EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY (PXGZ 6111)

ASSIGNMENT 1: INDIVIDUAL ASSIGNMENT

Title : Preschool children’s Foreign Language Vocabulary Learning by

Embodying Words through Physical Activity and Gesturing

Author : Konstantina Toumpaniari, Sofie Loyens, Myrto-Foteini Mavilidi,

Fred Paas

Introduction

This study is about preschool children’s foreign language vocabulary learning by

embodying words through physical activity and gesturing. The objective of this study

is to investigate whether combining both physical activities and gestures could

improve learning even more in a 4-week intervention program on foreign language

vocabulary learning in preschool children. In this study, there are three hypotheses to

discuss. First, this study is to hypothesize the condition in which words embody

through task-relevant physical activity and gesturing and the condition in which

words embody through task-relevant gesturing would lead to better learning outcomes

than the control condition. In addition, it is to hypothesize the condition in which

words embody through task-relevant physical activities and gestures would lead to

better learning outcomes than the condition in which words embody through gestures.

Lastly, it is to examine how much the children like to learn through task-relevant

physical activity and gesturing teaching method and whether they would like to be

taught with this method in the future. The quantitative research methodology was

used to guide the study. This is a quasi-experimental study in which three levels of

independent variable (type of embodiment) were compared in a between subjects

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designs. Instrument that used by researchers to gather data is individual post-test

which consisted of two parts. In this study, participants were 67 kindergarten 4-year

old students (30 boys and 37 girls), in three classes, from two kindergarten in Athens.

In this study, one-way analyses of variance (ANOVA) were performed to determine

the main effects of the independent variable instructional condition and directional

independent T tests were performed to determine the specific hypothesized

differences between instructional conditions.

My critic regarding this article:

Content

Based on my reading, term of physical activity and gestures are not clearly

interpreted in the literature review. According to the Department of Health and

Human Services (2008), physical activity generally refers to movement that enhances

health. Gestures are motor actions that often accompany speech, and are intertwined

with spoken content (McNeill, 1992; Krauss, 1998; Kelly et al., 2008). In my point of

view, term of those key words stated in abstract should distinctly explain in literature

review then only follow by the empirical evidence about relationship between

physical activity and gestures related to academic achievement in preschool children.

Besides that, it is significant to clarify more on the effects of physical activity

and gestures on preschool children’s foreign language vocabulary learning. Based on

Pesce et al. (2009) study the effects of physical activity on children’s memorization of

vocabulary words from a foreign language concluded that acute bouts of physical

activity might facilitate memory storage efficiency by minimizing rehearsal and

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shortening consolidation time. According to Rowe et al. (2013) declare gesturing can

be a powerful aid for long-term recall of complex learning such as learning first and

foreign languages in preschool children. Hence, empirical evidence above helps to

enhance the study’s validity and reliability.

In addition, researchers did not declare how physical activity and gestures

work in learning process. Therefore, it might lead to misunderstanding among readers

who wish to practice task-relevant learning method in their children or students. An

explanation for the positive effects on learning is that embodying knowledge through

making gestures results in a distinct, visual spatial representational format that can

enrich way information is coded, i.e., the construction of higher quality cognitive

schemas. Higher-quality cognitive schemas are associated with better and less

cognitively demanding learning which materializes in faster and more accurate

performance on a learning test (Goldin-Meadow et al., 2001; Paas & Sweller, 2012).

With the explanation above, perhaps it does provide right track for educators who

intend to practice task-relevant learning method.

Moreover, 67 kindergarten 4-year-old students (30 boys and 37 girls), in three

classes, from two kindergarten in Athens were selected as participants in this study.

Before the experiment, both teachers and parents were informed by the school

principal about the general procedure and permission was asked from mail or in

person. In this study, researchers did not mention how the selection of participants has

been done and it is based on what requirements. Same go with the experimenters who

taught and took place in the children’s classrooms. Researchers did not mention any

information about experimenters. In my opinion, it would influence the credibility of

data collection.

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 Furthermore, an individual post-test was administered to all participants of

each group in the end of the fourth week to evaluate the effectiveness of task-relevant

teaching method and to determine how many words they could remember. In the first

part of the post-test, children were asked to evaluate the teaching method by

answering two questions on a five-point Likert-type rating scale using verbal labels

and smiley scale. In the study, researchers only stated the smiley scale was used in

two studies with 239 adult participants and results revealed that the scale was reliable

and was not influenced by age, gender or education (Jager and Bortz, 2001).

Apart of this, I think researchers should provide proof to shows that how

suitable smiley scales to preschool children but not adults. In data gathering session

with children, Preece, et al. (2006) stated that if children are to be included in data

gathering session regardless of whatever data gathering methods used such as

interviews, questionnaires, observations and others, then child-friendly methods are

needed to make them feel at ease. For example, data gathering sessions need to rely

on images such as smiley faces for very young children of pre-reading or early

reading age. As a result, it would increase the justifiability of using smiley scales

among preschool children.

In the second part of the post-test, participants were individually tested to

determine how many words they could remember. The test was administered in a

cued-recall format, which in this case consisted of the experimenter saying the animal

word in Greek and participant saying the same animal word in English. In my point of

view, researchers are suggested to apply both pre and posttest evaluation. An

assessment tool that assess at the beginning and the end of a course is called pre and

posttest evaluation (Boston University Chabot, Mira, Chaffey, and Cabrillo Colleges

SLO, 2013). This is a direct evaluation of student learning which helps to evaluate the

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students’ progress throughout the semester. Hence, it is a beneficial tool that assists

researchers to find out the differences between before and after treatment.

Theory and Explanation

First, theory of cognitive development by Jean Piaget (1936) is related to this

study. Participants in this study are preschool children who are in the age of 4 until 6

years old. According to Jean Piaget (1936), every newborn will go through four major

stages of Cognitive Development. Participants involved in this study are bound into

the second stage of cognitive development which is pre-occupational stage. During

this stage, children start to use more symbols. Besides that, they have the ability to use

mental representations to make meaning of words, numbers, gestures and images.

Therefore, task relevant learning with physical activities and gesturing helps to

enhance preschool children in learning foreign language vocabulary. In my point of

view, this learning method leads to effective and fun learning rather than memorizing.

In the other hands, children in pre-occupational stage also develop language

skill. In this stage, their language becomes more mature. From the outcomes of study,

it shows that physical activities and gestures could improve learning among preschool

children. Thus, this study had attain the objective of the study which is to investigate

whether combining both physical activities and gestures could improve learning even

more in a 4-week intervention program on foreign language vocabulary learning in

preschool children. According to Jean Piaget (1936), children in this stage fail to

understand that some operations and actions can be reversed, restoring to their

original situation. This is most probably because they do not have the ability to

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understand complex concepts and words. Hence, physical activities and gesturing will

surely help preschool children in learning difficult foreign language vocabulary.

Another theory that can apply in this study is social learning theory by Albert

Bandura (1977). According to Bandura, children tend to observe people around them

and imitate their behaviors in various ways. Thus, task relevant learning method with

physical activities and gesturing helps preschool children learn by observing and

imitating what they see on others. Besides that, social learning theory potentially

affect individuals’ learning outcome by three elements, such as individual learners,

peers, and situations. Bandura (1977) explain that one’s academic performance can be

affect by individual or friends on various platforms. When children dealing with

friends through observations and interactions, it will impact their behavioral outcomes

such as academic achievement. As a result, it enhances their learning ability and

attitudes.

Suggestions to Improve this Research

One limitation of this study is the randomization procedure. More specifically,

in this study, while the classes were randomly assigned to the experimental conditions,

participants could not be randomly assigned to the conditions. This is a consequence

of conducting research in a practical setting with children of a very young age.

Therefore, my suggestion is select those participants of the community who are able

to provide related information. For example, I will cluster active preschool children in

the group of combining both physical activities and gestures learning method than

gentle and quiet participants.

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 Another limitations was the fact that no measure of fitness. For example,

through the use of pedometers, was used in this study which makes it impossible to

infer participants’ improvement in terms of fitness (Lubans et al. 2009). Hence, it is

recommended to future researchers to use measurement that provides a better

perspective of children’s physical improvement. Example, Castelli and colleagues

(2007) investigated younger children and the differential contributions of the various

subcomponents of the Fitnessgram®. Their findings corroborate those of the

California Department of Education (Grissom, 2005), indicating a general relationship

between fitness and achievement test performance.

Furthermore, another issue was that only one specific type of task which is

learning foreign language vocabulary and one specific type of memory test

(immediate cued recall) were used. In my point of view, future research needs to shed

light on the effects of embodied physical activities and gestures on a variety of tasks

such as Mathematics and Science and tests (free recall) in order to see whether the

effects can be generalized to other tasks. Six different conditions of physical activity

were completed by 106 2nd graders during physical education. Each physical activity

session was followed by 5 minutes of rest and the completion of 36 math problems.

Finding above shown that there is a potential threshold effect whereby only the 50-

minute condition improved mathematical performance, with no differences by gender

(Gabbard and Barton, 1979).

Explain Why Your Suggestions are Useful/Better

In my point of view, participant selection’s procedure is very important as it

will affect data collection during research. By referring to the objective of this study,

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it is to investigate whether combining both physical activities and gestures could

improve learning even more in a 4-week intervention program on foreign language

vocabulary learning in preschool children. Hence, I prefer participants who are active

preschool children in the group of combining both physical activities and gestures

learning method than gentle and quiet participants. Thus, my suggestion can be a

guide line for future researchers in order to select participants and conduct their

research in this filed.

Secondly, it is major to use an exact measurement to analyse data that has

been collected. Otherwise, those collected data is nothing and wasted. In this study,

there is no accurate measurement for fitness, so is impossible to infer participants’

improvement in terms of fitness (Lubans et al. 2009). As a result, it will affect

finding’s validity. In this situation, readers are unable to refer to the study’s finding in

their future research. Therefore, it is recommended to future researchers to use

measurement that provides a better perspective of children’s physical improvement.

Example, Castelli and colleagues (2007) investigated younger children and the

differential contributions of the various subcomponents of the Fitnessgram®.

Lastly, this study only focused on one specific type of task which is learning

foreign language vocabulary and also only one specific type of memory test

(immediate cued recall) were used. In my opinion, future researches needs to shed

light on the effects of embodied physical activities and gestures on a variety of tasks

such as Mathematics and Science. Besides that, different type of memory test such as

free recall test can be used in order to see whether the effects can be generalized to the

tasks. From this, it will expand findings about physical activities and gestures as

learning method in teaching young children.

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Application of the Research in Life and Reality

Today world’s is celebrating the improvements in education system which has

expended the scope of teaching and learning through play and technology. Fun

learning or task relevant learning without a doubt has brings the entire world into a

new generation. Somehow, new teaching and learning method like two sides of coin,

it will bring us both positive and negative sides. Hence, teachers should select the best

teaching method wisely in order to deliver knowledge to students as everyone is

different and unique. Fun has a positive effect on motivation levels. As a result, fun

and active learning will enhance student’s learning motivation and performance.

According to Light (2002), creativity in children is thought to be stimulated by

fun and humour, when the brain is more relaxed and is less bound by rules. The role

of fun and enjoyment is seen as a natural and important part of the learning process

for children. Therefore, this study helps and supports a variety of approaches to

learning that make learning more interesting and long term. Besides that, task relevant

learning method helps to develop speech, language and listening skills among

children. Through task relevant learning, multifunction is involved which children

listen and talk while they learn. Thus, it will enhance children’s communication and

listening skills.

When physical activity or gesturing is applied into learning, students need to

create and think deeper in order to deliver meaning. In my point of view, this will

helps them to exploring lots more ideas. In addition, children who engage physical

activity in learning normally perform better in Physical Education as physical activity

helps to improve children’s gross motor and movement. Lastly, task relevant learning

helps to build positive social skill among children. Children who often interact with

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peers learn how relationships work through their learning experiences. These early

relationships serve as a foundation for future adult interactions.

New learning method is not only benefit to teachers and students, it also help

parents who guide in their children’s learning. Task relevant learning can be applied

in home and it will likely enhance relationship between parents and children.

Therefore, future studies on this field are needed; so that more excellent teaching and

learning methods are explore to supplant the old and traditional ‘chalk and talk’

learning method.

Current Issues Regarding on Article

There are few issues facing in education:

1. Professional development. There are challenges on lack of adequate in

professional development for teachers. Teachers nowadays seems like

unprepared to integrate new teaching method into their classroom. Thus, they

are more to chalk and talk teaching method especially those older teachers.

They are unable to provide fun learning which combining physical activities

and gestures to their students. As a result, our education system will leave

behind and motivation of study will decrease if teachers are not able to

integrate new capabilities such as technology, fun teaching method into their

teaching.

2. Resistance to change. Changing from old method to new method is hard. One

of the hardest obstacles to overcome if students and teachers are done it this

way. In my opinion, teachers and students will be benefit if they change in

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 product. Sometimes, simply will be benefit if they change in product.

Sometimes, simply will not convince certain teachers or staffs to change in

new method. Due to this issue, Ministry of Education had implement several

new teaching methods such as High Order Thinking, 21 Century Teaching and

more among teachers.

3. Disappointing. Each student has a different learning style and traditional

instruction might not engage every student. From my teaching experience,

students who are fond of learning tend to have better performances than

students who used to memories in their learning. Therefore, teachers play an

important role to integrate new learning methods among students. Providing

hands-on learning options and assignments will give students something

different and encourage movement that can help reduce behavioural problems

related to boredom, attention disorders or similar situations.

Conclusion

As a conclusion, task relevant teaching method which contains physical

activity and gesturing will lead to the good and bad among young age children as

everyone has different learning ability and attitude. Without doubt, a new wave

teaching method will definitely lead to fun and active learning. Novice teachers are

encouraged to apply modern teaching method in deliver knowledge. For example,

group discussion or station games are good to enhance student’s positive learning

attitude and creativity. In my point of view, new learning method is not only benefit

to teachers and students, it also help parents who guide in their children’s learning.

Task relevant learning can be applied in home and it will likely boost up relationship

between parents and children. Therefore, it is fine to explore more excellent teaching

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and learning methods to supplant the old and traditional ‘chalk and talk’ learning

method.

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