NETWORKING FUNDAMENTALS

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

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802.3

802.3 is a networking standard established by the Institute of Electrical and

Electronics Engineers (IEEE). Among other things, 802.3 standardized the operation
of CSMA/CD. While Ethernet and 802.3 differ slightly in their terminology and their
frame format, their media access control (MAC) protocols are virtually identical.
Today, the term Ethernet refers generically to both the sets of Ethernet standards.

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802.11 Group of Standards

The 802.11 Group of Standards are specifications for wireless local area
networking. The original standard was released in 1997 and many extensions have
been added over the years.

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Ack

Ack is an abbreviation for Acknowledgement. It is the affirmative response of one

device to another in the connection establishment process.

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Active Scanning

In a wireless environment, active scanning is when a client probes for a particular

network in order to associate with it.

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Address Resolution

Address resolution is the process of using Layer 3 addresses to determine Layer 2

addresses.

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Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)

In TCP/IP-based networks, the Address Resolution Protocol is the protocol that

manages the address resolution process.

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Analog Lines

Analog lines are the wires or cables used to carry analog signals, such as those in
your home telephone service. Analog lines are typically copper wire and operate at
Layer 1 or the Physical Layer. An analog signal is a continuous series of
electrical pulses that vary over time, like waves.

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Application Layer/Layer 7 (OSI Reference Model)
In the OSI Reference Model, the Application Layer is Layer 7. It specifies network-
related functions for a user application or program to ensure that communication
with another application or program over a network is possible. It's important to
note that this is not the user interface itself. When a user chooses to read email,
transfer a file, or surf the network, the user's software program, such as a Web
browser, interacts with the Application Layer.

In the Five-Layer Model and the TCP/IP Model, the Application Layer has a broader
scope of functionality. In those models, it also includes the functionality of the
OSI Reference Model's Presentation Layer (Layer 6) and Session Layer (Layer 5).

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Application Layer (Five-Layer Reference Model and TCP/IP Reference Model)

The Application Layer specifies network-related functions for a user application or

program so that communication with another program over a network is possible. It's
important to note that this is not the user interface itself. When a user chooses
to read email, transfer a file, or surf the network, the user's software program,
such as a Web browser, interacts with the Application Layer. In the Five-Layer
Model and the TCP/IP Model, the Application Layer also manages encoding, data
compression, encryption, and sessions. In the OSI Reference Model, those functions
are delegated to the Presentation Layer and Session Layer.

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Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)

Asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) is a Layer 2 WAN protocol that can transport
voice, video, and data on the same network with guaranteed performance or quality
of service for each type of traffic. Customers can build a Virtual Private Network
using ATM.

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ATM Adaption Layer (AAL)

The ATM Adaption Layer (AAL) is responsible for segmenting the packet into fixed-
length cells of 48 bytes each. The receiving device reassembles the cells into the
original packet.

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Autonomous WLAN Architecture

Autonomous architecture, also known as �Fat Access Point� or �Fat AP� architecture,
is a form of wireless LAN architecture where all functionality is coded into every
access point (wireless termination point).

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Available Bit Rate (ABR)

Available Bit Rate (ABR) is the ATM service category that is used by applications,
such as critical data transfers, that can dynamically adjust their data
transmission rate in response to network feedback. The goal of the ABR service is
to allow application access to unused network bandwidth.

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Backward Explicit Congestion Notification (BECN)

Backward Explicit Congestion Notification (BECN) bits are bits in the Frame Relay
header used to notify an end station, such as a router, of network congestion. When
congestion occurs, Frame Relay switches set the BECN bit to a one in frames going
back toward the source of traffic indicating that the sending router should slow
down transmission until the congestion subsides.

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Base-10 System

The base-10 system is a number system using ten digits�0 through 9�that can be
grouped together to form a decimal number. Each position within a decimal number
represents a power of 10.

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Base-2 System

Base-2 system is the binary number system that uses only two digits�0 and 1. In the
binary number system, each position represents a power of 2.

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Binary

Binary is a base-2 numbering scheme that uses only two digits�0 and 1�to represent
numbers. Each position represents a power of two. Routers and other computers work
only with binary numbers.

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Bit

Bit is the binary digit used in the binary numbering system. A bit is the most
basic information unit that computers use. A single bit is a "one" or a "zero", a
"true" or a "false", or an "on" or an "off".

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Bridge

A bridge is a Layer 2 network device that connects two or more physical cable
segments to create one larger network. Each side of the bridge becomes a separate
collision domain or network segment. So, a bridge can be used to break up a large
network into separate collision domains. A bridge builds a MAC address table that
it uses to manage traffic flow. When a bridge receives data from an unknown MAC
address, it adds that address to its MAC address table and notes the port
associated with that address. Then, if a bridge later receives data for that
address, it will know on which port it should forward the data. If a bridge
receives data for an unknown destination address, it will forward the data on all
ports, which is known as flooding. Bridges operate based on reading Layer 2 frame
information only. They cannot change Layer 2 addresses, and they do not have any
access to Layer 3 data.

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Broadcast Address

The broadcast MAC address is a special address used to send data to all devices on
the same network. The broadcast MAC address is ffff.ffff.ffff. Other types of MAC
addresses include unicast addresses and multicast addresses.

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Broadcast Domain

A broadcast domain is the group of devices that can be reached by sending a frame
addressed to the broadcast MAC address.
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Bursty

Bursty refers to data that transfers or transmits in short, uneven spurts. LAN
traffic is typically bursty.

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Byte

A byte is a group of 8 bits. It is also known as an octet.

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Central Office (CO)

Central Office (CO) is the term used to refer to the service provider's nearest
exchange. A CO is like a distribution center, sending data to other COs along the
path to its final destination.

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Cell Loss Priority (CLP)

Cell Loss Priority (CLP) is an ATM cell bit indicating which cells should be
discarded first, in the case of network congestion.

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Cell Loss Ratio (CLR)

Cell Loss Ratio (CLR) is the ATM QoS parameter for the percentage of cells that are
lost in the network because of error or congestion and that are not received by the
destination.

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Cell Transfer Delay (CTD)

Cell Transfer Delay (CTD) is the ATM QoS parameter for the delay experienced by a
cell between the time it takes for the source to transmit the first bit of the cell
and the destination to receive the last bit of the cell.

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Centralized (Switched) WLAN Architecture

Centralized architecture, also known as a switched WLAN system, is a form of

wireless LAN architecture where a central switch or access point controller manages
multiple access points that are �Thin� or �Lightweight�, meaning that they do not
themselves contain full LAN functionality.

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Channel Service Unit/Data Service Unit (CSU/DSU)

A Channel Service Unit/Data Service Unit (CSU/DSU) is a device that prepares data
traffic for digital lines. The DSU converts the digital frames used in the service
provider�s network into a frame format that the router can understand and vice
versa. The CSU provides termination for the digital signal and ensures connection
integrity through error correction and line monitoring.

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Checksum/CRC
A checksum, also known as a Cyclic Redundancy Check or CRC, is a simple
mathematical calculation performed on each frame to ensure it hasn't been corrupted
in transit.

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CIDR Block

A CIDR block is a representation of the addresses in a range indicated by the

prefix length in an address specified in CIDR or �slash� notation.

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Classful Routing

Classful Routing or Classful IP Addressing was a scheme that divided the IP address
space into different-sized chunks or classes of addresses based on how many octets
were used for the network portion and how many were used for the host number. With
classful IP addressing, the network number always fell on an octet boundary. For
example, a Class A network used the first octet for the network number and the last
three octets for host numbers and a Class B network number used the first two
octets for the network number and the last two octets for host numbers.

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Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR)

Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) notation is also known as �slash� notation.

It uses a slash after an IP address to indicate the length of the network prefix in
terms of bits. The number after the slash is also known as the prefix length.

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Coaxial Cabling

Coaxial cabling consists of a central conductive core contained within an

insulating layer, a metallic shielding layer, and a plastic coating. Consumers may
be familiar with coaxial cabling used today with cable television, satellite
television, and cable modems.

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Collision Domain

A collision domain is a group of network devices that compete with each other for
access to one physical wire or cable. A collision domain is also known as a network
segment.

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Committed Information Rate (CIR)

The Committed Information Rate (CIR) is the transmission rate for a virtual circuit
guaranteed by the service provider in Frame Relay network.

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Connectionless Protocols

Connectionless Protocols do not require a formal connection before two devices can
communicate. Ethernet is an example of a connectionless Layer 2 protocol.

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Connection-Oriented Protocols

Connection-Oriented Protocols require that two devices establish a formal

connection that ensures they are ready to communicate. Connection-oriented Layer 2
protocols include PPP, ATM, and Frame Relay.

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Constant Bit Rate (CBR)

Constant Bit Rate (CBR) is the ATM service category that is used for the highest
priority traffic.

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CSMA/CA

CSMA/CA stands for Carrier Sense Multiple Access / Collision Avoidance. CSMA/CA is
an access method used by wireless networks to avoid collisions. This method relies
on each wireless client receiving positive acknowledgements from the access point
to confirm that data was received. If no acknowledgment is received, the client
will resend the data. Only a single client can transmit at any one time. CSMA/CA
differs from CSMA/CD, which relies on detecting collisions when they occur. CSMA/CD
is not possible in an wireless environment; a wireless client cannot detect
collisions while it is transmitting.

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CSMA/CD

CSMA/CD stands for Carrier Sense Multiple Access wtih Collision Detection. CSMA/CD
is the MAC protocol used by Ethernet to control access to the physical cable
segment. If a device has data to transmit, it listens on the wire to see if any
other device is transmitting. If the wire is idle, the device sends the data. All
other devices on the segment receive the transmission. CSMA/CD allows a network
device to either transmit data or receive data, but not both simultaneously. In
some cases, two devices may begin transmitting at the same time, and a data
collision may occur. When a data collision occurs, CSMA/CD provides a way for
devices to detect the collision and provides a protocol for re-transmitting the
data until the frame is successfully transmitted.

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Customer Edge (CE) Router

A Customer Edge (CE) router is a router at the customer�s site that uses a single
physical connection to connect to a Provider Edge router in the provider�s MPLS
network using any Layer 2 protocol. The CE router is at the edge of the customer�s
MPLS VPN even though the CE router does not run the MPLS protocol.

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Customer Premises Equipment (CPE)

Customer premises equipment (CPE) is any communications equipment located on the

customer's premises that is used to connect to the service provider's network. The
customer might own the CPE or may lease it from the service provider.

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Data Link Layer/Layer 2 (OSI Reference Model and Five-Layer Reference Model)

In the OSI Reference Model and the Five-Layer Model, Layer 2 is the Data Link
Layer. The Data Link Layer receives packets from Layer 3 (also known as the Network
Layer in the OSI and Five-Layer models, or the Internet Layer in the TCP/IP Model).
It then adds another header to form a "frame." The Data Link Layer can also add a
trailer to the frame, such as a Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC). A CRC is a simple
mathematical calculation performed on each frame to ensure it hasn't been corrupted
in transit. Finally, the Data Link Layer translates the frame into binary digits,
or bits, for Layer 1, the Physical Layer.

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Data Communications Equipment (DCE)

Data Communications Equipment (DCE) is the device that actually puts the data on
the local loop. A modem is an example of DCE.

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Data Link Connection Identifier (DLCI)

A Data Link Connection Identifier (DLCI) is used to identify a Frame Relay PVC, and
is similar to a destination address. Service providers assign DLCIs and each Frame
Relay frame includes them.

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Data Terminal Equipment (DTE)

Data Terminal Equipment (DTE) is the device generating the data. A PC is an example
of DTE.

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Default Route

In a routing table, a default route tells the router which way to route a packet if
it encounters one with a network number it doesn�t have listed in its routing
table. A default route can be statically configured or learned dynamically via a
routing protocol.

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Default Router/Default Gateway

A default router, also known as a default gateway, is a network device, such as a

router, which serves as a door or an access point to other networks. End-user
devices, such as PCs, send packets to their configured default gateway when the
destination network number is not the same as their network number.

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Device

In networking, device is the generic term used to refer to any of the variety of
types of computers, peripherals, and networking equipment that may be connected to
a network. Personal computers, servers, and shared printers are devices that may be
referred to as end-user devices or hosts. Bridges, switches, and routers are
devices that may be referred to as network equipment.

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Digital Lines

Digital lines are the wires or cable used to carry digital signals, such as the
phone system within a large company. Digital lines are copper wires or fiber optic
cables that operate at Layer 1 or the Physical Layer. A digital signal is an
electrical signal transmitted as a binary code of 1s and 0s. Digital lines include
T1/E1 and T3/E3 lines.

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Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)
Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) is a communications link used to transfer data over
regular phone lines and can be used to connect to the Internet. A DSL line is much
faster than a regular phone connection, even though the wires it uses are copper
like a typical phone line.

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Direct Routing

Direct routing is communication between devices without the help of a router.

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Discard Eligible (DE)

Discard Eligible (DE) bits are Frame Relay frame bits that are set by the end
station to indicate lower priority traffic.

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Distributed WLAN Architecture

Distributed architecture, also known as a wireless mesh, is a form of wireless LAN

architecture in which data is repeated over wireless to neighbor nodes, which make
forwarding decisions to get the data through the network. A wireless mesh can be
used to create a dynamic network in environments where cabling would be impossible.

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DNS

The Domain Name System (DNS) associates various information with domain names; most
importantly, it serves as the phone book for the Internet by translating human-
readable computer hostnames, such as www.example.com, into IP addresses, such as
208.77.188.166.
Networking equipment needs to know these IP addresses to deliver information.

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Dotted Decimal Notation

Dotted decimal notation is the representation of a binary IP address in decimal

format, separating each octet with a period or dot.

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DS0

DS0 is the basic digital signaling rate. DS stands for Digital Signal, and is a
system of classifying digital circuits according to the rate and format of the
signal. A DS0 offers 64 Kbps of bandwidth�the amount of bandwidth usually used for
one telephone voice channel.

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DS1 Signal

DS1 signal is the signal or logical bit pattern carried on a T1 line and is the
equivalent of 24 DS0s or channels.

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Dynamic Ports or Private Ports

Dynamic Ports or Private Ports are software ports in the range 49,152�65,535 and
the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority does not manage them. Randomly chosen port
numbers in this range are referred to as ephemeral ports. These ports are not
permanently assigned to any publicly defined application and are commonly used as
the source port number for the client side of a connection. This allocation is
temporary and is valid for the duration of the connection opened by the application
using the protocols.

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E1

E1 is a dedicated copper telephone line that supports data rates of 2.05 Mbps. An
E1 line operates at Layer 1 or the Physical layer and is commonly available world-
wide with the exception of North America and Japan where T1 lines are used. An E1
line consists of 32 individual channels or DS0s, each of which supports 64 Kbps.
Each channel or DS0 can transport voice or data. A customer can lease an entire E1
line or only a few channels, which is known as fractional E1 service.

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E3

E3 is a dedicated copper telephone line that supports data rates of 34.37 Mbps and
like an E1, is also built on the base DS0 signal. An E3 is 16 E1s�or 512
DS0s�bundled together.

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Ethernet

Ethernet is the most common set of rules controlling network communications for
local area networks. It is a set of standards that define rules such as frame
format as well as how computers communicate with each other over a single wired
shared by all devices on the network. These rules give any new device attached to
the wire the ability to communicate with any other attached device.

Ethernet can also be used as a wide area network (WAN) technology. In this
application, it is often referred to as �carrier Ethernet�. Organizations such as
the Metro Ethernet Forum are helping to accelerate adoption of carrier Ethernet
networks and services.

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Ethernet Cabling

Ethernet cabling is twisted-pair cabling that meets standards for use on an

Ethernet-based network. Category 5 (Cat 5) and Category 5e (Cat 5e) cabling are
commonly in use today. Straight through Ethernet cables can be used to connect an
end-user device to a networking device such as a switch. Crossover Ethernet cables
can be used to connect one end-user device directly to another.

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Extension Headers

In IPv6, extension headers are used to extend the functionality of the IPv6 header.
IPv6 has a fixed length header. Optional extension headers are then used to extend
functionality when needed. The IPv6 header and each extension header contain a Next
Header field, which specifies the type of the next header that follows. This allows
a variable number of extension headers to be added.

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Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI)

Fiber Distributed Interface (FDDI) is a standard for data transmission on fiber

optic lines that can extend in range up to 200 km (124 miles).
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Fiber Optic Lines

Fiber optic lines are glass or plastic threads or fibers used to transmit data.
Fiber optic lines operate at Layer 1 or the Physical Layer. SONET/SDH connections
use fiber optic lines.

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Five-Layer Reference Model

The Five-Layer Reference Model is a commonly used combination of the OSI Reference
Model and the TCP/IP Reference Model. The five layers defined in this model are as
follows:

Application Layer
Transport Layer/Layer 4
Network Layer/Layer 3
Data Link Layer/Layer 2
Physical Layer/Layer 1

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Flooding

For a switch or bridge, flooding means forwarding data on of all ports except the
port on which data was received. When one of these network devices receives data
destined for an unknown address, data destined for the broadcast address, or data
destined for a multicast address, it will flood the data on all of its ports except
for the port on which the data was received.

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Forward Explicit Congestion Notification (FECN)

Forward Explicit Congestion Notification (FECN) bits are bits in the Frame Relay
header used to notify an end station, such as a router, of network congestion. When
congestion occurs, Frame Relay switches set the FECN bit to a 1 in frames going
toward the destination location or going downstream. In this way, all downstream
devices learn about congestion

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Forwarding Equivalency Class (FEC)

A Forwarding Equivalency Class (FEC) is a group of packets that the provider�s MPLS
domain forwards and treats the same.

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Forwarding Storm

A forwarding storm is network congestion caused by a looped network. When a bridge

or switch receives a frame for which it doesn't have the destination MAC address in
its table, or when it receives broadcast or multicast traffic, it floods the frame
out every other port. In a looped network, this can result in the same data being
received on multiple ports and being forwarded again and again. A forwarding storm
can block all other network traffic and bring a network to a complete stand still.
To prevent loops, bridges and switches can use the Spanning Tree Protocol, or STP.

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Forwarding Table/MAC Address Table
A forwarding table or MAC address table is where a switch stores address and
location information for all devices connected directly to its ports.

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Fragmentation

Fragmentation is the process of breaking an IP packet into smaller chunks or

fragments when transmitted over data link technology with a smaller MTU.

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Frame

A frame is one unit of data encapsulated at Layer 2, or the Data Link Layer. Each
frame is divided into three parts: the header, the data, and the trailer. The frame
header contains the data's destination and source Layer 2 addresses. It also
indicates which Layer 3 protocol should be used to process the data on the
receiving computer. (In the examples in this course, the IP protocol is used.) The
frame trailer is a checksum, which is used to verify data integrity.

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Frame Check Sequence (FCS)

Frame Check Sequence (FCS) is a 2-byte or 4-byte checksum computed over the frame
to provide basic protection against errors in transmission.

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Frame Relay

Frame Relay is a Layer 2 WAN protocol used to interconnect multiple locations or

LANs over a single communications line�such as a T1/T3 or E1/E3 line. With this
single line, customers can communicate with multiple sites using virtual circuits.
Frame Relay is a cost-effective alternative to dedicated point-to-point connections
and can be used to build a Layer 2 Virtual Private Network.

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FTP

File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a network protocol used to transfer data from one
computer to another through a network, such as over the Internet.

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Full Duplex

Full-duplex data transmission allows for communication in two directions at the

same time. That is, a device can receive and transmit data simultaneously. This
functionality is similar to using a telephone where you can talk and listen at the
same time.

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Greenfield Preamble

A Greenfield preamble is used in 802.11n to indicate to communication devices the

beginning of a new frame. In an environment that has no legacy devices, using the
Greenfield preamble can increase throughput because it is shorter than a legacy
preamble. However, in mixed environments, both preambles must be used.

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Global Routing Prefix
In an IPv6 address, the global routing prefix is the first part of the network
prefix, and is followed by a subnet ID. The global routing prefix is typically
assigned by an ISP or regional address allocation entity.

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HTTP

The Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is a communications protocol for the

transfer of information on the Internet and the World Wide Web.

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Half Duplex

Half-duplex data transmission allows for communication in two directions, but only
in one direction at a time. That is, a device cannot receive and transmit data
simultaneously. This functionality is simlar to using a walkie talkie where if you
are speaking, you cannot hear the person on the other end.

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Handshake or Three-way Handshake

A handshake or three-way handshake is the three-step process two devices go through

to establish a connection before they can communicate.

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Hardware Address

See Layer 2 address.

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Hardware Ports

See Network Interface Card (NIC).

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Hexadecimal

The hexadecimal numbering system is a base 16 numbering system, in contrast to the

commonly used base 10 decimal numbering system. In the hexadecimal numbering
system, the digits 0 through 9 are used the same as they are in decimal numbering.
After that, the letters A through F are used to represent the decimal number 10
through 15. For instance, decimal 15 is hexadecimal F and decimal 16 is hexadecimal
10.

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Hidden Node Problem

In wireless networks, the hidden node problem occurs when there are two clients on
either side of an access point which are within range of the access point, but
which can�t actually hear each other�s transmissions. In this situation both
clients may simultaneously transmit data, resulting in collisions at the access
point, which is unable to interpret either signal.

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High Level Data Link Control (HDLC)

High Level Data Link Control (HDLC) is a Layer 2 protocol developed by the
International Organization for Standardization for use on point-to-point
communication links. HDLC was a precursor to PPP.
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Host Number

The host number is the second part of a Layer 3 address. (The network number is the
first part.) The host number portion of the Layer 3 address identifies the unique
device on a network. Both the network number and host number are assigned by a
network administrator.

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Hub

A hub is a Layer 1 device that takes a signal that it receives from one connected
device and passes it along or repeats it to all other connected devices. A hub
allows each device to use its own twisted-pair cable to connect to a port on the
hub. If a cable fails, it will impact only one device, and if one device is causing
trouble on the network, that individual device can easily be unplugged. A hub is
not an intelligent network device. It does not look at the MAC addresses or data in
the Ethernet frame and does not perform any type of filtering or routing of the
data. It is simply a junction that joins all the different devices together. Even
though each device has its own cable connecting it to the hub, access to the
network still operates by CSMA/CD, and collisions can occur on the shared bus
inside the hub.

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Hypertext Markup Language (HTML)

Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) is the language the Web browser and Web server use
to create and display Web pages.

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IMAP

The Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP) is a protocol for retrieving email from
a server.

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Indirect Routing

Indirect routing is communication between devices with the help of a router.

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Interface ID

In IPv6, the interface ID is the host portion of the address that follows the
network prefix.

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Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA)

The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) is the organization that centrally
managed the global IP address space.

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Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN)

The Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) is the current
organization that is responsible for all IP address assignment and domain name
registration. ICANN assumed control of IANA in 1998.
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Internet Layer (TCP/IP Reference Model)

In the TCP/IP Reference Model, the Internet Layer receives a segment from the
Transport Layer and adds a header to it to create a "packet," and sends the packet
to the Network Access Layer. The Internet Layer is responsible for delivering the
packet to the destination computer. If there is more than one route to the
destination computer, the Internet Layer chooses the best path for the packet to
take. The Internet Layer treats each packet independently, so it is possible that
two packets from the same transmission might take different paths to arrive at the
destination computer. This is the same as the OSI Reference Model's Network Layer
and the Five-Layer Model's Internet Layer.

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Internet Protocol (IP)

The Internet Protocol (IP) is the most common Layer 3 protocol and is used within
the Internet to route packets to their final destination. IP provides
connectionless, best-effort delivery of packets through a network and fragmentation
and reassembly of packets going across Layer 2 networks with different maximum
transmission units (MTUs). Each computer or host has at least one IP address that
uniquely identifies it from all other computers on the Internet. The IP addressing
scheme is fundamental to the process of routing packets through a network.

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Internet Service Provider (ISP)

An Internet Service Provider (ISP) is a company or organization that has the

network equipment and communication lines to provide connectivity to the Internet
for customers.

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Internet Stream Protocol (IPv5)

Stream Protocol, which was considered by some to be IP Version 5, was developed

between IPv4 and IPv6 and never made it past experimental stages.

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Intranet

An intranet is a private, internal network that uses the same IP-based protocols
used in the Internet. Intranets often use IP addresses from the private IP address
space.

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IP Address

See Layer 3 address.

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IP Control Protocol (IPCP)

IP Control Protocol (IPCP) is the PPP Network Control Protocol used to configure,
enable, and disable the IP protocol on both ends of the point-to-point link.

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IP Datagram
IP datagram is a synonym for an IP packet, which is the data combined with the IP
header.

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IP interfaces

IP interfaces are Layer 3 software interfaces or ports that work with the hardware
interface or port.

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IP Version 4 (IPv4)

IP Version 4 (IPv4) is currently the most commonly used version of the IP protocol.
It consists of a 32-bit address and allows for about 4.3 billion unique addresses.

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IP Version 6 (IPv6)

IP Version 6 (IPv6) is the next-generation version of the IP protocol. It consists

of a
128-bit address, supports more levels of addressing hierarchy, and provides a much
greater supply of addresses than IPv4.

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Keepalives

Keepalives are the periodic messages two devices exchange to maintain a connection.

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Label Edge Router (LER)

A Label Edge Router (LER) is a special type of ingress or egress LSR that is
responsible for assigning the appropriate MPLS label to a packet.

[ top ]
Label Switched Paths (LSPs)

Label Switched Paths (LSPs) are the unidirectional paths used to connect each
location in an MPLS network.

[ top ]
Label Switching Routers (LSRs)

Label Switching Routers (LSRs) are routers running the MPLS protocol.

[ top ]
Last Mile or Local Loop

The last mile or local loop is a copper or fiber cable that connects the CPE to the
nearest CO.

[ top ]
Layer 2 Address

When sending data on a network, Layer 2 addresses identify the stops made along the
way, and not the communicating computers or endpoints. Layer 2 addresses change
with each stop along the route to the final destination.

A Layer 2 address is also known as a MAC address, a hardware address, or a physical

address.

[ top ]
Layer 3 Address

A Layer 3 address identifies a unique destination. A network administrator assigns

each computer on a network a unique Layer 3 address. The destination and source
Layer 3 addresses identify the communicating computers or end points.

A Layer 3 address is also known as an IP address or a logical address.

[ top ]
Layer 3 MPLS VPNs or IP VPNs

Layer 3 MPLS VPNs or IP VPNs define a way for providers to use their IP backbone to
provide IP-based VPN services regardless of what Layer 2 technology is in use.
Layer 3 MPLS VPNS use label switched paths to interconnect different customer
locations and keep traffic separated. Customer edge routers exchange IP routing
information with the provider�s routers where it is stored in a virtual router and
forwarding table. Provider Edge routers exchange routes with other provider edge
routers within the VPN. When IP packets enter the MPLS network, the provider edge
router determines which LSP to use to based on the routing information in the
virtual router and forwarding table .

[ top ]
LAN

Any group of computers on a single, geographically limited network is a called a

local area network, or LAN. LANs allow users to exchange documents and share
resources such as printers or file servers. A LAN can be either wired or wireless,
or a combination of both.

[ top ]
Leased Line

A leased line is a pre-established communications path between two locations with a

fixed amount of bandwidth�whether or not it is used. Leased lines are owned by the
service provider and not by the customer.

[ top ]
Link Control Protocol (LCP)

Link Control Protocol (LCP) packets are the packets exchanged between two devices
during the PPP connection establishment process.

[ top ]
Local Loop or Last Mile

Local loop or last mile refers to the copper or fiber cable that connects the CPE
to the CO.

[ top ]
Logical Address

See Layer 3 address.

[ top ]
Longest Match Routing
Longest match routing is also known as longest match route lookup. It is the
process a router uses to select the best route in its routing table when multiple
routing entries match. The longest match is the entry with the most bits turned on
in network mask.

[ top ]
Loopback Interface

The loopback interface is a virtual software interface, not associated with or

connected to any hardware, that a device uses to send a message back to itself. The
loopback interface is commonly used for troubleshooting and network testing. The
loopback interface�s IP address is 127.0.0.1.

[ top ]
MAC Address

See Layer 2 address.

[ top ]
MAC Protocol

In networking, a Media Access Control (MAC) protocol controls access to the

physical wire or segment. Ethernet uses Carrier Sense Multiple Access with
Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) as its MAC protocol. Other MAC protocols exist for
other technologies.

[ top ]
Maximum Burst Size (MBS)

Maximum Burst Size (MBS) is the ATM traffic descriptor for the maximum number of
cells that can be sent back-to-back at the peak cell rate.

[ top ]
Maximum Receive Unit (MRU)

Maximum Receive Unit (MRU) is the maximum allowable size in bytes for the PPP link.
Devices negotiate the MRU during the connection establishment process. The MRU must
be agreed upon by two devices before they can exchange data.

[ top ]
Maximum Transmission Unit (MTU)

The Maximum Transmission Unit (MTU) is the fixed upper limit on the size of packets
can be sent in a single frame.

[ top ]
MEF Three-Layer Model

The Metro Ethernet Forum (MEF) Three-Layer Model for Carrier Ethernet is somewhat
like a collapsed version of the Five-Layer Reference Model referred to in this
course. The three layers are as follows:

Application Services Layer

Ethernet Services Layer
Transport Services Layer

Each layer has its own data, control and management planes.

[ top ]
Minimum Cell Rate (MCR)

Minimum Cell Rate (MCR) is the ATM traffic descriptor for the minimum rate at which
cells can be transported.

[ top ]
Modem

A modem is an example of DCE that converts or modulates the digital signal into an
analog signal for an analog phone line and then demodulates the analog signal back
into a digital signal for a computer.

[ top ]
Multicast MAC Address

A multicast MAC address is used to identify a group of devices on the same network.
Multicast addresses always have the first bit of the first byte set to 1. Other
types of MAC addresses include unicast addresses and the broadcast address.

[ top ]
Multicast IP Address

Multicast IP addresses are similar to multicast MAC addresses and are the addresses
a device uses to send the same data to a specific group of devices.

[ top ]
Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS)

Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS) is a data packet forwarding technology used to

improve the forwarding speed of routers by using labels to make forwarding
decisions. When a packet enters the MPLS network, the first MPLS router adds a
simple label based on fields in the IP header. Routers within the MPLS network
forward the packet based on the contents of the label. MPLS is often referred to as
a Layer 2.5 protocol because it operates between Layer 2 and Layer 3, is Layer 2-
independent, provides the privacy and security of a Frame Relay or ATM network, and
yet allows for the inherent any-to-any connectivity and flexibility typical of an
IP-based network.

[ top ]
MPLS Domain

An MPLS domain is an MPLS network.

[ top ]
Nak

Nak is an abbreviation for Negative Acknowledgement. It is the negative response of

one device to another in the connection establishment process.

[ top ]
Negotiation

Negotiation is the process of resolving differences in parameters that two devices

go through to establish a connection.

[ top ]
Network Access Layer (TCP/IP Reference Model)

In the TCP/IP Reference Model, the Network Access Model focuses on how data is
transmitted over any type of physical network, regardless of whether it's a LAN or
a WAN. Don't confuse this with the OSI Reference Model's Network Layer.

[ top ]
Network Control Protocol (NCP)

Network Control Protocol (NCP) is a Layer 3-specific protocol used during the PPP
connection establishment process to establish and configure the different Layer 3
protocols�such as IP, IPX, or Appletalk�running over the connection.

[ top ]
Network Interface Cards or Controllers (NICs)

Network Interface Cards or Controllers (NICs) or hardware ports are physical

circuit cards installed in a computer or printer so that it can connect to a
network. The terms NIC, network adapter, network card, and LAN adapter are used
interchangeably. In the 1980s, a NIC was an expansion card that plugged into a
computer bus. Today, most computers have a NIC built into the motherboard and a
separate card is not necessary unless you need connections to multiple networks.

[ top ]
Network Layer Protocol Identifier (NLPID)

Network Layer Protocol Identifier (NLPID) is the Frame Relay frame field used to
specify the Layer 3 protocol.

[ top ]
Network Layer/Layer 3 (OSI Reference Model and Five-Layer Reference Model)

In the OSI Reference Model and the Five-Layer Reference Model, Layer 3 is the
Network Layer. The Network Layer takes the segment from Layer 4, the Transport
Layer, adds a header to it to create a "packet," and sends the packet to Layer 2,
the Data Link Layer. The Network Layer is responsible for delivering the packet to
the destination computer. If there is more than one route to the destination
computer, the Network Layer chooses the best path for the packet to take. The
Network Layer treats each packet independently, so it is possible that two packets
from the same transmission might take different paths to arrive at the destination
computer. This is the same as the TCP/IP Reference Model's Internet Layer.

[ top ]
Network Masks

Network masks are used to identify the network portion of the address. Also known
as �masks,� �address masks,� �subnet masks,� and �netmasks.�

[ top ]
Network Number

The network number is the first part of a Layer 3 address. (The host number is the
second part.) The network number portion of the Layer 3 address identifies the
network the device is on. Both the network number and host number are assigned by a
network administrator.

[ top ]
Network Segment

A network segment is a group of network devices that compete with each other for
access to one physical wire or cable. A network segment is also known as a
collision domain.
[ top ]
Next Hop Address

The next hop is the next device in the path to the destination device. The next hop
address is the address of that device, and either indicates that the destination
network is directly connected to the router or provides the Layer 3 address of
another router on a directly connected network.

[ top ]
Nibble

A nibble is 4 bits, which is the number represented by a hexadecimal digit or

symbol.

[ top ]
Non-Real Time Variable Bit Rate (nrt-VBR)

Non-Real Time Variable Bit Rate (nrt-VBR) is an ATM service category that is
similar to rt-VBR but is used for applications with bursty transmission
characteristics that tolerate high cell delay, but require low cell loss.

[ top ]
Octet

An octet is a group of 8 bits. It is also known as a byte.

[ top ]
Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)

Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) is a routing protocol by which routers in one
network learn how to communicate with routers in another network.

[ top ]
Optical Carrier (OC)

Optical Carrier (OC) refers to a SONET signal being carried over a fiber optic
network. The OC level expresses the speed of an OC-n line, where the speed is equal
to n times 51.84 Mbps. For example, an OC-3 signal has a bit rate of 3 * 51.84 Mbps
or 155.52 Mbps.

[ top ]
Optical Transport Network (OTN)

Optical Transport Network (OTN) uses wavelength division multiplexing to transport

data over optical networks. OTN systems in use today can operate on 40 or even 80
channels simultaneously. Incoming signals can be SONET, SDH, Ethernet, or native
OTN traffic.

[ top ]
Organizationally Unique Identifier

The Organizationally Unique Identifier (OUI) is a 3-byte identifier that each

Ethernet equipment manufacturer is assigned by the IEEE. The first three bytes of a
MAC address identify a device's manufacturer using the manufacturer's OUI.

[ top ]
OSI Reference Model
The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Reference Model is a seven-layer model that
identifies the steps and functions that must be completed when computers
communicate over a network. The OSI model provides only guidelines on how computers
communicate over a network. It does not provide detailed procedures on how to
actually make this communication happen. The seven layers of the OSI Reference
Model are as follows:

Application Layer/Layer 7
Presentation Layer/Layer 6
Session Layer/Layer 5
Transport Layer/Layer 4
Network Layer/Layer 3
Data Link Layer/Layer 2
Physical Layer/Layer 1

[ top ]

Packet

A packet is one unit of data encapsulated at Layer 3 (also known as the Network
Layer in the OSI and Five-Layer models, or the Internet Layer in the TCP/IP Model).
Each packet contains a header followed by the data. The packet's header specifies
the data's source and destination IP addresses. Each packet header also specifies
the IP protocol number, which indicates whether the data should be processed with
the UDP or TCP protocol on the receiving computer.

[ top ]
Packet Switched Network

A Packet Switched Network is a type of connection-less network where data is

divided into small packets or frames and routed through the networksed on the
destination address contained within each packet. Because each packet contains the
destination address, multiple users can share a network�such as a Frame Relay
network.

[ top ]
Passive Scanning

In a wireless environment, passive scanning is when a client listens passively for

access point beacons that indicate available networks that it may attempt to
associate with.

[ top ]
Permanent Virtual Circuits (PVCs)

Permanent virtual circuits (PVCs) are connections that are like leased lines in
that the service provider defines a permanent path to each customer location. PVCs
are always on and ready to use. Frame Relay and ATM networks use PVCs.

[ top ]
Peak Cell Rate (PCR)

Peak Cell Rate (PCR) is the ATM traffic descriptor for the maximum rate at which
cells can be transported.

[ top ]
Peak-to-Peak Cell Delay Variation (CDV)

Peak-to-Peak Cell Delay Variation (CDV) is the ATM QoS parameter for the difference
between the maximum and minimum cell transfer delay experienced during the
connection.

[ top ]
Physical Address

See Layer 2 address.

[ top ]
Physical Layer/Layer 1 (OSI Reference Model and Five-Layer Reference Model)

In the OSI Reference Model and the Five-Layer Reference Model, Layer 1 is the
Physical Layer. Layer 1 is where binary digits, or "bits," move across a physical
medium. Layer 1 defines the electrical or optical signal that equals a one, and the
signal that equals a zero. Physical Layer standards include cabling specifications,
electrical or optical signaling, and lower-level framing of ones and zeros.

[ top ]
Plain Old Telephone Service (POTS)

Plain Old Telephone Service (POTS) lines are analog copper phone lines capable of
data transfer speeds of up to 30 kbps.

[ top ]
PPP Authentication Protocols

PPP Authentication Protocols are used to verify the identity of a user. Common PPP
authentication protocols include Password Authentication Protocol (PAP), Challenge
Handshake Authentication Protocol (CHAP), Microsoft Challenge Handshake
Authentication Protocol (MS CHAP), and Extensible Authentication Protocol (EAP).

[ top ]
Preamble

In an Ethernet LAN, the preamble is a specific short sequence of bytes used by a

network interface controller to allow receiving devices to recognize the start of a
new frame. The preamble is not considered part of the Ethernet frame itself.

[ top ]
Presentation Layer/Layer 6 (OSI Reference Model)

In the OSI Reference Model, Layer 6 is the Presentation Layer. The Presentation
Layer accepts the data from the Application Layer and converts or encodes it into a
standard format that the Application Layer on the other computer can understand.
For example, text can be encoded as ASCII or HTML, while graphics can be encoded
using standard formats like JPEG or TIFF. The Presentation Layer can also involve
standard data compression or data encryption schemes, ensuring that the receiving
computer can properly uncompress or decipher the data.

[ top ]
Physical Cable Segment

A physical cable segment is the cable or wire used to connect network devices.

[ top ]
Point-to-Point Connections

Point-to-Point connections are dedicated communication lines between two locations,

such as T1/T3 or E1/E3 lines using PPP as the Layer 2 protocol.
[ top ]
Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP)

Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) is a WAN Layer 2 protocol that runs over a dedicated
leased line between two locations.

[ top ]
PROM

PROM stands for Programmable Read-Only Memory. A PROM chip is a special chip that
initially has no programming encoded. Device manufacturers can inexpensively
encode, or "burn," a PROM chip, but this can only be done once and the programming
cannot be changed later. Manufacturers use a PROM chip to store the unique MAC
address on each NIC.

[ top ]
Protocol

A protocol is a formal set of written rules or procedures that computers must

understand, accept, and use to be able to talk to each other over a network.
Different protocols are used at different layers of the reference model. Two
computers must use the same protocol at the same layer for the data to be
communicated correctly.

[ top ]
Provider Edge (PE) Router

A Provider Edge (PE) router is a type of edge router used in MPLS VPNs, and must
provide completely private and secure connectivity within a VPN. PE routers also
exchange routing information with customer edge routers and other PE routers within
the VPN. The PE routers store the customer�s routing information in a Virtual
Routing and Forwarding table or instance.

[ top ]
Provider (P) Routers

Provider (P) routers are transit LSRs that do not connect to customer devices and
perform only label switching.

[ top ]
Quality of Service (QoS)

Quality of Service (QoS) is the level of service guaranteed by a WAN service

provider

[ top ]
Real-Time Variable Bit Rate (rt-VBR or real-time VBR)

Real-Time Variable Bit Rate (rt-VBR or real-time VBR) is the ATM service category
that is used for compressed video applications that can tolerate bandwidth
variations but that are sensitive to both cell loss and delay variation.

[ top ]
Registered Ports

Registered Ports are software ports in the range 1,024�49,151 and the Internet
Assigned Numbers Authority also manages and registers these ports. Less common
TCP/IP applications use these port numbers.
[ top ]
Repeater

A repeater is a physical layer device used to connect two or more separate physical
cable segments together, making it act like one long cable. A repeater is a simple
hardware device that regenerates electrical signals, sending all frames from one
physical cable segment to another.

[ top ]
RFC 4291

The RFC 4291 standard specifies rules regarding prefix notation for IPv6.

[ top ]
RFC 5952

The RFC 5952 standard specifies key requirements for the representation of IPv6
addresses. The format should be followed by people and systems when representing
IPv6 addresses as text, but systems should be able to accept and handle any
legitimate IPv6 format.

[ top ]
Routing Information Protocol (RIP)

Routing Information Protocol (RIP) is a routing protocol by which routers in one

network learn how to communicate with routers in another network.

[ top ]
Route Summarization

Route summarization is also known as route aggregation. It combines a group of

network numbers into a single route and makes routing traffic across the network
and the Internet much more efficient because it involves fewer routes in the
routing table and fewer routes to advertise.

[ top ]
Router

A router is a Layer 3 device that allows communication between separate broadcast

domains or networks. In order to forward data from one network to another, routers
must know how to reach other networks. A router stores network location information
in a routing table. Each entry in the routing table includes the destination
network number and indicates how the destination network may be reached by
specifying which port or interface on the router should be used and what �Next Hop�
address should be used. When a router receives a packet, the router uses the data's
Layer 3 destination address and the routing table to make intelligent decisions on
where to send the packet next. Routers can read, but cannot modify, Layer 3
addresses. Routers change Layer 2 addresses in data whenever they route data.

[ top ]
Routing Table

The routing table is where a router stores network location information including
all possible destination network numbers and how to reach them. Each entry in the
routing table includes the destination network number, the next hop along the way
to the destination network, and which port or interface on the router should be
used to reach the next hop.
[ top ]
Segment

A segment is one unit of data encapsulated at Layer 4, or the Transport Layer. Each
segment is divided into two parts, a header followed by data. The segment header
contains the data's destination port number, which indicates which application
layer protocol should be used to process the data on the receiving computer. It
also specifies a source port number, which uniquely identifies the connection on
the sending side, allowing the receiving computer to carry on multiple sessions
with the sending computer without intermixing the data.

[ top ]
Service Provider

A service provider is a business such as a telephone company that provides WAN

carrier network services to other businesses. Also called WAN service providers,
telcos, WAN carriers, carriers.

[ top ]
Session Layer/Layer 5 (OSI Reference Model)

In the OSI Reference Model, Layer 5 is the Session Layer. The Session Layer
establishes, manages, and ends the connections or sessions between the applications
on the communicating computers. For example, a Web conferencing application has to
maintain separate sessions for each user participating in the conference. The
server runs one conference application, but tracks each session individually.

[ top ]
Shared Bus

A shared bus is a physical network topology or layout in which multiple devices are
connected to the same physical wire or cable. When one device transmits data, all
other devices on the shared bus receive it.

[ top ]
SMTP

The Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is the most popular protocol for sending
electronic mail on the Internet.

[ top ]
SNMP

The Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) is a widely used network monitoring
and control protocol. Network devices use SNMP to report on their status and
activity.

[ top ]
Software Ports

Software ports are specific to the Transport Layer, and are used to route data to
the appropriate Application Layer protocol and ultimately the correct application
program.

[ top ]
Spanning Tree Protocol

The Spanning Tree Protocol (STP) selectively disables forwarding on individual

ports of a bridge or switch to ensure that the network topology is loop free. This
prevents forwarding storms.

[ top ]
Subnet

Subnet is short for sub-network and is the splitting of a single network number
into smaller networks by changing the mask assigned to each broadcast domain.

[ top ]
Summary Route

Summary route is the address range allocated to a specific location.

[ top ]
Supernet

Supernet is the aggregation of many �classful� network numbers into a single

address or routing table entry.

[ top ]
Sustainable Cell Rate (SCR)

Sustainable Cell Rate (SCR) is the ATM traffic descriptor for the maximum average
cell transfer rate over an extended period of time.

[ top ]
Switch

A switch is a Layer 2 network device that enables full-duplex data transmission.

Because switches dedicate a single port to each end-user device, collision domains
have only two devices�the end-user device and the switch. When connected to a
switch, an end-user device can send and receive data simultaneously. A switch
builds a MAC address table that it uses to manage traffic flow. Switches operate
based on reading Layer 2 frame information only. They cannot change Layer 2
addresses, and they do not have any access to Layer 3 data. In addition to basic
Ethernet connectivity, switches make possible virtual LANs.

[ top ]
Switched Virtual Circuits (SVCs)

Switched virtual circuits (SVCs) are connections that dynamically establish only
when data needs sending and terminates when the transmission is complete. Frame
Relay and ATM networks use SVCs.

[ top ]
Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH)

Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) is a standard that defines a basic frame format
and a hierarchy of signaling speeds for use on a fiber optic line. SDH operates at
Layer 1 or the Physical Layer and is available outside of North America and Japan.

[ top ]
Synchronous Optical Network (SONET)

Synchronous Optical Network (SONET) is a standard that defines a basic frame format
and a hierarchy of signaling speeds for use on a fiber optic line. SONET operates
at Layer 1 or the Physical Layer and is available in North America and Japan.

[ top ]
Synchronous Transport Module (STM)

Synchronous Transport Module (STM) is the frame format used by SDH. In the SDH
hierarchy, the lowest or base-level signal is the STM-1 which operates at 155.52
Mbps. The STM Level indicates the speed of an STM-n line where the n is multiplied
by 155.52 Mbps. For example, an STM-4 signal has the bit rate of (4 * 155.52 Mbps)
or 622 Mbps.

[ top ]
Synchronous Transport Signal (STS)

Synchronous Transport Signal (STS) is the frame format used by SONET. In the SONET
standard, the lowest or base-level signal is the Synchronous Transport Signal level
1 (STS-1). An STS-1 operates at 51.84 Mbps, which is enough to carry an entire DS3
link.

[ top ]
T1 Line

A T1 line is a dedicated copper telephone line that supports data rates of 1.54
Mbps. A T1 line operates at Layer 1 or the Physical layer and is commonly available
in North American and Japan. A T1 line consists of 24 individual channels or DS0s,
each of which supports 64 Kbps. Each channel or DS0 can transport voice or data. A
customer can lease an entire T1 line or only a few channels, which is known as
fractional T1 service. The equivalent line outside of North America and Japan is an
E1 line.

[ top ]
T3

A T3 line is a dedicated copper telephone line that supports data rates of 44.74
Mbps and like a T1, is also built on the base DS0 signal. A T3 is 28 DS1s�or 672
DS0s�bundled together.

[ top ]
TCP

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is a protocol for sending data that provides
delivery notification, error checking, and recovery procedures. With TCP, the
receiving computer tells the sending computer when the data was received.

[ top ]
TCP/IP Reference Model

The TCP/IP Reference Model is a simple four-layer model developed by the Department
of Defense and the Internet Engineering Task Force. This model defines specific
protocols at each of the four layers, such as TCP and IP, two of the Internet's
core protocols. The four layers of the TCP/IP Model are as follows:

Application Layer
Transport Layer
Internet Layer
Network Access Layer

[ top ]
10BASE-T

10BASE-T is one of several physical media specified in the IEEE 802.3 standard for
Ethernet LANs. The name 10BASE-T comes from several components in the physical
layer. The 10 refers to the transmission speed of 10 Mbps. The BASE is short for
baseband, which means that only Ethernet signaling is carried on the wires. The T
refers to twisted pairs of unshielded, but insulated wires. The first 10Base-T
networks used voice grade or Category 3 (or Cat 3) UTP cables. Cat 5 and the newer
Cat 5e data grade cables support higher transmission speeds with lower error rates.

[ top ]
TFTP

The Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP) is a network protocol used to transfer
data from one computer to another through a network, such as over the Internet.

[ top ]
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) is the combining or "multiplexing" of voice and

data signals from different devices into a single link.

[ top ]
Transit LSRs

Transit LSRs are routers that only examine the MPLS label on a packet.

[ top ]
Transport Layer (TCP/IP Reference Model)

In the TCP/IP Reference Model, the Transport Layer takes data from the Application
Layer, converts it to a format that can be transmitted over the network, and
manages the flow of data between the two hosts that are communicating. This is the
same functionality as the Transport Layer in the OSI Reference Mode and the Five-
Layer Model. In those models, the Transport Layer is Layer 4.

[ top ]
Transport Layer/Layer 4 (OSI Reference Model and Five-Layer Reference Model)

In the OSI Reference Model and the Five-Layer Model, Layer 4 is the Transport
Layer. The Transport Layer takes data from the upper layers, converts it to a
format that can be transmitted over the network, and manages the flow of data
between the two hosts that are communicating. This is the same functionality as the
Transport Layer in the TCP/IP Reference Model, but in that model it is the third
layer.

[ top ]
Trunking

Trunking is the switching of a single ATM virtual path rather than many individual
virtual circuits, so that switches do not need to examine each and every virtual
circuit to make a switching decision.

[ top ]
Twisted Pair Cabling

Twisted pair cabling consists of twisted pairs of unshielded, but insulated wires.
It is also known as UTP, or unshielded twisted pair, cabling. The first 10Base-T
networks used ordinary telephone cabling, which is a type of twisted pair cabling.
In this type of cable, there are four twisted pairs of wires: two for transmitting
data and another two for receiving data. In other applications, such as outdoor
telephone cables, twisted pair cabling may have many more twisted pairs of wires.
[ top ]
Unspecified Bit Rate (UBR)

Unspecified Bit Rate (UBR) is the ATM service category that is used for the lowest
priority traffic and provides absolutely no guarantees.

[ top ]
UDP

User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is a very simple and fast protocol for sending data.
UDP is a "best effort" delivery service, providing no delivery notification, error
checking, or recovery procedures.

[ top ]
Unicast Address

A unicast MAC address uniquely identifies one device. Other types of MAC addresses
include multicast addresses and the broadcast address.

[ top ]
URL

A Uniform Resource Locator (URL) is the address where a file can be accessed on the
Internet, for example http://www.juniper.net/training/index.html. In this example,
the protocol is HTTP, the domain is juniper.net, and the path to the file is
training/index.html.

[ top ]
UTP Cabling

Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) cabling is another name for twisted pair cabling.

[ top ]
Virtual Channel Connection (VCC)

A Virtual Channel Connection (VCC) is a logical connection between two devices or

end points in an ATM network, and is sometimes referred to as a virtual circuit. A
VCC is identified by a Virtual Channel Identifier. A collection of VCCs can be
bundled together into a Virtual Path Connection, which is identified by a Virtual
Path Identifier. The combination of VPI and VCI identify the circuit.

[ top ]
Virtual Channel Identifier (VCI)

A Virtual Channel Identifier (VCI) identifies an ATM VCC.

[ top ]
Virtual Circuits

Virtual Circuits are the logical connections running over a single physical
communications line and are used to connect two devices or locations. A virtual
circuit, also known as a virtual connection, acts like a dedicated connection
through the provider�s network even though the physical lines might be shared by
multiple customers. Frame Relay and ATM networks make use of virtual circuits.
Virtual circuits come in two types. A permanent virtual circuit is like a leased
line in that the service provider defines a path to each customer location.
Permanent virtual circuits are always on and ready to use. A switched virtual
circuit is dynamically establishes only when data needs sending and terminates when
the transmission is complete.
[ top ]
Virtual Collision Detections

Virtual Collision Detection is a system that can be used by wireless networks to

handle and avoid collisions. Virtual Collision Detection uses Request to Send (RTS)
and Clear to Send (CTS) control frames to control which client may send data at a
given time.

[ top ]
Virtual Connections

Virtual Connections are logical connections running over a single physical

communications line and are used to connect two devices or locations. A virtual
connection, also known as a virtual circuit, acts like a dedicated connection
through the provider�s network even though the physical lines might be shared by
multiple customers. Frame Relay and ATM networks make use of virtual connections or
circuits. ATM uses two-level virtual connections: Virtual Channel Connections and
Virtual Path Connections, which contain a group or bundle of VCCs.

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Virtual Path Connection (VPC)

A Virtual Path Connection (VPC) is a collection of VCCs bundled together. A VPC is

identified by a Virtual Path Identifier.

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Virtual Path Identifier (VPI)

A Virtual Path Identifier (VPI) identifies an ATM VPC.

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Virtual Private Network (VPN)

A Virtual Private Network (VPN) is a private network built across a public network
such as the service provider�s network or the Internet.

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Virtual Routing and Forwarding (VRF) table or VRF instance

Virtual Routing and Forwarding (VRF) table or VRF instance is a repository on an

MPLS Provider Edge router where customer routing information is stored. VRFs are
specific to a customer or VPN and are not shared.

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WAN

A wide area network (WAN) is a network that connects LANs over large geographic
distances.

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Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)

Wavelength division multiplexing transmits incoming signals simultaneously over a

fiber optic line by putting each signal into a different wavelength (or color) of
light. On the receiving end, the de-multiplexer recognizes each different
wavelength of light and turns it back into the signal it received.

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Well Known Ports

Well Known Ports are software ports in the range 0�1,023 and the Internet Assigned
Numbers Authority manages and registers them. They are used only for the most
common TCP/IP applications, including FTP (ports 20 and 21), HTTP (port 80), and
SMTP (port 25).

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