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CHAPTER ELEVEN
BASIC AUDIT AND SAMPLING CONCEPTS
It requires less effort to do theright things and succeed, than to do the wrongthings andfail.
- Anonymous
Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
Define audit sampling.
Explain the different risk considerations in obtaining audit evidence.
Differentiate statistical from non-statistical sampling.
Discuss sampling approaches and other means of testing.
Illustrate sampling for tests of controls.
Illustrate sampling for substantive tests.
Discuss the common projection techniques for sampling in substantive tests.
Identify other sampling considerations.
Introduction
PSA 500 (Redrafted), Audit Evidence states that:
When designing tests of controls and tests of details, the auditor shall determine means
of selecting items for testing that are effective in meeting the purpose of the audit
procedure1.
Actually, the means of selecting items for testing which are available to the auditor are:
1. Selecting all items (100% examination)
2. Selecting specific items
3. Audit sampling.
The decision as to which approach to use will depend on the circumstances, and the
application of any one or combination of the above means may be appropriate in
particular circumstances. While the decision as to which means, or combination or
means, to use is made on the basis of the risk of material misstatement related to the
assertion being tested and audit efficiency, the auditor needs to be satisfied that
methods used are effective in providing sufficient appropriate audit evidence to meet the
objectives of the audit procedure.
1
PSA 500 (Redrafted), par. 10
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Table 11-1
Selecting Specific Items
Description
The auditor may decide to select specific items within a population because
High value or key they are of high value, or exhibit some other characteristics, for example
items items that are suspicious, unusual, particularly risk-prone or that have a
history of error.
The auditor may decide to examine items whose values exceed a certain
All items over a amount so as to verify a large proportion of the total amount of class of
certain amount transactions or account balance.
Items to obtain The auditor may examine items to obtain information about matters such as
information the nature of the entity, the nature of transactions, and internal control.
Items to test control The auditor may examine judgment to select and examine specific items to
activities determine whether or not a particular control activity is being performed.
2
PAS 500 (Redrafted), par. A54
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to obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence regarding the remainder of the population when
that remainder is material.
Audit Sampling
Audit sampling involves the application of audit procedures to less than 100% of items
within a class of transactions or account balance such that all sampling units have a chance of
selection in order to provide the auditor with a reasonable basis on which to draw conclusions
about the entire population3. Audit sampling can use either a statistical or a non-statistical
approach.
The following terms are used in this chapter:
1. Error – means either control deviations, when performing tests of controls, or
misstatements, when performing tests of details.
a. Deviation – difference between what was expected, based on the documentation
of controls, and what actually occurred. Deviations are stated in terms of
percentages.
b. Misstatements – difference between the amount computed by the auditor and the
amount actually recorded or reflected in the accounting records. Misstatements
are presented in terms of monetary amount.
2. Total error – the rate of deviation or total misstatement.
3. Expected error – the error that the auditor expects to be present in the population.
4. Anomaly – an error that arises from an isolated event that has not recurred other than on
specifically identifiable occasions and is therefore not representative of errors in the
population.
5. Population – the entire set of data from which a sample is selected and about which the
auditor wishes to draw conclusions. A population may be divided into strata, or sub-
populations, with each stratum being examined separately. The term population is used
to include the term stratum.
6. Sampling unit – the individual items constituting a population, for example checks listed
in deposit slips, credit entries on bank statements, sales invoices or debtor’s balances,
or a monetary unit.
Audit Sampling
Audit sampling Is based on the premise that a sample can be sufficiently representative
of an audit population to warrant valid and reliable conclusions without testing the entire
population. An audit population may consist of all the items within a class of transactions,
such as all credit sales processed for a specified period, or all the transactions constituting
an account balances, such as accounts receivable.
3
Ibid., par. 5(a)
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A population may be divided into strata, or sub-population, with each stratum being
examined separately. The term population is used to include the term stratum. Audit sampling
can be classified in relation to audit procedures.
Tests of Control
Tests of controls are performed when the auditor’s risk assessment includes an
expectation of the operating effectiveness of controls. Based on the auditor’s understanding of
internal control, the auditor identifies the characteristics or attributes that indicate performance
of a control, as well as possible deviation conditions which indicate departures from adequate
performance. The presence or absence of attributes can then be tested by the auditor. Audit
sampling for tests of controls is generally appropriate when application of the control leaves
audit evidence of performance (for example, initials of the credit manager on a sales invoice
indicating credit approval, or evidence of authorization of data input to a microcomputer based
data processing system.
Substantive Procedures
Substantive procedures are concerned with amounts and are of two types: tests of
details of classes of transactions, account balances, and disclosures and substantive analytical
procedures. The purpose of substantive procedures is to obtain audit evidence to detect
material misstatements at the assertion level. In the context of substantive procedures, audit
sampling and other means of selecting items for testing, relate only to tests of details. When
performing tests of details, audit sampling and other means of selecting items for testing and
gathering audit evidence may be used to verify one or more assertions about a financial
statement amount (for example, the existence of accounts receivable), or to make an
independent estimate of some amount (for example, the value of obsolete inventories).
Audit risk as the likelihood that an auditor may unknowingly fail to modify his or her
opinion on materially misstated financial statements. Audit risk is a combination of two
components:
1. The risk that material errors will occur in the process by which financial statements are
developed (risk of material misstatement); and
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2. The risk that any material errors that occur will not be detected by the auditor (detection risk).
Inherent risk represents the susceptibility of an account balance to errors that, when
combined with errors in other accounts, could be material and that are not monitored by related
control procedures. For example, inherent risk is higher for liquid assets, such as cash, than for
non-liquid assets, such as property, plant, and equipment. Because neither control risk nor
inherent risk is directly controllable by an auditor, the risk that material errors will occur – the
first component of audit risk – is not directly controllable by the auditor.
Control risk represents the likelihood that errors could occur, and could be material when
combined with errors in other accounts, but will not be prevented or detected by the entity’s
internal control structure. For example, control risk would be increased if an entity did not
maintain effective physical controls over blank check.
Detection Risk
Detection risk is the likelihood that errors could occur and could be material when
combined with errors in other accounts, but will not be detected by the auditor’s procedures.
The risk that material errors will not be detected is directly controllable by the auditor through
substantive tests of details and other substantive audit procedures. Detection risk may be
further subdivided into: sampling risk and non-sampling risk. Detection risk and its sub-
components can be illustratively shown as follows:
Exhibit 11-2
Detection Risk
Detection Risk
The risk that material errors may occur and remain undetected is influenced by two
categories of uncertainties:
1. Sampling risk – uncertainties related to sampling. Sampling risk arises from the
possibility that the auditor’s conclusion, based in a sample may be different from the
conclusion reached if the entire population were subjected to the same audit procedure4.
Sampling risk results from the fact that a particular audit sample may not be
representative of the population tested. That is, the sample may contain
disproportionately more or fewer control deviations or monetary differences than exist in
the class of transactions or account balance as a whole, suggesting that the auditor’s
conclusions may be different if the entire population were sample size, sampling risk
varies inversely with sample size: the greater the sample size, the smaller the sampling
risk. This relationship is quite logical, because if sample size were increased to include
all the items in a population, there would be no sampling and therefore no sampling risk.
2. Non-sampling risk – uncertainties arising from factors unrelated to sampling. Non-
sampling risk includes all aspects for audit risk not due to sampling.
4
Sampling risk may be eliminated by testing 100% of the population.
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Unknown to the auditor, he or she would actually be assessing control risk too high
because the true population deviation rate (i.e., 2 percent) is less than the tolerable rate
which is 3 percent.
It can be concluded that assessing control risk too high results in over-auditing (doing
more substantive tests than necessary). Assessing control risk too high affects the efficiency
(time, effort, and cost) of the audit.
Assessing control risk too high results in inefficiency: when an auditor concludes that a
control is ineffective and therefore that control risk is high, he ordinarily sets a lower acceptable
detection risk and expands the scope of substantive tests to compensate for the perceived
control deficiency. If the expanded scope of substantive tests is unjustified, the audit will be less
efficient since more substantive tests will be performed than necessary.
Example – Risk of Assessing Control Risk Too Low
If, based on an unrepresentative sample, an auditor estimated a 5 percent rate of deviation
but was willing to tolerate 7 percent, and the true, but unknown, population rate was
really 8 percent. In this example, the auditor would conclude that the control is effective;
therefore, he or she would assess a lower level of control risk in determining the nature,
timing, and extend to substantive tests, because the sample indicated fewer deviations
(i.e., 5 percent) than the auditor was willing to tolerate (7 percent). However, unknown to
the auditor, he would actually be assessing control risk too low since the true population
rate (i.e., 8 percent) exceeds the tolerable rate (7 percent).
It can be concluded that assessing control risk too low results in under-auditing (doing
less substantive tests than necessary). Assessing control risk too low affects the effectiveness
of the audit (i.e., errors in the financial statements may remain undetected) because the scope
of substantive tests will be restricted under the erroneous assumption that the control is
effective and control risk in low, thus, the substantive tests may be ineffective in detecting
material misstatements.
When the auditor considers other evidence or performs additional audit procedures. For
example, an auditor would ordinarily revise an initial conclusion that Cost of Goods Sold
is misstated if a physical inventory observation and inventory price testing revealed that
Inventory was not misstated, and other procedures revealed that Accounts Receivable
and Sales were not misstated.
2. Risk of incorrect acceptance, in contrast, is the risk that a sample supports the
conclusion that a recorded account balance is not materially misstated when, unknown
to the auditor, the account is materially misstated. Like the risk of assessing control risk
too low in attribute sampling, the risk of incorrect acceptance relates to audit
effectiveness and is particularly critical to an auditor, because incorrectly accepting a
misstated account balance could result in financial statements that are materially
misstated and therefore misleading.
Non-Sampling Risk
Non-sampling risk includes all aspects of audit risk not due to sampling. It includes the
possibility of selecting audit procedures that are not appropriate to achieve the specific
objective. For example, non-sampling risk could result from human errors, such as failing to
detect errors contained within sample items or overlooking or misinterpreting errors that are
detected. Several factors can serve to reduce non-sampling risk, including proper planning and
supervision and encouraging effective firm-wide quality control.
Table 11-2
Advantages and Disadvantages of Statistical Sampling
Advantages of Statistical Sampling
1. It aids an auditor in determining the sample size required to meet given objectives.
2. It provides more objective audit evidence.
3. It allows an auditor to measure precision, reliability, and sampling error.
Non-Statistical Sampling
Non-statistical sampling plans rely exclusively on subjective judgment to determine
sample size and evaluate sample results. It is an auditor-derived tool for examining a sample of
items from a population. The auditor uses judgment in deciding which items should be included
in the sample. It is not appropriate to use judgment in selecting items for a sample and then use
statistical sampling techniques to express a conclusion about the population. Judgment
sampling is preferable to statistical sampling when the auditor desires to perform some
operation on the sample items only (for example, find and correct errors).
A properly designed non-statistical sampling application can provide results as effective
as those from a properly designed statistical sampling application. There is, however, one
critical difference between a statistical and a non-statistical sampling application: statistical
sampling allows an auditor to measure sampling risk. Statistical sampling plan measure the risk
that a sample is not representative of a population; it provides a mathematical measurement of
the degree of uncertainty; non-statistical sampling plans do not.
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Statistical or non-statistical?
The choice between a statistical and a non-statistical sampling plan is based primarily on
the auditor’s assessment of the relative costs and benefits. For example, an auditor might use
non-statistical sampling if the cost of selecting a statistical random sample was deemed too
high. However, an auditor might consider the cost justifiable if the related controls were critical,
and a measure of sampling risk was therefore deemed essential.
Note that the choice between a statistical and non-statistical sampling plan is made
independent of the selection of audit procedures. Audit sampling, whether statistical or non-
statistical, is merely a means accomplishing audit procedures.
5
See the Appendices to PSA 530.
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6
This is the least desirable sample selection method.
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Table 11-3
Characteristics of Interest
Stratification
Audit efficiency may be improved if the auditor stratifies a population by dividing it into
discrete sub-populations which have an identifying characteristic. The objective of stratification
is to reduce the variability of items within each stratum and therefore allow sample size to be
reduced without a proportional increase in sampling risk. Sub-populations need to be carefully
defined such that any sampling unit can only belong to one stratum.
When performing tests of details, a class of transaction or account balance or is often
stratified by monetary value. This allows greater audit effort to be directed to the larger value
items which may contain the greatest potential monetary error in terms of overstatement.
Similarly, a population may be stratified according to a particular
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Characteristic that indicates a higher risk of error, for example, when testing the valuation of
accounts receivable, balances may be stratified by age.
The results of audit procedures applied to a sample of items within a stratum can only be
projected to the items that make up that stratum. To draw a conclusion on the entire population,
the auditor will need to consider the risk of material misstatement in relation to whatever other
strata make up the entire population.
Example: 20% of the items in a population may make up 90% of the value of an account
balance. The auditor may decide to examine a sample of these items. The auditor evaluates the
results of this sample and reaches a conclusion on the 90% of value separately from the remaining
10% (on which a further sample or other means of gathering audit evidence will be used, or
which may be considered immaterial.
Value-Weighted Selection
It will often be efficient in performing tests of details, particularly when testing for
overstatements, to identify the sampling unit as the individual monetary units (for example,
pesos) that make up a class of transactions or account balance. Having selected specific
monetary units from within the population, for example, the accounts receivable balance, the
auditor then examines the particular items, for example, individual balances, that contain those
monetary units. This approach to defining the sampling unit ensures that audit effort is directed
to the larger value items because they have a greater chance of selection, and can result in
smaller sample sizes. This approach is ordinarily used in conjunction with the systematic
method of sample selection and is most efficient when selecting items using CAATs.
Attributes Sampling
The procedures for attributes sampling are presented below:
1. Determine the objective(s) of the test.
2. Define the attribute (characteristic of a control) and deviation (absence of an attribute)
conditions.
3. Define the population.
4. Choose an audit sampling approach/technique.
5. Determine the sample size and the sample selection method.
6. Perform the sampling plan.
7. Evaluate sample results.
8. Comply with documentation requirements.
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Effect on
Factors
sample size
An increase in the auditor’s intended reliance on accounting and internal
Increase
control system.
An increase in the rate of deviation from the prescribed control procedure that
Decrease
the auditor is willing to accept (Tolerable deviation rate).
An increase in the rate of deviation from the prescribed control procedure that
Increase
the auditor expects to find in the population (Expected deviation rate).
An increase in the auditor’s required confidence level (or conversely, a
decrease in the risk that the auditor will conclude that the control risk is lower
Increase
than the actual control risk in the population –risk of assessing control risk
too low).
Negligible
An increase in the number of sampling units in the population.
Effect
1. The extent to which the risk of material misstatement is reduced by the operating
effectiveness of controls. The more assurance the auditor intends to obtain from the
operating effectiveness of controls, the lower the auditor’s assessment of the risk of
material misstatement will be, and the larger the sample size will need to be. When the
auditor’s assessment of the risk of material misstatement at the assertion level includes
an expectation of the operating effectiveness of controls, the auditor is required to
perform tests of controls. Other things being equal, the more the auditor relies on the
operating effectiveness of controls in the risk assessment, the greater is the extent of the
auditor’s tests of controls (and therefore, the sample size is increased).
2. The rate of deviation from the prescribed control activity the auditor is willing to
accept (tolerable error). The lower the rate of deviation that the auditor is willing to
accept, the larger the sample size needs to be.
3. The rate of deviation from the prescribed control activity the auditor expects to
find in the population (expected error). The higher the rate of deviation that the
auditor expects, the larger the size needs to be so as to be in a position to make a
reasonable estimate of the actual rate of deviation. Factors relevant to the auditor’s
consideration of the expected error rate include the auditor’s understanding of the
business (in particular,
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expects that there are three purchases with improper authorization (deviations) for every 100
purchase transactions (i.e., expected population deviation rate is 3%);
believes that he can tolerate up to six deviations for every 100 purchase transactions (i.e.,
tolerable deviation rate is 6%);
Accordingly, the auditor assesses control risk at a LESS THAN HIGH because the expected population
deviation rate (3%) is less than the tolerable deviation rate (5%).
The auditor selected 100 samples and noted four deviations in the sample (sample deviation rate is 4%).
Auditing and Assurance Principles
If non-statistical sampling is used, the sample deviation rate shall be compared against the tolerable
deviation rate and evaluated as follows:
If SDR = or < TDR controls may be effective (CR = Less than High)
If SDR > TDR controls are not effective (CR = High)
In the above example, SDR of 4% is less than the TDR of 6%; hence, the conclusion is that the
authorization controls over purchases are effective.
If statistical sampling is used, the auditor must first consider the effect of sampling risk. Assume that in
the above example, the appropriate allowance for sampling risk is 1%.
The sample deviation rate shall first be added to the allowance for sampling risk (4% + 1%) to compute
the upper deviation rate (5%). Then the upper deviation rate shall be compared against the tolerable
deviation rate and evaluated as follows:
If UDR = or < TDR controls may be effective (CR = Less than High)
If UDR > TDR controls are not effective (UDR = High)
In the above example, the UDR of 5% is less than the TDR of 6%; hence, the conclusion is that the
authorization controls over purchases are effective.
Variables Sampling
The procedures for variables sampling are presented below:
1. Determine the objective(s) of the test.
2. Define “fair presentation” and “material misstatement”.
3. Define population.
4. Choose an audit sampling approach/technique.
5. Determine the sample size and the sample selection method.
6. Perform the sampling plan.
7. Evaluate sample results.
8. Comply with documentation requirements.
Sample size for Substantive Tests
Table 11-5 presents factors that the auditor considers when determining the
sample size for sampling in substantive audit procedures. These factors need to be
considered together.
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Table 11-5
Factors Affecting Sample Size for Substantive Tests
Effect on
Factors
sample size
An increase in the auditor’s assessment of inherent risk. Increase
An increase in the auditor’s assessment of control risk (or a decrease in
Increase
reliance on internal controls).
An increase in the use of other substantive procedures directed at the same
Decrease
financial statement assertion.
An increase in the auditor’s required confidence level (or conversely, a
decrease in the risk that the auditor will conclude that a material error does Increase
not exist, when in fact it does – risk of incorrect acceptance).
An increase in the total error that the auditor us willing to accept (tolerable
Decrease
error.
An increase in the amount of error the auditor expects to find in the
Increase
population (expected error).
Stratification of the population when appropriate. Decrease
Negligible
The number or sampling units in the population.
Effect
1. The auditor’s assessment of the risk of material misstatement. The higher the
auditor’s assessment of the risk of material misstatement, the larger the sample size
needs to be. The auditor’s assessment of the risk of material misstatement is affected by
inherent risk and control risk.
For example, if the auditor does not perform tests of controls, the auditor’s risk
assessment cannot be reduced for the effective operation of internal controls with
respect to the particular assertion. Therefore, in order to reduce audit risk to an
acceptably low level, the auditor needs a low detection risk and will rely more on
substantive procedures. The more audit evidence that is obtained from tests of details
(that is, the lower the detection risk), the larger the sample size will need to be.
2. The use of other substantive procedures directed at the same assertion. The more
the auditor is relying on other substantive procedures (tests of details or substantive
analytical procedures) to reduce to an acceptable level the detection risk regarding a
particular class of transactions or account balance, the less assurance the auditor will
require from sampling and, therefore, the smaller the sample size can be.
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3. The auditor’s required confidence level. The greater the degree of confidence that the
auditor requires that the results of the sample are in fact indicative of the actual amount
of error in the population, the larger the sample size needs to be.
4. The total error the auditor is willing to accept (tolerable error). The lower the total
error that the auditor is willing to accept, the larger the sample size needs to be.
5. The amount of error the auditor expects to find in the population (expected error).
The greater the amount of error the auditor expects to find in the population, the larger
the sample size needs to be in order to make a reasonable estimate of the actual
amount of error in the population. Factors relevant to the auditor’s consideration of the
expected error amount include the extent to which item values are determined
subjectively, the results of risk assessment procedures, the results of tests of control, the
results of audit procedures applied in prior periods, and the results of other substantive
procedures.
6. Stratification. When there is a wide range (variability) in the monetary size of items in
the population. It may be useful to group items of similar size into separate sub-
populations or strata. This is referred to as stratification. When a population can be
appropriately stratified, the aggregate of the sample sized from the strata generally will
be less than the sample size that would have been required to attain a given level of
sampling risk, had one sample been drawn from the whole population.
7. The number of sampling units in the population. For large populations, the actual
size of the population has little, if any, effect on sample size. Thus, for small populations,
audit sampling is often not as efficient as alternative means of obtaining sufficient
appropriate audit evidence. (However, when using monetary unit sampling, an increase
in the monetary value of the population increases sample size, unless this is offset by a
proportional increase in materiality.)
inquiries to understand these matter and also needs to consider matters such as7:
a. The direct effect of identified errors on the financial statements; and
b. The effectiveness of internal control and their effect on the audit approach when, for
example, the errors result from management override of a control.
In these cases, the auditor determines whether the tests of controls performed provide an
appropriate basis for use as audit evidence, whether additional tests of controls are
necessary, or whether the potential risks of misstatement need to be addressed using
substantive procedures.
In analyzing the errors discovered, the auditor may observe that many have a common
feature, for example, type of transaction, location, product line or period of time. In such
circumstances, the auditor may decide to identify all items in the population that possess the
common feature, such errors may be intentional, and may indicate the possibility of fraud.
Sometimes, the auditor may be able to establish that an error arises from an isolated
event that has not recurred other than on specifically identifiable occasions and is therefore
not representative of similar errors in the population (an anomalous error). To be considered
an anomalous error, the auditor has to have a high degree of certainty that such error is not
representative of the population. The auditor obtains this certainty by performing additional
audit procedures. The additional audit procedures depend on the situation, but are adequate
to provide the auditor with sufficient appropriate audit evidence that the error does not affect
the remaining part of the population. One example is an error caused by a computer
breakdown that is known to have occurred on only one day during the period.
In that case, the auditor assesses the effect of the breakdown, for example by examining
specific transactions processed on that day, and considers the effect of the cause of the
breakdown on audit procedures and conclusions. Another example is an error that is found
to be caused by use of an incorrect formula in calculating all inventory values at on
particular branch. To establish that this is an anomalous error, the auditor needs to ensure
the correct formula has been used at other branches.
7
Ibid., par. 48
Auditing and Assurance Principles
Projecting Errors
Projections for Tests of Controls
For tests of controls, no explicit projection of errors is necessary since the sample error
rate is also projected rate of error for the population as a whole.
Projections for Substantive Tests
For tests of details, the auditor should project monetary errors found in the sample to the
population, and should consider the effect of the projected error on the particular audit
objective and on other areas of the audit. The auditor projects the total error for the
population to obtain a broad view of the scale of errors, and to compare this to the tolerable
error. For tests of details, tolerable error is the tolerable misstatement, and will be an amount
less than or equal to the auditor’s materiality used for the individual class of transactions or
account balances being audited.
Anomalous Errors
When an error has been established as an anomalous error, it may be excluded when
projecting sample errors to the population. The effect of any such error, if uncorrected, still
needs to be considered in addition to the projection of the non-anomalous errors.
Stratification
If a class of transactions or account balance has been divided into strata, the error is
projected for each stratum separately. Projected errors plus anomalous errors for each
stratum are then combined when considering the possible effect of errors on the total class
of transactions or account balance.
Commonly Used Projection Techniques
Commonly used projection techniques are difference estimation, ratio estimation, and
mean-per-unit estimation.
Difference estimation is used to measure the estimated total misstatement amount in a
population when there is both a recorded value and an audited value for each item in the
sample. This method frequently results in smaller sample sized than any other method, and
it is relatively easy to use. The use of difference estimation is appropriate when the
misstatement in an account is not affected by the book value of the item being examined.
Ratio estimation is similar to difference estimation except that the point estimate of the
population misstatement is determined by multiplying the portion of sample amount
misstated times the total recorded population book value. The ratio estimates results in even
smaller sample sizes than difference estimation if the size of the misstatements in the
population is proportionate to the recorded value of the population items. The use of ratio
estimation is appropriate when the misstatement in an account is directly proportional to its
book value.
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Under mean-per-unit estimation, the auditor is concerned with the audited value rather
than the misstatement amount of each item in the sample. Except for the definition of what
is being measured, this method is calculated in exactly the same manner as the difference
estimate. The point estimate of the audited value is the average audited value of items in the
sample times the population size. The computed precision interval is computed on the basis
of the audited value of the sample items rather than the misstatements. The use of mean-
per-unit estimation is appropriate when individual populations do not have recorded values.
Comprehensive example on projection of errors
An external auditor sent out positive confirmation requests to 2,000 customers. Population size is
4,800 accounts, with a total recorded value of P380,000. Presented below are the summary results of
the examination of confirmation replies received from customers.
Book value of samples selected P159,960
Audited value of samples selected 151,360
Difference P 8,600
Difference estimation
1. Compute for the average difference between SAV and SBV
= Average or mean audited value – Average or mean book value
= P76 – P80
Answer: P4 overstated
Note: Assume that there is an allowance for sampling risk amounting to ±P40,000, then the
EPAV would be in the range of P324,800 and P404,800.
8
PSA 230, par. 54
Auditing and Assurance Principles
Discussion Questions
1. What is audit sampling?
2. Define the following terms:
a. Error in the context of tests of control
b. Error in the context of substantive tests.
3. What are the two components of detection risk? Explain each component briefly.
4. Can you eliminate sampling risk? Explain.
5. Describe the relationship between sampling risk and sample size.
7. In tests of control, there are two types of sampling risk. For each type, give a short
description and identify whether it affects audit efficiency or audit effectiveness.
8. In substantive tests, there are two types of sampling risk. For each type, give a short
description and identify whether it affects audit efficiency or audit effectiveness.
9. Which one is of greater concern to the auditor: risk affecting audit effectiveness or risk
affecting audit efficiency? Explain.
10. What are the risk considerations in obtaining audit evidence?
11. Enumerate the different means of selecting items for testing.
12. What are the two general approaches to audit sampling? Explain briefly.
13. What are advantages and disadvantages of statistical sampling?
14. Explain the following sample selection methods:
a. Random number sampling
b. Systematic-sampling
c. Block Selection
d. Haphazard sampling
15. What is stratification?
16. What is value weighted-selection?
17. Give the steps involved in an attribute sampling plan.
18. Give at least three determinants of the sample size for tests of controls. Relate each
determinant to sample size.
19. Give the steps involved in a variable sampling plan.
20. Give at least three determinants of the sample size for substantive tests. Relate each
determinant to sample size.
21. What are other sampling considerations mentioned in PSA 530?
22. When is projection necessary?
23. Discuss the following projection techniques:
a. Difference estimation
b. Ratio estimation
c. Mean-per-unit-estimation
24. What is probability-proportional -to -size (PPS) sampling?
Objective Questions
E11-1 True or False
1) Tests performed on 100% or less than 100% of the items within a population
involve sampling.
2) When designing an audit sample, the auditor should consider the specific audit
sample, the auditor should consider the specific audit objectives, the population
from which the auditor wishes to sample and the sample size.
3) The auditor defines the sampling unit in order to obtain an efficient and effective
sample to achieve the particular audit objectives.
4) Sampling risk arises from the possibility that the auditor's conclusion, based on
a sample, may be different from the conclusion that would be reached if the
entire population were subjected to the same audit procedure.
Auditing and Assurance Principles
18) Having carried out, on each sample item, those audit procedures that are
appropriate to the particular audit objective, the auditor should analyze any
errors detected in the sample and project the errors found in the sample to the
population.
19) The auditor would also consider the qualitative aspects of the errors, these
includes the nature and cause of the error and the possible effect of the error on
other phases of the audit.
20) There is an inverse relationship between the sample size and tolerable rate.
Auditing and Assurance Principles
21) Non statistical sampling can also use statistical formulas and techniques aside
from the auditor’s judgment.
22) Sampling for attributes is generally used in substantive testing. It is designed to
detect misstatements in account balances.
23) Haphazard selection may be an alternative to random selection provided that the
auditor attempts to draw a representative sample from the entire population with no
intention to either include or exclude specific units.
24) One disadvantage of statistical sampling that cost may exceed the benefits
derived.
25) The auditor will require a larger sample size if he expects an error in the
population.
26) Zero sample size will be required if the population to be tested is expected to be
error- free.
A. It provides for measuring mathematically the degree of uncertainty that results from
examining only a part of the data.
B. It allows the auditor to have the same degree of confidence as with judgment
sampling but with substantially less work.
C. It allows the auditor to substitute sampling techniques for audit judgment.
D. It provides for measuring the actual misstatements in financial statements in terms of
reliability and precision.
6. Statistical sampling do not allow:
A. More efficient samples.
B. Measurement of sample reliability.
C. Replacement of the auditor’s professional judgment.
D. Measurement of sample risk.
7. There are many kinds of statistical estimates that an auditor may find useful, but
basically every accounting estimate is either of a quantity or of an error rate. The
statistical terms that roughly correspond to “quantities” and “error rate”, respectively are
A. Attributes and variables.
B. Variables and attributes.
C. Constants and attributes.
D. Constants and variables.
8. The sampling method that is most useful when testing for compliance is:
A. Judgment sampling.
B. Unrestricted random sampling with replacement.
C. Attribute sampling.
D. Stratified random sampling.
9. The entire set of data about which the auditor wishes to draw conclusions is called
A. Population
B. Sample
C. Sampling frame
D. Sampling unit
10. A sample in which the characteristics in the sample are the same as those of the
population is
A. A random sample.
B. An attributes sample.
C. A variable sample.
D. A representative sample.
11. In sampling for tests of control, “error” refers to:
A. Deviations.
B. Misstatements.
C. Deviations and misstatement
D. Neither deviations nor misstatements.
12. An error that arises from an isolated event that has not recurred other than on
specifically identifiable occasions and is therefore not representative of errors in the
population is called:
A. Sampling error.
Auditing and Assurance Principles
materially misstated. It was, in fact, not materially misstated. This situation illustrates the
risk of
A. Incorrect rejection.
B. Incorrect acceptance.
C. Assessing control risk too low.
D. Assessing control risk too high.
20. The consequence of incorrect acceptance relates to the
A. Efficiency of audit.
B. Effectiveness of the audit
C. Preliminary estimates of materiality levels.
D. Allowable risk of tolerable error.
21. A sample in which every possible combination of items in the population has an equal
chance of constituting the sample is a
A. Representative sample.
B. Statistical sample.
C. Random sample.
D. Judgment sample.
22. The process which requires the calculations of an interval and then selects the items
base on the size of the interval is
A. Statistical sampling.
B. Random selection.
C. Systematic selection.
D. Computerize selection.
23. When performing a test of a control with respect to control over cash receipt, an
auditor may use a systematic sampling technique with a start at any randomly selected
item. The biggest disadvantage of this type of sampling is that the items in the
population:
A. Must be systematically replaced in the population after sampling.
B. May systematically occur more than once in the sample.
C. Must be recorded in a systematic pattern before the sample can be drawn.
D. May occur in systematic pattern, thus destroying the sample randomness.
24. When the auditor goes through a population and selects items for the sample without
regard to their size, source, or other distinguishing characteristics, it is called:
A. Block (cluster) selection.
B. Random selection.
C. Systematic selection.
D. Haphazard selection.
25. When selecting a stratified sample, the sample size is
A. Determined for the unstratified population and then apportioned to each stratum.
B. Determine for each stratum and selected from that stratum.
C. Determined for each stratum and selected randomly form the entire unstratified
population.
D. Always larger than if unstratified sampling has been used.
26. Statistical sampling may be applied to test controls when a client’s control procedures
Auditing and Assurance Principles
As a result of testing controls, the auditor assesses control risk too high and thereby
increases testing. This is illustrated by situation:
A. I
B. II
C. III
D. IV
Auditing and Assurance Principles
32. Refer to the table in Number 31. The risk assessing control risk too low is illustrated by
situation:
A. I
B. II
C. III
D. IV
33. Which of the following combinations results in a decrease in sample size for attributes?
A. Decrease in allowable risk of assessing control risk too low
B. Decrease in tolerable deviation rate
C. Decrease in expected population deviation rate
D. Cannot be determined without additional information
34. Which of the following statements is correct concerning statistical sampling in test of
controls?
A. The expected population deviation rate has little or no effect on determining sample
size except for very small populations.
B. As the population size doubles, the sample size also should double.
C. For a given tolerable rate, a larger sample size should be selected as the expected
population deviation rate decreases.
D. The population size has little or no effect on determining sample size except for a
very small population.
35. An auditor is testing internal control procedures that are evidenced on an entity’s
vouchers by matching random numbers with voucher numbers. If a random number
matches the number of avoided voucher, the voucher should ordinarily be replaced by
another voucher in random sample if the voucher
A. Constitutes deviation
B. Has been properly voided
C. Cannot be located
D. Represents an immaterial peso amount
36. The sample deviation rate equals
A. The number of deviation in the population divided by the sample size.
B. The number of items in the population multiplied by the number of deviations in the
sample.
C. The number of deviations in the sample divided by the sample size.
D. The number of deviations in the population divided by the sample size.
37. When assessing the tolerable rate, the auditor should consider that, while deviations
from control procedures increase the risk of material misstatements, such deviations do
not necessarily result in errors. This explains why
A. A recorded disbursement that does not show evidence of required approval may
nevertheless be a transaction that is properly authorized and recorded.
B. Deviation would result in errors in the accounting records only if the deviations and
the errors occurred on different transactions.
C. Deviations from pertinent control procedures at a given rate ordinarily would be
expected to result in errors in a higher rate.
Auditing and Assurance Principles
42. Tolerate error is a measure of the maximum monetary error that may exist in an account
balance without causing the financial statements to be materially misstate, and is directly
related to:
A. Reliability of evidence.
B. Audit risk .
C. Materiality.
D. Cost-benefit analysis.
43. The risk which the auditor is willing to take of acceptance a balance as correct when the
true error in the balance is equal to or greater than the tolerable misstatements is
A. The upper bound.
B. The acceptable risk of incorrect acceptance.
C. The tolerable risk.
D. The lower bound.
Auditing and Assurance Principles
44. Which of the following sample planning factors would influence the sample size for a
substantive test of details for a specific account?
A. Expected amount of misstatements.
B. Measure of tolerable misstatements.
C. Both a and b.
D. None of these.
45. A number of factors influences the sample size for a substantive test of details of an
account balance. All other factors being equal, which of the following would lead to a
larger sample size?
A. Greater reliance on internal controls.
B. Greater reliance on analytical procedures.
C. Smaller expected frequency of errors.
D. Smaller measure of tolerable misstatements.
46. How would increases in tolerable misstatements and assessed level of control risk
affect the sample size in a substantive test of details?
A. Increase,increase,respectively.
B. Increase,decrease,respectively.
C. Decrease,increase,respectively.
D. Decrease,decrease,respectively.
47. In statistical sampling methods used in substantive testing, when would an auditor most
likely stratify a population into meaningful groups?
A. If the population has highly variable recorded amounts.
B. If probability proportional to size sampling is used.
C. If the auditor’s estimated tolerable misstatement is extremely small.
D. If the standard deviation of recorded amounts is relatively small.
48. An auditor wishes to sample 200 sales receipt from a population of 5000 receipts issued
during last year. The receipts have preprinted serial numbers and are arranged in
chronological (and thus serial number) order. The auditor randomly chooses a receipt
form the first 25 receipts and then selects ever 25th receipt thereafter. The sampling
procedure described here is called
A. Random number sampling
B. Systematic selection
C. Judgment interval sampling
D. Variables sampling
49. Should errors in the sample be projected to the population?
A. Yes, because projection of errors is required by generally accepted accounting
standards.
B. No, because the sample misstatement is equal to the total misstatement.
C. Yes, because the misstatement in the sample is not necessarily the total
misstatement.
D. No, because the sample misstatement is larger than the total misstatement.
50. The final step in the evaluation of the audit results in substantive tests is the decision to:
A. Accept the population as fairly stated or to require further action.
B. Determine sampling error and total population error.
Auditing and Assurance Principles
Discussion Cases
Requirements:
1. Using ratio estimation, compute the compute the following:
a. Estimated audited value
b. Projected misstatement
2. Using difference estimation, compute for the projected misstatement.
3. Using mean-per-unit estimation, determine the estimated population value. Assume an
allowance for sampling risk of 200000.