Journal of Hydrology 409 (2011) 407–422

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Journal of Hydrology
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jhydrol

Electrical methods (VES and ERT) for identifying, mapping and monitoring
different saline domains in a coastal plain region (Alt Empordà, Northern Spain)
Mario Zarroca a,⇑, Joan Bach a, Rogelio Linares a, Xavier M. Pellicer b
a
External Geodynamics and Hydrogeology Group, Autonomous University of Barcelona, E-08193-Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain
b
Geological Survey of Ireland, Beggars Bush, Haddington Road, Dublin 4, Ireland

a r t i c l e i n f o s u m m a r y

Article history: The spatial variability through time of the degree of salinity of soils and groundwater is a major issue con-
Received 3 June 2011 cerning the sustainable management of water resources. The problem is accentuated in coastal plain
Received in revised form 5 August 2011 areas where saline bodies of different origin coexist.
Accepted 15 August 2011
We present an extensive geoelectrical resistivity dataset collected in the Alt Empordà clastic coastal
Available online 1 September 2011
This manuscript was handled by Geoff
aquifer system (NE Spain) integrating the results of field campaigns undertaken within a period of more
Syme, Editor-in-Chief than two decades. The dataset is unique in the literature and comprises highly valuable information for
the investigation of saline domains. The joint application of Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) and Elec-
Keywords:
trical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) methods allowed the identification of saline domains and monitoring
Salinity of soils and water their evolution through time.
Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) surveys Geophysical data gathered during field campaigns in 1982, 2002 and 2010 were calibrated and inter-
Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) preted on the basis of soil and groundwater physico-chemical analyses and hydrogeological, stratigraphic
Geophysical mapping and geomorphological data.
Coastal plain The results illustrate the potential of electrical resistivity methods at differentiating saline domains in
coastal aquifer areas and at modelling their configuration and evolution. Although the VES data process-
ing allows solving the one-dimensional resistivity structure of the subsurface, the inversion imposes a 1D
layered model, thus interpretation of two-dimensional structures is subject to the interpolation between
discrete measures. In contrast, ERT data offer a continuous 2D-image of the resistivity distribution, both
laterally and in depth. Given that the bulk resistivity of the medium is extremely sensitive to salt content,
the ERT profiles permitted identifying and determining the geometry of hyper-saline areas (characterized
by resistivities of less than 5 X m).
The study demonstrates the efficiency of the electrical methods to map subsurface conductive zones
and illustrates how the accurate knowledge of the hydrogeological pattern results critical to meet this
objective.
Ó 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
About 50% of the world’s population lives in coastal areas, a fig-
ure which will probably rise to 75% during this century (Finkl,
1994). Coastal occupation is especially intense in the Mediterra-
nean region and in particular in the NE coast of Spain, where tradi-
tional farming practices coexist with residential, industrial and
tourism activities (Geis et al., 2006).
The salinization of the environment in coastal plain areas limits
the supply of fresh water and damages areas of valuable land use
(Vandenbohede et al., 2009). Activities such as agriculture are se-
verely limited by the presence of saline soils. The world loses about
10 ha of arable land every minute, 3 ha of which are lost by
⇑ Corresponding author. Address: Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Facultad
de Ciencias, Edificio C2, Despacho C2-114, 08193 Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain. Tel.:
+34 935812033, 649519770; fax: +34 935811263.
E-mail address: mario.zarroca.hernandez@uab.cat (M. Zarroca).
salinization (Ghassemi et al., 1995). This is one of the main prob-
lems in arid zones leading to land desertification (Amezketa,
2006; Dahlhaus et al., 2010; UNEP, 1991).
Salinization is the process whereby the concentration of dis-
solved salts in water and soil is increased by natural or human-in-
duced processes (Ghassemi et al., 1995). The processes responsible
for the development of saline medium are complex and intimately
related to the transport of dissolved mass in groundwater flow sys-
tems (Schwartz et al., 1987). However, natural geologic processes
can also yield saline and brackish water at inland locations (Jones
et al., 1999). Examples encompass entrapment of fossil seawater
during deposition or during periods of eustatic sea-level rise,
sea-spray accumulation, evaporite-rock dissolution, saline-
groundwater displacement via natural advection or density-driven
convection, leaking aquitards through fault systems and deep
flows permeating through the bedrock (e.g. Bridger and Allen,
2006; Groen et al., 2000; Kooi et al., 2000; Stevens et al., 2009;

0022-1694/$ - see front matter Ó 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.08.052
408 M. Zarroca et al. / Journal of Hydrology 409 (2011) 407–422

Van Dam et al., 2009). Understanding the distribution and origin of
saline waters in an aquifer is a key factor to recognize boundary
conditions influencing their movement and response to
abstraction.
Human activity in coastal areas often results in increased soil
and water salinity. The main causes are intensive farming (e.g. Car-
dona et al., 2004) and overexploitation of aquifers with consequent
seawater intrusion (in the context of the Mediterranean coast, e.g.
Calvache and Pulido-Bosch, 1997; Capaccionia et al., 2005; Duque
et al., 2008; Morell et al., 2008; Stamatis and Voudouris, 2003; Yao-
uti et al., 2009). Marine intrusion is in many parts of the world the
most severe problem facing coastal aquifers exploited for water
supply, being also an excellent aquifer resources indicator (Amer,
1995; Custodio, 1997; Todd and Mays, 2005). Moreover, decon-
tamination of areas penetrated by seawater is a rather complex
process, thus preventing the appearance and development of this
process is crucial (Duque et al., 2008).
The development of preventive management tools, based on the
knowledge of the environmental salinity and its evolution, is crit-
ical (Demirel, 2004; Karageorgis et al., 2006; Polemio et al., 2006;
Water Framework Directive, 2000). The current situation of cli-
mate change exacerbates the problem in coastal areas (Crossland
et al., 2005). On a longer timescale, sea level rise and variation of
the recharge rates associated to global climate change may influ-
ence the water cycle and threaten the valuable fresh water re-
serves (Vandenbohede et al., 2008). Numerous aquifers are
already stressed from a quality, quantity or ecological point of view
due to overexploitation and pollution and therefore remedies and/
or alternative water management strategies must be explored
(Vandenbohede et al., 2009).
Although the presence of salinity in coastal aquifers has been
widely studied, the source of this salinity remains in many cases
unclear (Lloyd et al., 1982). Monitoring of saline domains is essen-
tial to determine and predict groundwater and soils deterioration,
and assess the groundwater resources management in coastal
aquifers. Monitoring involves designing a field survey strategy
and methodology to obtain a reliable dataset (Melloul and Golden-
berg, 1997). Monitoring campaigns can be implemented with di-
rect (boreholes and sampling) or indirect (geophysical survey)
research methods or a combination of both. Direct methods are
generally expensive, especially for large study areas. It is in that
context that inexpensive electrical techniques, such as the geo-
physical prospecting methods, are the most suitable (Land et al.,
2004).
The main aim of this work is studying the variation of salinity in
quaternary coastal aquifers within the Mediterranean region. Geo-
physical techniques are used to detect and monitor saline domains
in a deltaic system. The Alt Empordà coastal plain (Fig. 1) was con-
sidered a suitable case study area because: (i) it is one of the main
aquifer systems in NE Spain, highly vulnerable to salinization due
to its detrital nature; (ii) groundwater salinity problems detected
in the early 1980s forced the closure of a number of groundwater
extraction wells and the implementation of changes in the water
supply management (Mas-Pla et al., 1999); (iii) the reduction in
groundwater removal caused significant variation of the potentio-
metric level of numerous aquifer units, compared to their status in
the early 1980s; (iv) a dataset comprising over a 20 year period is
available for the site.
2. Study area
2.1. Geological setting
The study area is located in the Alt Empordà lowlands. The area
was shaped during an extensional tectonic episode occurring in the
eastern margin of the Iberian Peninsula throughout the Neogene
and the Quaternary (Maillard and Mauffret, 1999). The Alt Emp-
ordà basin is defined by a normal fault system with direction
NW–SE (Fig. 1A) overlying the Pyrenees formations and the

Fig. 1. Location of study area and geological setting. Alt Empordà coastal plain covers an area of 130 km2, and has a shoreline about 19 km long. (A) Synthetic geological map
illustrating the main tectonic and lithological units. (1) Quaternary sediments. (2) Neogene and Quaternary volcanic rocks. (3) Neogene sedimentary rocks. (4) Paleogene
sedimentary rocks. (5) Mesozoic sedimentary rocks. (6) Paleozoic granitoids. (7) Paleozoic metasedimentary rocks. (8) Faults. (9) Thrusts. (10) Study area. (B) Schematic map
showing the recent evolution of the Alt Empordà delta. (11) Inactive deltaic lobes (arrows indicate the contribution direction). (12) Second generation of inactive deltaic lobes.
(13) Inner lagoon and marsh areas, zones with no patterns correspond to those areas with evidence of fresh groundwater contributions. (14) Beach ridges and salt marsh
zones (arrows indicate progradation). (15) Coastal lagoon. (16) Pre-Holocene bedrock. (17) Present river system. (18) Main fractures controlling the sedimentation of the
upper deltaic complex. A synthetic cross-section illustrating these morphological units is shown in Fig. 2.
 M. Zarroca et al. / Journal of Hydrology 409 (2011) 407–422 409

Fig. 2. (A) Geometry of the main aquifer units in the Alt Empordà deltaic complex: (a) aquifer; (b) low permeability aquitard; (c) basement; (d) pleistocene faults; (e) uplift;
(f) subsidence; (g) boundary between the upper and lower deltaic complex; (h) Sea level. (B) Synthetic cross section based on geophysical data from this study and compiled
reconnaissance boreholes. Pre-Quaternary basement; Pliocene. (1) Marls. Quaternary: Lower Deltaic Complex (Q1–Q3). (2) Sand, silt and clay, continental and marine
sediments. (3) Gravel, Fluvial channels, beach or alluvial fans. (4) Sand, discontinuous beach. Upper Deltaic Complex (Q4). (5) Fine sand, silt and clay, prodelta. (6) Fine to
coarse sand, delta front. (7) Gravel with clay and sand matrix, Fluvial channels, alluvial fans. (8) Fine sand to clay, flood plain and swamp. (9) Marsh.

foreland alpine basin (Saula et al., 1996). The north Alt Empordà
lowlands is outlined by a higher ground area conformed of pre-
extensive bedrock (Fig. 1A), which is defined by: (i) the Pyrenees
at the northeast margin, composed of Palaeozoic metamorphic
and plutonic rocks; (ii) the Montgri Mountain at the south margin,
formed by the frontal parts of a south shifting thrust sheet com-
posed of Mesozoic limestone and marly limestone and (iii) the Ser-
ralada Transversal to the west, composed of a 2000 m thick
sedimentary section of continental and marine deposits of Palaeo-
gene age lifted up during the alpine orogeny. The sediments depos-
ited in the lowlands area during and subsequent to the tectonic
extension are of Neogene and Quaternary age.
Sedimentary processes in the Alt Empordà Basin all through the
Neogene were associated with tectonic extension, sea level change
and a number of volcanic eruptions. The deposits encompass allu-
vial and coastal-marine sediments of varying thickness. The sedi-
mentary basin geometry controls their irregular thicknesses,
reaching a maximum known depth of 1000 m (Saula et al., 1996).
The Quaternary sediments deposited in the Alt Empordà deltaic
infill encompass a Pleistocene sedimentary lower deltaic complex
overlain by an upper deltaic complex of Holocene age. These set-
tings are also observed in most Mediterranean deltaic systems
(e.g. Tesson et al., 2005). Data from previous research (Bach,
1986–1987, 1990; MOP, 1971) and from borehole and Vertical
Electrical Sounding (VES) compiled for this project permitted to
delineate the approximate geometry of these units (Fig. 2). The
maximum thickness recorded by mechanic boreholes reach 60 m,
see register of hydrogeological–geotechnical boreholes and wells
compiled by the authors. The lower deltaic complex (Pleistocene)
is located in the central sector of the plain (Fig. 2A). Narrow infill
palaeo-valleys are carved in Pliocene deposits; these palaeo-
valleys run parallel to the main Pleistocene faults recorded in the
area (Sant Climent fault to the north and Figueres-la Jonquera fault
to the south) indicating a tectonic control on their genesis. The
sharp change in slope of the pre-Quaternary deposits (Fig. 2A,
cross-sections 2–4), probably related to the continued tectonic
activity of these faults during the Quaternary, favours the hydraulic
disconnection of the deep aquifers from the surficial ones. The
detailed chronostratigraphy of this lower deltaic complex is
unknown; however, deltaic systems with equivalent settings
(Ercilla, 1992; Gámez, 2007; Gámez et al., 2009; Rabineau et al.,
2005, 2006) show that the youngest sequence is older than 45 ky.
The upper deltaic complex presents increasing thickness from
25 m inland to 50 m along the coastline (Fig. 2A). It is inferred from
correlation with data collected in the Llobregat Delta (Gámez et al.,
2009; Gámez, 2007) that this sedimentary complex corresponds to
a single depositional sequence. Chronological data is not available
for our study area. Research carried out in nearby deltaic systems –
Gulf of Lions, Catalonia Shelf, Almeria Gulf, Iberian region, Rhone,
Llobregat, Tordera and Ebro Deltas – indicate that these sedimen-
tary complexes developed throughout a number of stages (Boyer
et al., 2005; Ercilla et al., 1994; Falgàs, 2007; Gámez et al., 2009;
Goy et al., 2003; Rabineau et al., 2005, 2006; Serra et al., 2007;
Somoza et al., 1998; Tesson et al., 2005; Vella et al., 2005; Zazo
et al.,1996). A rapid sea-level rise between 15,000 and 6900 yr BP
triggered the migration of beach barrier-lagoon-estuary systems
forming retrogradational–aggradational stacking patterns. After
the transgressive period, the deceleration of the sea level rise and
changes in the sediment supply pattern played a key role in the
emplacement of the highstand deposits, which prompted progra-
dation. The main Holocene palaeo-delta lobes were deposited from
4000 to 2000 yr BP.
Main geomorphological units (Fig. 1B) were delineated by the
stereographic analysis of aerial photography at 1:33,000 scale from
years 1956–1957. Human activity in the area during this period
was still fairly limited, permitting the identification of the main
features defining a number of depositional environments. This
dataset showing such a low human activity makes the study area
unique in the context of the NE Spain coastal aquifer systems.
The relief was homogenized as the human activity increased and
these subtle geomorphological features were gradually removed
from the landscape.
2.2. Hydrogeology
The deltaic complex comprises a leaky aquifer system com-
posed of a shallow aquifer and several deep aquifers separated
by silt and clay layers encompassing low to medium permeability
(Mas-Pla et al., 1999). The shallow aquifer corresponds to coarse
postglacial highstand deposits, whereas the deep aquifers are
410 M. Zarroca et al. / Journal of Hydrology 409 (2011) 407–422

associated to postglacial and Pleistocene transgressive deposits
encountered in most of the Mediterranean deltaic plains (Aguzzi
et al., 2006).
Two main aquifers are recognized in the upper deltaic complex
(Bach, 1990; MOP, 1971). The shallow aquifer is dominated by fine
sand underlain by gravel at its base, slightly over 20 m thick along
the coastline (Fig. 2A) and pinching out inland, where it is com-
posed of interstratified sand and gravel (Fig. 2A). The piezometric
level presents significant seasonal variation accentuated during ex-
treme recharge episodes. Fig. 3A illustrates the piezometric evolu-
tion from 1984 to 2009, showing an average seasonal variation of
2 m from 1985 to 1987, and of 4 m during periods of intensive
groundwater extraction. Hydrochemical analyses of water samples
reveal differing composition by area (Fig. 3C). Water samples col-
lected from the inland area of the Muga River basin (Fig. 3C) are
rich in calcium bicarbonate and encompass electrical conductivity

Fig. 3. (A) Hydrogeological features of the upper deltaic complex aquifers. Potentiometric evolution between 1984 and 2009 in Muga area, P1 corresponds to the shallow
aquifer (A) and P2 to the deep aquifer (B). Location of P1 and P2 is shown in Fig. 4 (data obtained from the monitoring network database of the Agència Catalana de l’Aigua).
Hydrochemistry: Piper Diagram for sampling conducted in 2001 for both the Muga and the Fluvià areas: 22 samples from shallow aquifer (C) and 13 samples from deep
aquifer (D).
 M. Zarroca et al. / Journal of Hydrology 409 (2011) 407–422
Table 1
Water tritium content.
Environment Tritium content Sampling date
(UT)
36 1980
Rainwater 29 1981
17 1982
Shallow aquifer I – upper deltaic 35 August 1982
complex
Deep aquifer II – upper deltaic 45 August 1982
complex
Lower deltaic complex aquifer 3 April 1982–
1984
(r) lower than 1000 lS/cm, whereas water collected along the
coast are rich in sodium chloride and exhibit conductivities of
1000–5000 lS/cm. On the other hand, the Fluvià River basin com-
prises calcium sulfate rich water presenting conductivities lower
than 1500 lS/cm. Moreover, the particularly uniform tritium con-
tent (Table 1) denote a mixture of fairly homogeneous water,
implying the contribution of waters at least 2 years old at the time
of sample collection.
The deep aquifer of the upper deltaic complex consist of a con-
tinuous body encompassing thickness between 5 and 10 m, located
at 50–60 m depth at the seashore and gradually raising to 20–30 m
depth inland (Fig. 2A). Measurements of its piezometric level show
that this is a confined aquifer with a hydraulic head (higher than
the shallow unconfined aquifer) at over 0 m altitude during most
of the survey time (1984–2009), except for the summer months
with increasing demand and lower recharge, and a period of over-
exploitation of the aquifer from 1984 to 1987 (Fig. 3B). The chem-
ical composition of this aquifer points to similar hydrochemical
facies to the ones described in the shallow aquifer (Fig. 3D). Con-
ductivity values in the Fluvià Basin are generally under 1500 lS/
cm, whereas, values over 5000 lS/cm are observed in the Muga Ba-
sin. The increased salinization of the deep aquifer in the Muga area
can be explained by the following: (i) deep discharges occur across
the fault system located in the northern sector; (ii) the lower con-
tribution capacity of the Muga basin (853 km2) against the Fluvià
basin (1123 km2) implies a lower groundwater capacity to coun-
teract saline intrusion. The high tritium content of the aquifer (Ta-
ble 1) denoted that the continued aquifer exploitation caused a
relatively rapid circulation, of about 16 months, which difficulted
the homogenization of water from different rainfall events.
The main aquifers of the lower deltaic complex correspond to
confined sand and gravel units. The deepest levels are placed at
depths of around 70 m in the inland area and at more than 85 m
along the shoreline. These levels, presenting low groundwater
extraction, encompass conductivities of less than 1000 lS/cm in-
land and over 5000 lS/cm along the coast. This lower deltaic com-
plex presents rather low and uniform groundwater tritium content
(Table 1); slow groundwater flow of more than 30 years with lim-
ited recharge is inferred from this.
The continuity of the assemblage of aquifer units from the on-
shore areas to inner areas is unknown. However, data presented
by Ercilla (1992) on the offshore of the North Catalan shelf indi-
cates that the main confined aquifer units (Pleistocene and Postgla-
cial aquifers) are poorly preserved along the inner shelf. The poor
preservation of these aquifers is associated to the Pyrenean uplift,
which produced the tilting of the regressive deposits along the
middle and outer shelf. The combination of the Pyrenean uplift
and a probable reduction of the sediment supply rate during sea le-
vel rise leaded to the virtual disappearance offshore of the trans-
gressive systems tract – TST – (Ercilla and Alonso, 1996).
Transgressive deposits of different TST correspond to interstratified
sand and gravel, which constitute aquifer units located at the base
of each of the depositional sequences. The hydrogeological
411
implication of thin or absent TST units is obvious: onshore aquifers
are well protected from salinization. Under groundwater extrac-
tion conditions, seawater penetration depends on the connectivity
of the aquifer to the sea. Transgressive aquifers poorly connected
to the sea imply low vulnerability to seawater penetration (Gámez,
2007).
3. Methods
Geoelectric prospecting has been shown to be suitable geophys-
ical method for hydrogeological and soils studies (e.g. Cimino et al.,
2008; Samouëlian et al., 2005). Direct-current (DC) electrical imag-
ing is one of the most efficient and powerful techniques for map-
ping fresh/saltwater interfaces in coastal environments (e.g. de
Franco et al., 2009; Kruse et al., 1998; Nowroozi et al., 1999).
3.1. Soil and groundwater physico-chemical analyses
The interpretation of VES and ERT surveys requires that the
relationship between the sediments/groundwater and its resistiv-
ity is established independently. In order to calibrate the results
obtained from VES and ERT surveys; 70 soil and water samples
collected from 29 boreholes of 1.5 m depth were analyzed, in a
laboratory, for resistivity. The system used for resistivity measure-
ments was a Megger null balance device. Water conductivity was
determined in the field using a portable conductivimeter. The soil
salinity was assessed by measuring the electrical conductivity – in-
verse of electrical resistivity – of the soil solution (Rhoades et al.,
1999). The extract electrical conductivity (r), was determined fol-
lowing a established methodology (USSL Staff, 1954).
In addition to the resistivity/conductivity measures, further
physico-chemical parameters were determined: texture, plasticity,
moisture and chloride content. Porosity (U) of clean sand samples
and the formation factor (F), defined as the relationship between
bulk resistivity (q) and water resistivity (qw), assuming that the
samples are completely saturated were estimated using Archie’s
law (Archie, 1942; Winsauer et al., 1952):
q
F¼ ¼ aUm ð1Þ
qw
We adopted a value for the coefficients a = 0.9 and m = 1.35,
following the sediments characteristics proposed by Keller (1988).
3.2. Geophysical survey
3.2.1. Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES)
The Schlumberger VES has been widely used for the identifica-
tion of seawater intrusion in coastal aquifers and for hydrogeolog-
ical characterization of sabkhas (Al-Sayed and El-Qadi, 2007;
Asfahani, 2007; Choudhury et al., 2001; Cimino et al., 2008; Khalil,
2006; Shaaban, 2001).
VES data collection was conducted in two campaigns separated
by a period of 20 years. The first campaign took place at the start of
intensive exploitation of the aquifers during the summer 1982. It
consisted of 95 VES with maximum electrode aperture AB/2 of
250 m and generally oriented perpendicular to the coastline
(Fig. 4). Given the expected low resistivity values, a GEOTRON
resistivity meter with an non-polarizable electrode system was
used for data acquisition. The second campaign took place in au-
tumn 2002 and consisted of 69 VES, with maximum electrode
aperture AB/2 of 215.4 m. Urban development in the study area
constrained the location of the VES, and thus the profiles could
not be located in the exact same position of those of the previous
campaign. However, eight of the VES were collected with an
acceptable degree of concordance with those defined in 1982
412 M. Zarroca et al. / Journal of Hydrology 409 (2011) 407–422
Fig. 4. (A) Location of pseudo-cross-section generated by VES interpolation: (1)
1982 and (2) 2002. (3) ERT profiles. (4) Wells and boreholes showing stratigraphic
data. (5) Boreholes for potentiometric level monitoring. (6) Town. (B) Enlarged map
of a northwest sector of the study area illustrating the location of the ERT profiles.
(Fig. 4). Data acquisition was conducted with a GEOTRADE resistiv-
imeter GTR-2, equipped with power unit AWG 6/1 and a non-
polarizable electrode system, site location was supported by a
handheld GPS system.
Apparent resistivity (qa) data processing and interpretation was
carried out with the software package from Moscow State Univer-
sity IPI2WIN version 3.0.1.e (Bobachev et al., 2003). The package al-
lows the inversion of the apparent resistivity measurements and
the production of apparent resistivity pseudosections by the inter-
polation of a number of VES. The constructed pseudosections pro-
vided only qualitative information. However, these permitted
identifying the different domains, especially those of high salinity,
and illustrating the resistivity variation between 1982 and 2002. In
order to confirm this assertion, the results of the inversion of VES
as 1D layered model (q) were superimposed over the 1D pseudo-
sections (qa). The geoelectrical data obtained in the two stages al-
lowed the analysis of both: vertical (pseudo cross-sections) and
horizontal depth slices (apparent resistivity maps). The obtained
cross-sections are represented with logarithmic AB/2 vertical scale,
thus the resistivity variation of the areas close to the surface are
emphasized.
3.2.2. Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT)
ERT has become an increasingly widespread method, over the
last decade, to map the electrical resistivity of the subsurface
(e.g. Griffiths and Barker, 1993; Loke and Barker, 1996). The meth-
od allows imaging groundwater salinity with relatively high spatial
resolution (Bauer et al., 2006). ERT and multielectrode systems
have been used in the identification of saltwater penetration and
are considered particularly efficient for; time lapse monitoring of
saltwater intrusion dynamics (e.g. Adepelumi et al., 2009; Bauer
et al., 2006; Martínez et al., 2009; Poulsen et al., 2010): salt tracer
movements and: migration of contaminant plumes (Cassiani et al.,
2006).
Two ERT profiles orientated perpendicularly to the coastline
were collected in May 2010 to evaluate the electrical measure-
ments obtained by VES (Fig. 4B). The ERT survey data was sup-
ported by mechanic boreholes located next to the profiles
(Fig. 4). The profiles were collected with a multi-electrode ABEM
Lund Imaging System, composed of a Terrameter SAS 4000 (four
channel) with an electrode selector ES10-64, with 64 electrodes
spaced at 5 m intervals covering a total length of 315 m. Profile 1
was collected with a non-conventional multiple gradient array
(GR) (Dahlin and Zhou, 2002, 2004), whereas, the combined Wen-
ner-Sclumberger array (WS) was used for Profile 2. The first config-
uration yielded increased depth of investigation; enhanced the
delineation of lateral changes and; delivered a significant reduction
in survey acquisition time over the second method. Both methods
were equally effective at identifying the saline domains. However,
the image obtained by the GR array required a greater degree of
noise filtering as the small spacing of potential electrodes causes
a poorer signal-to-noise ratio than the WS array (Dahlin and Zhou,
2004).
The inversion of the measured qa values was carried out within
the software package RES2DINV v.3.55 from Geotomo Software.
The package constructs a resistivity model of the subsurface based
on iterative smoothness-constrained least squares (Loke and Bar-
ker, 1996).
4. Results and discussion
4.1. Relationship at sample scale between water conductivity, bulk
resistivity, nature of sediments and salinity
The analysis of measured and determined data allowed estab-
lishing an experimental relationship between bulk resistivity and
salinity for the study area. Samples were collected from boreholes
at depths of 1.5 m. Petrophysical analysis was focused in textural
features only, thus it is considered representative enough as to
establish a reasonable extrapolation to greater depths, since all
the sediments are of alluvial origin. The measured bulk resistivity
varies between 1.5 and 175 X m, with the exception of an anoma-
lously high value of 488 X m. Generally, values below 30 X m
characterize clayey sediments, while values over 30 X m relate to
sandy and clayey sandy sediments.
Bulk resistivity values are particularly sensitive to the porosity
of the sediments, the water content, the mineralization of the
water and the texture (e.g. McNeill, 1980). The bulk resistivity will
result from the combination of these factors. However, it is difficult
to precisely determine which of the mentioned factors is the most
significant and, therefore, governs the recorded bulk resistivity
value. The analysis must allow us to define a resistivity trend to
identify the soil salinity variation.
The results obtained from comparing physico-chemical
variables against bulk resistivity are presented in Fig. 5 and can
be summarized as follows: (i) the bulk resistivity for sandy mate-
rials is strongly governed by its fluid conductivity; (ii) the bulk
resistivity of clayey materials is likewise influenced by fluid con-
ductivity and by the salts retained by the clayey minerals; (iii)
the relationship between bulk and 1:5 extract resistivity (q1:5)
 M. Zarroca et al. / Journal of Hydrology 409 (2011) 407–422 413

Fig. 5. Physico-chemical data analysis at sample scale: (A) Bulk resistivity against 1:5 extract resistivity for saturated samples. (B) Bulk resistivity against 1:5 extract
resistivity for unsaturated samples. Clayey samples follow linear function with R2 = 0.82. Intermediate and sandy samples follow an exponential function with R2 = 0.67. (C)
Bulk resistivity against water electrical conductivity. Clayey, intermediate and sandy samples, as a whole, tend to a potential function with R2 = 0.85. As separate entities,
clays tend to a linear function R2 = 0.30 and intermediate and sands tend to a linear function R2 = 0.61. (D) Bulk resistivity against chloride content (1:5 extract content).
Clayey, intermediate and sandy sample, as a group, tend to a potential function with R2 = 0.78. As separate entities, clays tend to a linear function R2 = 0.88 and intermediate
and sands tend to a linear function R2 = 0.39.

(Fig. 5A and B) for saturated samples differs from unsaturated ones.
Bulk resistivity is lower than q1:5 for saturated samples, either for
clayey, intermediate and sandy materials (Fig. 5A). This is consis-
tent with the fact that the addition of water reduces the salt con-
centration in the paste. On the other hand, the relationship bulk
resistivity – q1:5 for unsaturated samples depends on the texture
(Fig. 5B); the bulk resistivity for clayey samples is lower than the
q1:5, whereas it is higher for sandy and intermediate samples, the
relationship between bulk resistivity and fluid conductivity
supports this assertion (Fig. 5C). Clayey samples show higher
414 M. Zarroca et al. / Journal of Hydrology 409 (2011) 407–422
dispersion against fluid conductivity than the sandy and interme-
diate ones. In contrast, the bulk resistivity of the clayey samples
shows a higher relationship with its salt content than that pre-
sented by sandy and intermediate samples (Fig. 5D). The relation-
ship between bulk resistivity and Cl concentration of 1:5 extract –
expressed as mg/L – in the Alt Empordà coastal plain is governed
by the following empirically derived function:
q ¼ 118  ðCl Þ0:6
The low permeability and the high capacity of absorption and
adsorption of clays contribute to the increase of ions concentration.
Therefore, textural and mineralogical characteristics condition the
retention of salts in sediment, somewhat independently of the con-
tributions produced by current brackish water flows. The presence
of salt in congenital waters was confirmed in the neighboring area
of the Lower Ter, where concentrations of up to 24,000 mg/l of
chlorides were measured in aquitards dominated by silts (Domen-
ech and Batista, 1983). Taking into account Eq. (2) and assuming
that soil concentration is six times 1:5 extract concentration, fine
sediments with chloride content over 1200 mg/l are considered
as saline domain. Values of bulk resistivity between 0.5 and
1 X m (measured in some locations within the study area) may
represent concentrations of chloride higher than those reported
by Domenech and Batista (1983).
The main purpose of the analyses performed at sample scale
was to distinguish between fresh and salt water and between fine
and coarse textured sediments. The results of these analyses show
that the influence of salinity on the resistivity of the medium dom-
inates over the texture thus, sands saturated with brackish water
and fine sediments rich in salts (saturated or unsaturated) present
an analogous geoelectrical behavior, characterized by low bulk
resistivity.
The following general trend is proposed for the calibration of
VES and ERT surveys in detrital materials: bulk resistivity higher
than 30 X m corresponds to sandy and intermediate formations;
values between 30 and 5 X m characterize clayey formations or
sandy formations with brackish water; values below 5 X m are
indicative of a high concentration of salts, regardless of the grain
size (Table 2). The threshold of 5 X m, as the upper bulk resistivity
limit of high salinity areas of unconsolidated detrital sediments, is
not unique to our working area. Equivalent aquifer systems in the
Mediterranean area (e.g. Duque et al., 2008; Martínez et al., 2009 in
the South of Spain; Cimino et al., 2008 in Northern Sicily; Asfahani,
2007 in Khanasser valley, Syria) and in other regions (e.g. Wilson
et al., 2006 in a Holocene coastal plain of the New Zealand North
Island) encompassed similar registers.
4.2. Salinity-resistivity of the Alt Empordà coastal plain
The resistivity measurements collected in the Alt Empordà
coastal plain consist of geoelectrical cross-sections, pseudo-
Table 2
Soil salinity classification for case study.
a b c d
Class q (X m) q1:5 (X m) Grain size Cl (mg L1)
1 <5 <10 Variable >1200
2 5–10 10–20 Fine 1200–360
3 10–30 20–60 Fine <360
4 >30 >60 Coarse
a
Number class.
b
Bulk resistivity.
c
1:5 extract resistivity.
d
Cl concentration for fine sediments.
e
Qualitative estimation of salinity.
resistivity cross-sections, resistivity 2D imaging and apparent
resistivity maps.
The interpretation of the resistivity data is based on data anal-
yses of the collected samples, geomorphological mapping (Fig. 1B)
and knowledge of the subsurface stratigraphy and hydrogeology
(Figs. 2 and 4). The geophysical measurements alone illustrate
the occurrence of anomalies (Fig. 4); however, the integration of
the geological and geophysical data permitted differentiating the
ð2Þ saline domains and recognizing their spatial variation between
1982 and 2002.
4.2.1. Geoelectrical sections, pseudo-cross-sections 1D and ERT 2D
imaging
Resistivity pseudosections are compared with resistivity values
obtained from the inversion of VES as a 1D layered model. The re-
sult shows a reasonable correlation between both datasets (Figs. 6
and 7). Detailed visual analysis of the pseudosections illustrates a
spatial variation of the salinity conditions. Three separate low
resistivity settings (q < 5 X m) are recognized. Two deep saline do-
mains, a first one of limited thickness (type A) and a second one
exhibiting greater extent in depth (type B) are depicted at the east
end of the profiles, next to the coastline. On the other hand, shal-
low saline domains (type C) are recognized inland. Visual analysis
of pseudosections 3, 4, 5, 8 and 9 (Figs. 6 and 7) indicate that there
is no apparent interconnection between the type A–B and the type
C saline domains, especially for the shallower 5–10 m. Domains
type B are interpreted as marine intrusion in the classical sense.
Domains type A correspond to fine textured sediments saturated
in congenital brackish water, comprising active lagoon
environment – the shallowest with surface connection – and to
prodeltaic deposits – the deepest without surface connection.
Domains type C are interpreted as inactive lagoon deposits older
in age than the ones identified in domains type A; these deposits
are placed inland away from the coastline and are overlain by
prograding deltaic sediments.
Two ERT profiles were collected (Figs. 4 and 8) in order to
evaluate the potential of ERT to generate high-resolution electrical
images in high salinity environments. The profiles were placed on
the northern limit of the deltaic complex, where only the upper
unit Q4 is present (Fig 2A). The river freshwater inputs in that area
are minimal, thus saline domains related to congenital water may
be detected. The layout of these profiles was decided according to
the preliminary identification of the main saline domains by resis-
tivity pseudo-cross-sections constructed from VES (Figs. 4, 6 and
7). However, it should be noted that the delineated layer bounds
do not have to agree with the different stratigraphic units, since
the high fluid salinity governs the bulk resistivity.
The root-mean-squared (RMS) error and the number of ‘‘bad da-
tum point’’ were higher for Profile 1 (GR) than for Profile 2 (WS),
mostly due to the slightly superior signal-to-noise ratio presented
by the WS array.
The values of bulk resistivity obtained locally by ERT are analo-
gous to those obtained by VES inversion (Fig. 8). The geoelectric
pattern in the study area generally responds to a succession of sub-
horizontal layers, however some lateral variations in the resistive
behavior are observed. Both profiles depict two main distinct elec-
e tro layers: a low resistivity layer overlaying a higher resistivity one.
Salinity
The contact between these layers follows, in most of Profile 2 and
High
in parts of Profile 1, a line gently sloping down towards the coast-
Intermediate
Low line (SSE).
Low The ERT inverted model for Profile 1 shows a low resistivity
electro layer (0.3–3 X m) overlaying a higher resistivity layer inter-
preted as the basement (5–80 X m), which is located at approxi-
mately 20 m depth. A layer less than 5 m thick characterized by
a relatively high heterogeneous resistivity (10–100 X m) and cor-
responding to unsaturated or fresh water saturated sediments is
 M. Zarroca et al. / Journal of Hydrology 409 (2011) 407–422 415

Fig. 6. Comparison between resistivity pseudo-cross-sections and geoelectrical sections corresponding to the 1982 (1) and 2002 (2) surveys. Profiles 1–4. Differentiation of
saline domains: (A) Actual lagoon or prodelta sediments. (B) Marine intrusion. (C) Paleo-lagoon with presence of congenital brackish water. The location of the profiles is
shown in Fig. 4A. Left Y-axis represents the half of current interelectrode spacing (AB/2 or AO) at logarithmical scale; right Y-axis represents depth of the inversion models at
logarithmical scale. Double arrows indicate distance from the coast.

observed at the surface. The layer is interpreted as an anthropo- sands forming the cordon of dunes and backshore deposits towards
genic fill in the most continental part of profile (NNW) and as the coastline (SSE), Low resistivity occur in the intermediate unit
416 M. Zarroca et al. / Journal of Hydrology 409 (2011) 407–422

Fig. 7. Comparison between resistivity pseudo-cross-sections and geoelectrical sections corresponding to the 1982 (1) and 2002 (2) surveys. Profiles 5, 6, 8 and 9.

(0.3–3 X m), indicating that these sediments are saturated in salt
or brackish water, given the typical resistivity value for saltwater
(0.2–0.3 X m). The underlying unit offers resistivity values signifi-
cantly higher (5–80 X m). These sediments encompass lower
porosity and lower fluid salinity, corresponding to fresh or slightly
brackish water. Furthermore, its bulk resistivity decreases
smoothly towards the coastline to values below 15 X m.
The geoelectrical and fluid-salinity pattern described above is
strongly consistent with the stratigraphic and hydrogeological
model defined in Fig. 2, as well as with the borehole database
 M. Zarroca et al. / Journal of Hydrology 409 (2011) 407–422 417

Fig. 8. Comparison between resistivity pseudo-cross-sections and geoelectrical sections for Profile 8 at decimal scale depth for 1982 and 2002 surveys and ERT Profiles 1 and
2. The location of the profiles is shown in Fig. 4. White squares labeled as ERT P1 and P2 represent the relative position of ERT profiles against the pseudo-cross-section Profile
8. 1 and 2 indicate the position of mechanical boreholes and their corresponding stratigraphic column: (a) clay; (b) clay, mud, silty sand and fine sand; (c) medium sand; (d)
sand with gravel; (e) clay and sand levels alternation; (f) marls; (g) gravel; (h) granodiorite; (i) Holocene; (j) Neogene; (k) Paleozoic.

(Fig. 8.1 and 8.2). The intermediate unit corresponds to clay and
silty sands saturated in salt water, members of upper deltaic com-
plex Q4. The lower unit corresponds to Neogene basement, consist-
ing of alternating levels of sandy clays and sands and
conglomerates, with varying degrees of cementation.
Profile 2 presents a geoelectric model equivalent to Profile 1.
The resistivity image shows a model with two main electro layers
(the shallowest resistivity unit described in Profile 1 is not pres-
ent). A low bulk resistivity layer (0.3–2 X m) overlies a higher bulk
resistivity unit (5–50 X m). The top meter of the upper unit pre-
sents bulk resistivity over 2 X m (2–5 X m). This upper unit is
interpreted as clayey sediments and silty sands corresponding to
the upper deltaic complex Q4. The lower unit is interpreted as Neo-
gene basement placed at 15–18 m depth.
A number of anomalies are detected in the ERT profiles. A low
resistivity feature depicted in Profile 1 at length 50 m and
extending downward to the deep is interpreted as a fault zone. A
fault zone is often represented by a linear low resistivity feature
extending downwards (Zhu et al., 2009). These features were
described in previous research (e.g. Eberhart-Phillips et al., 1995;
Nguyen et al., 2005) and are consistent with the conceptual model
presented in Fig. 2B; in the uplift – subsidence context, the neotec-
tonic activity deformed the deltaic complex in places. Some of
these faults are evident on the surface, see Figs. 1A and 9A. Changes
in the lateral bulk resistivity distribution are observed in Profile 2,
the upper unit shows a gradual increase of its bulk resistivity to-
wards the inland area (NNW). Furthermore, a low resistivity anom-
aly is observed in the central sector of the Profile (between
12.5 m and 2.5 m) at the basement level. The resistivity image,
by itself, does not allow determining with certainty the origin of
this anomaly, it could correspond to: a fault or fault system; an
ascending regional flow through a fault –important manifestations
of CO2 rich waters are reported in Vilajuiga (Redondo and Yélamos,
2000) – or a 3D effect caused by a feature laterally separated from
the survey line.
Concerning to the hydrogeology, at least one aquifer unit was
clearly depicted in the ERT images. This is an unconfined aquifer
associated with alluvial deposits composed of fine to medium sand
418 M. Zarroca et al. / Journal of Hydrology 409 (2011) 407–422

Fig. 9. (A) Geomorphological map produced using the 1:33,000 scale aerial photography of 1956–1957s as a basemap. (B) Map of apparent isoresistivity interpolated by
kriging (ordinary). (1) Basement. Granitic and metamorphic rocks. (2) Pliocene-Quaternary. Alluvial fans. Clay with interstratified sand and gravel. (3) Lagoon. Organic rich
silts and clays. (4) Mature beach ridges. Sands. (5) Existing littoral marshes. Brackish muds. (6) Degraded littoral marshes. Brackish muds. (7) Alluvial flat. Sands and silts with
interstratified gravel. Arrows indicate contribution direction of the main lobes. (8) Talweg sediments. Sands, clays and gravels. (9) Flood plain. Silts and clays. (10) Alluvial–
colluvial. Sands, gravels and clays with pebbles. (11) Beach. Sands. (12) Scree and colluvium. Clay with sand and gravel. (a) Fluvial channel and irrigation canals (white lines
indicate canal section; (b) contact. (c) lagoon (stripes indicate seasonal lagoons); (d) normal fault masked by overlying Quaternary sediments; (e) normal fault masked by
overlying Quaternary sediments with hydrothermal activity; (f) range of apparent resistivity values interpolated by ordinary kriging; (g) location of manual borehole and VES
midpoints used for interpolation. Manual boreholes match the center of VES surveys, except for the points placed on the urbanized area of Ampúria Brava; (h) 30 X m iso-
pseudo-resistivity contour line corresponding to the boundary between fine sediments (below) and coarse sediments (above).

and corresponding to the shallow upper deltaic complex aquifer,
Q4. The deep Q4 aquifer is not present in the northern area, where
the ERT data was collected (Fig. 2A). On the other hand, the Neo-
gene formation holds confined aquifers. These aquifers are not
clearly depicted in Profile 1, however, a progressive decrease in
resistivity – from 30 to below 10 X m – towards the coastline is de-
picted in Profile 2, suggesting the presence of a confined aquifer
unit shallower than 30 m.
Regarding the water salinity pattern, the shallowest aquifer, lo-
cated close to the surface, is strongly influenced (Profile 1) by sea-
water intrusion and washover processes infilling the marshes. On
the other hand, Profile 2 is located 1.5 km from the coastline, thus
the high salinity of the water recognized in this area cannot be
caused by saline intrusion. Salt contribution in this area may have
its origin in other mechanisms, such as: (i) superficial water runoff
resedimenting salts previously dissolved; (ii) salt-loaded wind
aerosols, these have been quantified in the study area by using sev-
eral aerosol traps (placed in a 1 km wide stretch between 300 m
and 1300 m from the coastline) to approximately 50 kg/ha of chlo-
ride input and 10 kg/ha of sodium; (iii) capillary action mecha-
nisms of salt rich water; (iv) saline-groundwater displacement
via natural advection or density-driven convection; (v) thermal
flows, the Empordà region is known for the occurrence of thermal
flows with high salinity recharging shallow aquifers (e.g. Vehí
et al., 2005); (vi) anthropogenic sources. Resistivity values for the
lower Neogene aquifer unit (10–30 X m) are too high to corre-
spond to saltwater and seem too low for a freshwater aquifer con-
text. This suggests that water supply is by and large from
continental freshwater, however, the aquifer unit has significant
contribution of brackish water leakages from salt-rich aquitards lo-
cated close to the coastline.
4.2.2. Apparent resistivity maps
Apparent resistivity values can be represented as isoresistivity
maps, characterizing an iso-layer at a depth equal to a certain value
of AB/2. Among all the produced isoresistivity maps, we selected
the corresponding to interelectrode spacing of AB/2 = 2, 10 and
100 m, as representative samples of the variability observed in
the geoelectrical behavior of the subsurface.
The shallowest map (AB/2 = 2 m) allows the correlation with
main geomorphological features identified along the surface. The
detailed geomorphological map produced for the north sector of
the coastal plain (Fig. 9A) allowed assessing the degree of correla-
tion between geomorphological expression and the 2 m isoresistiv-
ity map (Fig. 9B). The intervals of bulk resistivity presented in Table
2 are plotted on the isoresistivity image, taking into account that
the isoresistivity image represents apparent resistivity and not true
resistivity values as presented in Table 2. Hence, the 10 X m
 M. Zarroca et al. / Journal of Hydrology 409 (2011) 407–422 419

isoresistivity shows the estimated upper boundary of the hyper-
saline area assuming a relationship of q up to =5 X m equivalent
to qa up to 10 X m. This relationship was established taking into
account the bulk resistivity values obtained from laboratory sam-
ples analyses, and assuming that for such small interelectrode
spacing (AB/2 = 2 m) apparent resistivity should not differ exces-
sively from the true resistivity. Presuming this relationship to be
valid, it is observed that there is a good correlation between the
mapped geomorphological features and qa distribution. The areas
displaying low qa, agree with the inner lagoon and marsh areas –
fine textured sediments, probably encompassing high salinity,
while higher qa regions concur with delta lobes. The excellent
correlation between geomorphological units and qa spatial distri-
bution tells us about the natural character of the phenomenon –
the influence of the agriculture activity in the area seems to be
fairly low, and provides us with a geophysical data interpretation
criterion to characterize areas presenting difficulties for geomor-
phological mapping.
The apparent resistivity map for AB/2 = 10 m (Fig. 10A and B)
shows that low resistivity values dominate the northern and cen-
tral parts of the plain, both in coastal and inland areas, whereas
in the southern region, low resistivity zones are restricted to small
parts of the coastal fringe. On the other hand, relatively high resis-
tivity values, above 20 X m, depict lobes from the alluvial valleys

Fig. 10. Apparent resistivity maps obtained from the interpolation of VES results corresponding to the 1982 (A and C) and 2002 (B and D) recording stages for AB/2 = 10 m and
AB/2 = 100 m, respectively.
420 M. Zarroca et al. / Journal of Hydrology 409 (2011) 407–422
of the Muga and Fluvià rivers (Corredor d’Albons). The resistivity of
those lobes reaches values of 40–80 X m, decreasing gradually to
connect to either low resistivity coastal areas or directly to the
shoreline.
The variation observed between the north and south regions
obey to the potential contribution of the two river basins, the River
Muga basin to the north being less extensive than the Fluvià River to
the south. The higher contribution of the Fluvià River basin implies a
superior progradation of the delta lobes (Fig. 1B). Furthermore, the
resistivity distribution also agrees with the hydrochemical results
obtained for the shallow aquifer associated to the Q4 complex, in
relation to its chlorides content (Fig. 3C and D).
The apparent resistivity map for AB/2 = 100 m (Fig. 10C and D)
provides information about the Pleistocene deposits from the delta
complex and its pre-Quaternary bedrock. High resistivity values
are recorded at the north end of the area. These are attributed to
the presence of high resistivity formations corresponding to gra-
nitic and metamorphic rocks of Paleozoic age. The size of the cen-
tral low resistivity zone is reduced for the 2002 survey. Low
resistivity values occur in the north half of the coastal strip area;
these may indicate the existence of fine-grained formations with
high salt content. The resistivity increases to the south, suggesting
lower salinity than in the north, also reflected by the water Cl
content illustrated in Fig. 3D.
4.3. Time lapse spatial evolution (1982–2002)
Data available was obtained at two stages separated by a period
of 20 years. This allows the characterization of saline domain
dynamics (Fig. 6 and 7). There are some issues that hinder the at-
tempt to directly correlate the two data sets: (i) urban develop-
ment in the area during the last two decades did not permit the
collection of all the 2002 VES surveys in the exact same location
than the 1982 surveys; (ii) VES were collected with different
equipment; (iii) the maximum spacing AB differed slightly; (iv)
temperature during the two surveys varied to some extent. This
is particularly evident in those sectors of the pseudosections where
the distance between adjacent VES is greater and the positions of
the VES of the 1982 and 2002 campaigns differ significantly. In
such conditions, many of the changes observed between pseudo-
sections (e.g. pseudosection 3, VES s05, s06, s07 against s02-27,
s02-28; and pseudosection 8, VES s50–s54 against s02-65 to s02-
67), or interpolation artifacts (e.g. pseudosection 8, VES s02-66)
cannot be fully related to a time lapse effect.
However, the correspondence between the datasets collected
for both campaigns is significant and a detailed visual analysis of
the profiles permitted identifying the cause for many of these
non temporal differences, specifically for the saline domains type
B. By its nature, type B domain, related to seawater intrusion,
should show greater variations than types A and C, which are
mainly associated with congenital water. From south to north, Pro-
file 1 seems to indicate a slight progression of marine intrusion
(types A–B unit). However, there are some differences in the posi-
tion of the VES at their east end. 1982s section crosses, at VES 93-
94, through a lobe corresponding to an ancient delta lobe, whereas
the 2002s does on the marsh area. This situation is repeated in a
similar fashion for cross-section 2. On the other hand, Profiles 3,
4 and possibly 5, provide further information on the evolution of
salinity of types A–B unit. Marine intrusion seems to show a
regressive trend as confirmed by profile 3. It should be noted that
this is the section with the greatest degree of agreement in both
the pseudo-cross-section profile and the location of the VES close
to the seashore. This trend is not as clearly depicted by profile 4,
since the image for the year 2002 is located closer to the river
mouth than its corresponding image from 1982. The greater
hydraulic gradient in the outflow could explain, by itself, the
withdrawal of the salt wedge in this sector, without having to re-
sort on temporal variations. Profile 6, which also presents a good
agreement (except for the VES s42) does not show significant dif-
ferences between the two data collection stages. Profile 8 seems
to show a certain progression of seawater intrusion; however,
the surface formations along the profile correspond to marshes
developing on the sand beach ridges, which answer for the top
5 m high lateral resistivity variability. The fact that the location
of VES for both campaigns differs, in its eastern margin and central
part (Figs. 4, 7 and 8), explains the main differences observed be-
tween the two profiles. In contrast, when examining in detail the
boundaries of the saline domain it is concluded that these are prac-
tically the same for 1982 and 2002.
ERT Profile 1 is located east of the 1982 profile 8 and ERT 2 runs
close to the 2002 trace, between VES 02-67 and 02-68 (Figs. 4 and
8). Direct comparison between the ERT profiles 1 and 2 and the pseu-
do-cross-section 8 is not possible since ERT images correspond to a
bulk resistivity inversion model and the pseudo-cross-section to
apparent resistivities. However, both patterns of resistivity allow
delineating a saline domain whose geometry does not show signifi-
cant variations between the 1982, 2002 and 2010 surveys.
The apparent resistivity maps (AB/2 = 10 and AB/2 = 100) for
the 1982 and 2002 surveys (Fig. 10), also reflect a geoelectric
behavior model roughly equivalent for both. The only notable dif-
ference is the increase of the resistivity values from 1982 to 2002
in the area next to the mouth of the Muga River. Such increase
could be related to the regression of the wedge of saline water
intrusion due to the significant reduction in groundwater extrac-
tion implemented from 1987 for both, the shallow aquifer (shar-
per) and the deep aquifer, as illustrated in Fig. 3A and 3B.
Conversely, the south sector of both maps shows a slight decrease
in pseudoresistivity from 1982 to 2002 in the Fluvià River mouth
area. The groundwater extraction during 2002 in that area was
not as intense as in the 1980’s, which might answer for the differ-
ent behavior compared to that of the Muga River area, where it
seems that the saltwater intrusion wedge, although not clearly,
shows a trend of regression.
From a methodological point of view the strong concordance
between 1982 and 2002 surveys permits the validation of the field
measurements. From the perspective of an evolutionary model of
the saline domains this conclusion results equally valuable. To
understand this, it is necessary to note that between 1982 and
2002 socioeconomic development in the study area was very pro-
nounced. This change caused a significant decrease of the number
of groundwater exploitations, especially those associated to the
Muga River aquifers. On this context, a significant regression of
the saline domain associated to saline seawater intrusion would
be expected. Although some regression was detected in the River
Muga area, this is less significant than the expected. The investiga-
tion carried out concludes that the evolution of saline domains
shows inertia against the coastal aquifers exploitation. This is valid
for saline domains type A, C and D, but not for type B (marine
intrusion). Saline intrusion moves towards the mainland via per-
meable levels of coarse grained sediments deposited in the deltaic
complex. Neotectonic processes (lifting-subsidence) generate frac-
tures that discontinue these levels impeding the hydraulic connec-
tivity between seawater and inland aquifers, see stratigraphic
model (Figs. 2 and 3). Therefore, although the socio-geological con-
text seems to favor the formation of intrusion wedges, their devel-
opment in the study area is fairly limited.
5. Conclusions
The coupled observation of VES apparent resistivity (qa)
pseudo-cross-sections, of bulk resistivity values and of ERT
 M. Zarroca et al. / Journal of Hydrology 409 (2011) 407–422
resistivity profiles, allowed describing the salinity conditions in the
study area.
The geometry of the main saline domains identified in the Alt
Empordà coastal plain remained relatively stable between 1982
and 2002, notwithstanding the fact that the groundwater exploita-
tion regime varied severely during the same period. This is con-
nected to two factors. First, some of the saline domains are
associated with congenital water, retained in marsh sediment
and aquitards – geoelectric prospecting proved as a particularly
valuable tool for the identification of ancient lagoons masked by
human action, and for studying the relationship between different
saline domains; second, confined aquifers are poorly connected to
the offshore due to the particular tectonic context of the area and
therefore, protected to some extent from saline intrusion. The pres-
ence of fractures affecting the Plio-quaternary complex is con-
firmed by surface geomorphological indicators and resistivity
anomalies recorded in the ERT profiles.
The application of DC geophysical methods contributed to
understand the variation in salinity of littoral aquifers by: differen-
tiating the saline domains, delineating their influence at different
depths and determining their fluctuation with time. The correla-
tion between bulk resistivity and salinity is based on fieldwork
(geomorphological, lithostratigraphic and hydrogeological map-
ping) and labwork (sample lab testing). The interpretation of the
geo-resistivity models of the Alt Empordà area, based on a multi-
disciplinary approach provide us with a theoretical model applica-
ble to analogous detrital coastal aquifers.
We propose a methodological approach comprising the integra-
tion of VES surveys to construct 2D pseudo-geolectrical sections
and ERT 2D imaging for the hydrogeological characterization of
large aquifers. These techniques complement each other, both for
the level of detail provided and the cost-effectiveness ratio. The le-
vel of detail of the data obtained by means of the ERT method is
rather superior to the obtained by the VES method; however, the
latter is a valuable technique for projects with limited resources.
In conclusion, the study demonstrated the efficiency of electri-
cal resistivity surveys for identifying, mapping and monitoring sal-
ine zones in the Alt Empordà coastal plain region. Integrated
electrical resistivity methods proved as a valuable tool comple-
menting the hydrogeological methods for direct exploration of
the subsurface, such as geochemical-isotopes and subsurface mod-
eling methods, which constitute the foundation for the character-
ization of the salt content of littoral detrital aquifers.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank three anonymous reviewers and the
editor (Dr. Geoff Syme) for their very constructive comments and
suggestions on the earlier version of this manuscript.
The study has been partially financed by Spanish Science and
Technology Ministry (Project SEC2000-0836-C04-01) and by the
Spanish Education and Science Ministry (Project CGL2005-02404).
Appendix A. Supplementary material
Supplementary data associated with this article can be found, in
the online version, at doi:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.08.052.
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