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h i g h l i g h t s
Low application temperatures of the upper layer may lead to weak interface bonding.
Using a polymer modified binder in the upper layer reduces the risk of debonding.
The use of the warm modifier does not clearly affect the interface shear strength.
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: A potential drawback, not yet investigated, of low application temperatures of asphalt mixes could be a
Received 21 January 2015 reduced interface shear strength. Such low temperatures could be due to improper construction as well
Received in revised form 11 March 2015 as to the use of warm mix asphalt (WMA) technology. In this sense, this paper illustrates an experimental
Accepted 12 April 2015
laboratory research aimed at characterizing interface shear properties of double-layered asphalt systems.
The upper layer of the specimens (WMA or hot mix asphalt control mix) was mixed and compacted at
different temperatures in order to simulate different application conditions. A plain bitumen and a poly-
Keywords:
mer modified binder were used for the asphalt mixes whereas an organic (wax) additive was selected as
Warm mix asphalt
Interface shear strength
warm modifier. Experimental data were also compared with the stress field of a typical flexible pavement
Wax additive calculated through a layered elastic theory (LET) model. The research study mainly showed that interface
Application temperature shear strength sensibly decreases for low application temperatures of the upper layer (below 140 °C)
regardless of bitumen type and presence of the warm additive. However, the use of polymer modified
bitumen as binder for the upper layer asphalt concrete leads to noticeably higher interface shear strength
at any test temperature reducing the risk of delamination.
Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2015.04.009
0950-0618/Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
E. Pasquini et al. / Construction and Building Materials 88 (2015) 56–63 57
(F–T) synthesis waxes that, thanks to their melting/crystallizing application temperatures can occur due to improper construction
properties, are solid at ambient temperature and melt at higher or proper use of WMA technology, the main goal of this experi-
temperatures producing a low viscosity liquid. mental laboratory study is the evaluation of interface shear proper-
The F–T process is used to convert synthesis gas containing ties of double-layered asphalt systems whose upper layer (HMA or
hydrogen and carbon monoxide to hydrocarbon products that are WMA) was mixed and compacted at different temperatures simu-
mostly liquid at ambient temperature, such as alcohols, diesel fuel, lating different application conditions. This objective was accom-
kerosene, and waxes. The F–T wax is in the carbon chain length plished by performing Ancona Shear Testing Research and
ranging from C40 to C120, with a melting point of approximately Analysis (ASTRA) tests on double-layered specimens according to
100 °C. Thus, it can be considered a fluidifying agent suitable for the experimental plan schematized in Fig. 1.
WMA applications since it reduces the viscosity of the bitumen In particular, the upper layer of the tested double-layered sys-
above its melting point, allowing lower mixing and compaction tems consisted of a dense graded asphalt mixture prepared with
temperatures than traditional HMA, without affecting bitumen limestone aggregates and plain (P) or SBS polymer modified (M)
consistency at pavement service temperatures [2–5]. binder. A commercial organic additive (F–T synthesis wax) was
The use of WMA can lead to environmental benefits (reduced selected as warm modifier, obtaining four different mixes prepared
energy consumption, gas and fume emissions) as well as to opera- with both binders (P and M) including or not the synthetic wax. For
tional advantages such as longer hauling distances and extended each mixture, four double-layered slabs were prepared in the lab-
construction periods [2–5]. oratory varying the mixing and compaction temperatures of the
Clearly, the basic WMA challenge is the production of a pave- upper layer from 100 °C to 160 °C, for a total of 16 slabs, each
ment mixture characterized by at least the same performance of one representing a different interface configuration. It is worth
traditional HMA, thus able to assure acceptable in-service specifying that HMA was mixed and compacted also at low tem-
mechanical performance and durability. In this sense, it is worth peratures (100 °C and 120 °C) in order to simulate wrong applica-
noting that the mechanical properties of WMA mixes can vary in tion procedures whereas WMA was applied also at high
a large range mainly depending on the amount of additive and temperatures (140 °C and 160 °C) for comparison purposes.
the type of WMA technology used [3]. Hereafter, each system is coded as ‘‘XYnnn’’ depending on the
Generally, besides uncertainties regarding long-term WMA per- characteristics of the upper layer where ‘‘X’’ = H (hot mix asphalt)
formance, the most documented drawbacks related to the reduc- or W (warm mix asphalt), ‘‘Y’’ = P (plain bitumen) or M (modified
tion of mixing and compaction temperatures are greater bitumen) and ‘‘nnn’’ = 100, 120, 140 or 160 depending on the appli-
moisture susceptibility, higher rutting potential, reduced cracking cation temperature (in °C) of the upper layer. For example, WP100
resistance as well as coating and bonding problems depending means an upper layer realized with an asphalt mixture containing
on the adopted warm-mix asphalt technology, i.e. organic, chemi- the warm additive (W), prepared with plain bitumen (P) and
cal or foaming additives [3–5]. In this sense, F–T organic waxes applied at 100 °C.
should be able to offset the rutting problem since at in-service From each slab, eight cylindrical specimens were cored to be
temperatures they solidify (crystallize) providing enhanced stiff- tested at 20 °C with the ASTRA equipment carrying out a total of
ness and permanent deformation resistance. However, at mid- 128 interface shear tests by applying three different normal stress
range and low service temperatures, waxes may increase fatigue levels (3 replicates at 0.0 and 0.2 MPa and 2 replicates at 0.4 MPa).
and thermal cracking susceptibility [3–14]. Experimental data were also compared with the stress field of a
As anticipated, a further possible drawback of using WMA could typical flexible pavement calculated through a layered elastic the-
be a reduced interface shear strength. In this sense, possible reduc- ory (LET) model.
tion of interface shear strength due to low mixing and compaction
temperatures could make the environmental and economic advan-
3. Materials and methods
tages provided by WMA fruitless.
3.1. Materials
2. Research objective and description
Dense graded asphalt mixtures prepared in the laboratory were used for the
upper layer of the tested double-layered systems.
Despite the huge literature concerning shear strength of asphalt A plain bitumen, classified as 70/100 according to EN 12591, and a SBS polymer
interfaces, the influence of application and compaction tempera- modified binder, classified as PMB 25/55-75 according to EN 14023, were selected
tures has received no attention yet. In particular, since low as the base binders for this study.
Table 1
Basic properties of binders.
Table 2
Basic properties of limestone aggregates.
Table 4 Finally, eight cylindrical specimens (diameter = 95 mm) were obtained by cor-
Envelope characteristic parameters of ASTRA test. ing from each slab to carry out ASTRA tests.
regression of the representative shear data measured applying dif- type mixes) do not clearly affect the interface shear strength with
ferent normal stresses rn = 0.0, 0.2 and 0.4 MPa. respect to HMA mixes (H-type mixes) at any test temperature.
First of all, it is worth noting that the residual friction angle Ures In particular, the use of the selected warm technology slightly
is negligibly influenced by configuration characteristics (laying penalizes interface shear properties in the case of modification of
temperature, bitumen type, presence of warm technology). Thus, the plain 70/100 penetration grade bitumen (-P type mixes)
it is possible to assert that this envelope characteristic can be con- whereas a certain performance increase seems to be provided in
sidered as an intrinsic property of the interface since it appears to the case of the SBS polymer modified binder (-M type mixes), espe-
be mainly dependent on the granulometric composition of the cially at low application temperatures.
aggregates. On the other hand, variations of peak friction angle This finding is in accordance with viscosity test results reported
Upeak as well as significant changes of the pure shear resistance in Table 1 and could be explained by the fact that the selected wax
c0 were observed among the different interface configurations as additive mainly carries out its ‘‘warm function’’ in the presence of
discussed in the following. high viscosity binders (e.g. polymer modified bitumen at low
temperatures).
As far as the influence of application temperature on the inter- 4.3. Influence of bitumen type
face shear strength concerns, Table 4 and Fig. 4 clearly show that,
as expected, the higher the mixing and compaction temperature of Experimental data reported in Table 4 and depicted in Fig. 5 also
the upper layer, the higher the shear strength at the interface, allow the evaluation of the influence of bitumen type on interface
regardless of bitumen type and presence of warm technology. shear properties of the studied double-layered asphalt systems.
Overall, it can be noted that an evident enhancement of inter- Such findings evidently demonstrate that, at any test tempera-
face shear strength is provided by increasing mixing and com- ture, the interface shear strength in the case of an upper layer pre-
paction temperatures from 100 °C to 140 °C (in particular from pared with the asphalt mixture containing a SBS polymer modified
120 °C to 140 °C) whereas minor variations occur between 140 °C binder (-M type mixes) is noticeably higher than that experienced
and 160 °C. in the case of plain 70/100 penetration grade bitumen (-P type
mixes), regardless of the use of the warm additive.
This result is likely due to the enhanced rheological properties
4.2. Influence of warm technology of the polymer modified binder which is able to guarantee an
improved shear strength at the interface with the underneath layer
Test results presented in Table 4 and Fig. 5 generally show that at any test condition (i.e. enhancing the adhesion and the inner
warm mixes obtained by adding a F–T wax organic additive (W- cohesion contribution to speak), particularly in absence of the
Fig. 5. ASTRA test results: influence of warm technology and bitumen type.
E. Pasquini et al. / Construction and Building Materials 88 (2015) 56–63 61
Fig. 6. ASTRA test results for typical HMA and WMA applications.
5. Discussion FV = 30 kN
FH = 24 kN
Experimental results emerged during the present research
x
involve important practical considerations concerning field pave-
ment performance. In fact, the main finding of the study is that z 168 mm
mixing and compaction temperatures of the upper layer below Asphalt Concrete (E = 3000 MPa)
140 °C could not be able to guarantee the required bonding with
the underneath layer in the case of both HMA and WMA materials
prepared with plain or polymer modified bitumens.
In this sense, the results depicted in Fig. 4 for HP and HM mix-
tures suggest that in case of improper laying operations (applica-
tion temperature 6 120 °C) of such traditional hot mixes, a
Granular Base (E = 300 MPa) 350 mm
significant decrease of interface shear strength will occur leading
to reduced overall efficiency of the pavement system (hindered full
transmission of horizontal shear stress between asphalt layers) or
even to de-bonding phenomena, in particular in the case of inter-
faces located close to the road surface where the shear stresses
transmitted by vehicles remain still high. In fact, a too much low
Subgrade (E = 30 MPa)
shear strength at the interface could imply the risk of delamination
between the wearing and the binder courses causing both struc- Fig. 7. Adopted LET simulation model.
tural and functional damage to the pavement.
Similar remarks can be made also in the case of proper laying of
warm mixes (low application temperatures) as depicted in Fig. 6. was selected because it is recognized as a simple and effective tool
In fact, data reported in such a figure are selected hypothesizing for a first-approach analysis of the pavement response. A sche-
typical warm applications of asphalt mixes prepared with plain or matic representation of the adopted LET model is given in Fig. 7.
polymer modified binders. In particular, assuming an abatement of In particular, a three-layered pavement model was adopted.
application temperatures with respect to plain HMA (typical appli- Such a model comprised of a 168 mm asphalt surface layer, a
cation temperature 140 °C) of at least 20 °C, it is assumed that WP- 350 mm granular base and a subgrade. Typical elastic moduli (E)
type mixes will be applied at temperatures equal or below 120 °C. of 3000, 300 and 30 MPa were assigned to the asphalt concrete
Similarly, laying temperatures of WM-type mixes could be 140 °C (20 °C), granular base and subgrade, respectively. Moreover, the
or 120 °C with respect to 160 °C, typical application temperature Poisson’s ratio was chosen equal to 0.30 for the asphalt concrete
for hot polymer modified asphalt mixtures. Results show that, in [20] and the granular base whereas a value of 0.40 was selected
the case of plain mixes, the warm application will involve a sub- for the subgrade. Full bonding between adjacent layers was also
stantial reduction of interface shear strength, whereas no perfor- assumed. A single tire loading was simulated by means of vertical
mance decrease will be experienced by polymer modified and horizontal static loads evenly applied on a circular area having
materials if the application temperatures of warm-modified mix- a diameter (D) of 252 mm. The simultaneous application of a 30 kN
tures is not below 140 °C. vertical load (FV) along with a 24 kN horizontal load (FH) was
Thus, experimental results suggest that the application of WMA hypothesized. The LET model was implemented to calculate hori-
at low temperatures should be carefully designed as a function of zontal shear stresses sxz and vertical stresses rzz inside the asphalt
predicted stresses and strains at the interface. layer at different positions (x = 0, 42, 84, 125, 168, 210, 252, 378,
In this sense, experimental peak envelopes can be compared 504 and 756 mm; z = 42, 63, 84, 105, 126, 147 and 168 mm).
with the stress field of a typical flexible pavement calculated Fig. 8 shows in the Mohr’s plane the comparison between some
through a layered elastic theory (LET) model. Such a LET model representative peak envelopes obtained with ASTRA tests for hot
62 E. Pasquini et al. / Construction and Building Materials 88 (2015) 56–63
Fig. 8. Interface stress state vs. shear strength (x = distance from the loading centreline).
and warm materials prepared with plain and modified binders and the studied warm organic additive) leading to a lower risk of
the stress state at selected distances from the loading centreline delamination.
and at different depths (z = 42, 105 and 147 mm).
Results seem to confirm that, in the case of upper layers The stimulating results obtained in this study represent only
prepared with unmodified bitumens (Fig. 8 left), a low laying tem- the first attempt to evaluate the influence of the application tem-
perature (100 °C, 120 °C) of such layers (due to improper construc- perature of asphalt mixtures on the overall pavement performance
tion or use of warm mixes) along with the absence of a tack coat at through a comparative interface shear strength characterization.
the interface leads to high risk of delamination, even for 105 mm Such first study intended to investigate different significant aspects
deep interface. On the other hand, good performance should be using a reliable approach. However, a statistical validation of the
ensured in the case of proper laying temperatures (140 °C). The achieved conclusions should be performed using higher amount
same problems related to low laying temperatures should not of experimental data. Further studies should also be carried out
happen in the case of upper layers containing polymer modified to investigate, for example, the influence on interface shear
bitumens (Fig. 8 right) thanks to the enhanced rheological proper- strength of other types of warm additives (chemical or foaming
ties of such binders which guarantee a shear strength higher than products) and/or asphalt mixtures (e.g. porous asphalts, hot-
the calculated stress state also in the case of interfaces located recycled mixtures, etc.). Moreover, the possible use of a tack coat
close to the road surface at any distance from the loading (prepared with plain or modified bitumen) should also be taken
centreline. into account.
6. Conclusions
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