Scribd Logo
Încărcați

Bine ați venit la Scribd!

  • A Course of Differential Geometry and Topology - Archivo 2

    Încărcat de

    Macarena Muena
    2 vizualizări147 pagini
    geometria y topologia

    Drepturi de autor

    © © All Rights Reserved

    Formate disponibile

    PDF sau citiți online pe Scribd

    Vi se pare util acest document?

    Este necorespunzător acest conținut?

    Raportați acest document
    geometria y topologia

    Drepturi de autor:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Descărcați ca PDF sau citiți online pe Scribd
    Indicator pentru conținut neadecvat
    2 vizualizări147 pagini

    A Course of Differential Geometry and Topology - Archivo 2

    Încărcat de

    Macarena Muena
    geometria y topologia

    Drepturi de autor:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Descărcați ca PDF sau citiți online pe Scribd
    Indicator pentru conținut neadecvat
    din 147
    Chapter 4 Smooth Manifolds (Examples) 41, THE THEORY OF CURVES ON A PLANE AND IN A THREE-DIMENSIONAL SPACE 41.1. THE THEORY OF CURVES ON A PLANE. FRENET FORMULAS We shall consider a Euclidean plane R* referred to Car- tesian coordinates (z, y). A smooth curve + (t) on R? is defined by two functions z(t) and y (t), i.e. we deal with the radius vector v(t) = ((z (¢), y ()) of a smooth curve + (t) emerging from the ori- gin, point 0. Recall that the velocity vector v (t) of a curve y (t) at a point ¢ is the vector with the coordinates (22, a), The straight line defined by this vector is tangent to the curve y(t) at a point ¢. Here we assume, of course, that v (t) 4 0. This assumption is sup- posed to hold throughout this section (at the points where the velocity vector vanishes a smooth curve may suffer a cusp; the examples have been given in Chapter 1). The derivative of a radius vector is some- times denoted by — tTM=vh =e, 9) and the symbol |e | = v(t) | will stand for the magnitude of velocity vector (in the Euclidean metric). Let s denote the length of a curve from a fixed point to a variable point; since the length of an arc monotonically increases as the variable point moves along the curve, we may take this length as a parameter along the curve. This parameter is called a natural parameter, and the equation of the curve r (s) = (z (3), y (8)) written as a vector function of s is called natural parametrization of a curve. Lemma 1. The magnitude of the velocity vector of a curve written in the natural parameter is constant and equal to unity. b Proof. We have for the length of are 1(y)3 = § | Ao fae. It @ ar (t) dt follows that the identity dix ds| is what was required. Thus, the motion along a curve referred to the natural parameter occurs at a constant velocity (only the magnitude of the velocity | holds at each point which 148 4. Smooth Manifolds (Ezamples) vector is constant, but not its direction). Corollary: at each point of the curve the velocity vector v (s) is non-zero. Here we have used the ) fact that the relation ae = 0 is satished for the initial parameter 1, With each point on a curve we can associate, besides the velocity vector, another vector smoothly dependent on a point, q (s) = 2, This vector is orthogonal to the velocity vector, which is a direct consequence of the following lemma. Lemma 2. Let p(t) be @ vector function such that |p ()|=1- Then the vector aH is orthogonal to p(t) (tor any ¢ such that dp {t) #20 40), Proof. The condition of the lemma implies that (p, p) == 1. Differ entiating this identity with respect to t, we obtain (2. »)+ (nf) a0, 10. (2, ) =o The lemma is proved. Thus, at each point of a smooth curve y (s) referred to its natural paramoter there exist two orthogonal vectors: the velocity vector and acceleration vector. The latter need not have the unit length. It ig convenient to introduce the unit vector n{s) = A |. Hence, as the parameter s changes, there afises along the curve a smooth coordinate frame field, i.e. the family of two-dimensional frames (v (s), n (s)). The vector n (s) is called a normal vector to a curve at point s, Each frame, .after being translated to the origin, uniquely defines a rotation of a plane about the point 0. The frame field along a curve defines therefore a smooth mapping of (s) into a group of orthogonal matrices, i.e. a group of rotations of a plane. In other words, we can say that each curve y (s) generates a smooth curve whose points are represented as orthogonal 2 x 2 matrices. We shall study the properties of this curve for a multi-dimensional case, i.e, for a smooth curve in a multi-dimensional Euclidean space (see below). Definition 1, Let a smooth curve be referred to the natural parumeter. The curvature of a curve at a point s is the number Pe k(s) = =|, Sinco the curvature (by definition) is the magnitude of the a & . SO) = k(s)n(s), where n(s) is the normal vector at the point s and Ta?) dy ye wore (ar) + (Gt) acceleration vector, we have 4.1, Curves on @ Plane and in a Three-Dimenstonal Space 149 If e, and e, are orthogonal unit vectors defining Cartesian coordi- nates on the plane R? (z, y), the normal vector can be written ex- plicitly as 1 at. dly\72 7 dt a, n= (Setar) (Gera tgia). Definition 2. The curvature radius of a smooth curve at a point s is the number R (s) = 1/k (s). Bofore proceeding further, we shall consider simple examples which underlie the choice of the terms “curvature” and “curvature radius”. The simplest curve on a plane is a straight line defined parametrically as a linear vector function: 2 (s):= x (0) + as, y (s) = y (0) + Bs, where s is the natural parameter. This imposes restrictions on the numbers a and f: obviously, the equality Ya® + p* = 1 must be satisfied, since v = (a, B) and |v (s) | =u 4. Then the accoleration vector eh is identically zero, and the curvature of a straight line is also zero. Hence, the curvature radius of a straight line is equal to infinity. . Let us consider a circle of radius R on a plane. The parametric equations of the circle are #()=2(0)+Roos(), y(s)=y()+Rsin (z). The parameter s varies from 0 to 2x. The velocity vector is v= (sin (+) » cos (#)) : av (a) 1 1 i ia de =(~Fe08(3) » Tasin (a))- Thus, the curvature of a circle is constant and equal to 1/R and the curvature radius is 1/k = R. In many specific problems it appears, however, that the equations of a curve are referred to an arbitrary parameter t, rather than to the natural parameter. It would ‘be useful therefore to have formulas for calculating the curvature of a curve referred to an arbitrary parameter. Theorem 1, Let a smooth curve y(t) be referred to an arbitrary param- eter t, not necessarily natural, and let the velocity vector v (t) be non- zero at point t. Then tre formuta k= |S Hence, | 2"y’—y"s' | * Terror is valid, where 2’, 2", ... denote derivatives with respect to i. 150. 4. Smooth Manifolds (Ezamples) Proof. Let v(t) = (x(t), y (t)) be the parametric form of +» (f) and ¥ (¢) = (2'(t), y’(t)) the velocity vector. If s is the natural param- eter, we have for an arbitrary vector function q (é) a _ dq) at ae VOn a a Take for q ar (3) a() =v ()/l¥ ()| = From the definition of curvature we obtain | ar ad faey\{ fd ¢ voy e=| l=] (B)=14 (ath) and further @ fv )= tt ( vid a \Tv@ i) ae ae \Tv@is* di, vy arid) Let us find 3, Since as— |“ Jat, we have Hi Bi a =Tyol’ dt ‘whence et ef ) $e) dt et VOT _ £ av (t) vit) d =r ( at are Ol) i ” Ft ie “Tr (P-type Fy) = i . re 8 eta aor ("-are af). Since Cae ee ee eee al P=glh. r)a2", 3c), we have @r(y) k= dst | Tey , or in greater detail 1 a x, (esse) Rh ee) __t ( o_o, 2 bey” 7 ye 1 1 fpr zie but” vee area) etn (YY SF bes z (yea e'y'y" 1 x’ yz” =oep (Zaepa ot pete (Ferra ) ex 4.1. Curves on a Plane and in a Phree-Dimenstonal Space 151 Hence, Heme (CRP (YP ((Y')? (ey — 2 18 (yta! —iy'a")2) a C2 mae HAY e' —y'2')) = SoG a lety'—s'y" | aw fi and k GPT The theorem is proved. Let us return to the motion of the frame (v (s), n (s)) when the parameter s varies. It appears ithat the derivatives of the frame vectors satisfy simple relations, called the Frenet formulas. Theorem 2. Jf @ smooth curve is referred to the natural parameter, the relations SP ako@ae, S&=—kove, are satisfied. Proof. The first Frenet formula directly follows from the definition of curvature & (s). It remains to verify the second formula. Consider the vector function nm {s), By definition, (n (s), n (s)) = 4, and ac- cording to Lemma 2, (2), fa (s)) =0, ie. OE) oA (s) v6), where 4 is a smooth function of s. To find this function, we dif- ferentiate the identity (v, n) = 0 with respect to s to obtain (Sa) +(n4)=0, whence k (n, n) + (v, Av) = 0, i.e. kK = —A. The theorem is proved. The vectors v and n can be written as a column to give the fol- lowing form of the Frenet formiulas: (eo. ( Ok (*) h x ( 0 A ands) \—k O}\n}s WP *=\_gn oo is a skew-symmetric matrix. This relation has a clear geometric meaning. Let us consider a coordinate frame (s) = (v (s), n (s)) at a point s and move along the curve r(s) from s to point s + As (Fig. 4.1). After translating the frame w (s + As) to the point s wa obtain two frames at s, w (s) ‘and w (s-+ As), where the frame © (s + As) is obtained from w (s) by rotation through an infinites- imal angle Ag. Hence, we may assume w (s) and @ (s + As) to be related by the orthogonal transformation w (s + As) = A (As) @ (s), a in Ac : 4 where A (Os) =(_ 5 ne Oo ae) Expanding cos Ag and sin Ag in the small increment Aq and neglecting terms of the second order 452 4. Smooth Manifoids (Examples) in Ag, we get (¢ o ( 0 vl A(d={q J+ ~Ag 0 tees 0 A be, (+8) =0()+( ‘ag 0 Jaton ao 3b o 6 . ad ‘ 4 P a ie Foi in (ay “g)ee= (20 0 Joo where o{s) is the angle of rotation of w(s) relative to a fixed coordinate frame on the plane (say, relative to @(0)). At the same rs) vis) r($ + as} ns + 4s) ws + 43) Figure 4.1 time, it follows from the Fronet formulas that 2a (s)= 0 k(s) j r —kes 0 o@(s). Comparing these matrices, we see that A (s) = d@ (s)/ds. Thus, the curvature of a curve at a point s can be interpreted ag the rate of the change in the angle g (s) at this point. In the case of a plane curve the function / (s) completely defines the curve, provided & + 0 for all s. To be more exact, the following theorem is valid. Theorem 3. Given a smooth function k (s) not vanishing for all s such that a <8 < b. Then there exists a plane smooth curver (s) unigue- ly defined to within @ translation and an orthogonal transformation and such that for this curve k (s) is the curvature and sis the natural Parameter. Proof, Let us consider the system of differential equations a ( 0 ks) fi hare PN fiantFinetl dn ()/ds) *\ —k(s) 0 n(s) where (a) is &@ given function. Since k (s) > 0, it follows from the existence and uniqueness theorem for differential equations that this system has a solution (unique for #4, Curves on a Plane and in a Phree-Dimenstonal Space 153 fixed initial values) which can be continued smoothly to the entire interval a

    S-ar putea să vă placă și