio  of  

two  lengths.

• But  common  practice  to  state  it  in  terms  of  meters/meter  
(m/m).

• e is  small  for  most  engineering  applications,  so  is  normally  

expressed  as  micrometers  per  meter  (μm/m)  where  1  μm  
=  10−6
• Also  expressed  as  a  percentage,  e.g.,  0.001  m/m  =  0.1  %

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 STRAIN

Shear  strain

• Defined  as  the  change  in  angle that  occurs  

between  two  line  segments  that  were  originally  
perpendicular to  one  another.

• This  angle  is  denoted  by  γ  (gamma)  and  

measured  in  radians  (rad).

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 STRAIN
Shear  strain
• Consider  line  segments  AB
and  AC originating  from  
same  point  A in  a  body,  and  
directed  along  the  
perpendicular  n and  t axes.

• After  deformation,  lines  

become  curves,  such  that  
angle  between  them  at  A is  
θ’.
π
• If  θ’is  smaller  than  p/2,  
γ nt = − lim θ '
2 C→A
B→A along n
shear  strain  is  positive, along t

otherwise,  shear  strain  is  

negative. 33
 CARTESIAN STRAIN COMPONENTS

• The  approximate  lengths  of  the  sides  of  the  parallelepiped  

are:
(1 + e x )Dx (1 + e )Dy (1 + e )Dz
y z

• The  approximate  angles  between  sides,  again  originally  

defined  by  the  sides  Δ x,  Δ y  and  Δ z  are:
p p p
- g xy - g yz - g xz
2 2 2

• Notice  that  the  normal  strains  cause  a  change  in  volume

of  rectangular  element,  whereas  the  shear  strain  cause  a  
change  in  shape.
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 CARTESIAN STRAIN COMPONENTS

• To  summarize,  state  of  strain  at  a  point  requires  

specifying  3  normal  strains;;  ex,  ey,  ez and  3  shear  strains  
of  γxy, γyz, γxz

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EXAMPLE 1
e = 40(10 )z
The  slender  rod  creates  a  normal  strain  in  the  rod  of                                          
z
-3 1/ 2

where  z  is  in  meters.  Determine  (a)  displacement  of  end  B  

due  to  the  temperature  increase,  and  (b)  the  average  normal  
strain  in  the  rod.

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EXAMPLE 1 (cont)
Solutions
Part  (a)
• Since  the  normal  strain  is  reported  at  each  point  along  the  rod,  it  has  a  
deformed  length  of
[ ( ) ]
dz ' = 1 + 40 10 -3 z1/ 2 dz

• The  sum  along  the  axis  yields  the  deformed  length  of  the  rod  is

ò [1 + 40(10 )z ]dz = 0.20239 m

0.2
-3
z' = 1/ 2

• The  displacement  of  the  end  of  the  rod  is  therefore

D B = 0.20239 - 0.2 = 0.00239m = 2.39mm ¯ (Ans)

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EXAMPLE 1 (cont)
Solutions
Part  (b)
• Assumes  the  rod  has  an  original  length  of  200  mm  and  a  change  in  
length  of  2.39  mm.  Hence,

Ds'-Ds 2.39
e avg = = = 0.0119 mm/mm (Ans)
Ds 200

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EXAMPLE 2
Due  to  a  loading,  the  plate  is  deformed  into  the  dashed  shape  
shown  in  Fig.  2–6a.  Determine  (a)  the  average  normal  strain  
along  the  side  AB,  and  (b)  the  average  shear  strain  in  the  plate  
at  A  relative  to  the and  y  axes.

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EXAMPLE 2 (cont)
Solutions
Part  (a)
• Line  AB,  coincident  with  the  y  axis,  becomes  line  after  deformation,  thus  
the  length  of  this  line  is

AB' = (250 - 2)2 + 32 = 248.018 mm

• The  average  normal  strain  for  AB  is  therefore

(e AB )avg = AB'- AB = 248.018 - 250 = -7.93(10 -3 ) mm/mm (Ans)

AB 240

• The  negative  sign  indicates  the  strain  causes  a  contraction  of  AB.

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EXAMPLE 2 (cont)
Solutions
Part  (b)
• As  noted,  the  once  90° angle  BAC  between  the  sides  of  the  plate,  
referenced  from  the  x,  y  axes,  changes  to  θ’  due  to  the  displacement  of  B  
to  B’.

• g xy = p2 - q ' g xy
Since                                            then                is  the  angle  shown  in  the  figure.  

• Thus,
æ 3 ö
g xy = tan -1 ç ÷ = 0.121 rad (Ans)
è 250 - 2 ø

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