Radioisotope thermoelectric generator application for locomotives

Gowtham Nemani
Master of Technology in VLSI system design
Srinivasa Institute of Engineering & Technology, Cheyyeru

Introduction

Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generators are used in spacecraft power supply, which have a very long battery life. A
radioisotope thermoelectric generator, or RTG, uses the fact that radioactive materials (such as plutonium) generate heat as
they decay into non-radioactive materials. The heat used is converted into electricity by an array of thermocouples which
then power the spacecraft. A thermocouple is a device which converts thermal energy directly into electrical energy
(Seebeck Effect). Basically, it is made of two kinds of metal that can both conduct electricity. They are connected to each
other in a closed loop. If the two metals are at different temperatures, an electric potential will exist between them. When an
electric potential occurs, electrons will start to flow, making electric current. This process is called fission, splitting unstable
radioactive materials into smaller parts, generates very large amount of heat. When an atom undergoes radioactive decay
the kinetic energy of the emitted particles is converted into thermal energy. This thermal energy is then applied to the “hot
side” of a thermocouple and the “cool side” is kept as cool as possible (with the use of a heat sink). The result is the
generation of an Electro Motive Force (EMF) across the thermocouple which can be directly used as an electrical source.
For an RTG to produce a useable amount of power (hundreds of watts for example), the radioactive material used must be
able to generate a sizeable amount of heat (several kW). Materials that have a short half-life undergo more radioactive
decays per second than a material with a longer half-life. The heat generated by a radioactive material is inversely
proportional to its half-life and therefore materials with short half-lives generate the most heat. This is why elements such
as Plutonium-238, Strontium-90, and Polonium-210 are used. The radioactive material is split up into many pellets (as to
prevent critical mass which would result in a fission reaction), with each pellet being housed in a small sphere. The sphere
consists of two layers, an impact shell, and a post impact shell, which help to prevent the release of radioactive material in
the event of a catastrophic failure. These spheres are then placed into a container which is then placed inside the generator.
The generator consists of many Si-Ge uni-couples (Silicon-Germanium) which generate electricity and the uni-couples are
also connected to fins which help to dissipate heat on the cool side of the thermocouples through radiative cooling.
Radioactive materials can undergo two kinds of decay; alpha decay and beta decay. Regardless of which decay takes place,
a gamma particle is also emitted (due to the “leftover energy” in the nucleus). While the alpha and beta particles are readily
absorbed by the RTG the gamma particles will easily pass through. Plutonium -238, has a power output of 0.5 W per gram
as it` decays, with 20kg on one RTG it will be producing 10kw, so both will have a total output of 20kW.

Methodology

The above figure shows the block diagram for Electric Powertrain design methodology using Radioisotope Thermoelectric
Generator, where radioisotope is employed as fuel. The generated electric power is stored in a battery, in idle state. Power
electronics generally combine electronic components, electric power, and control methodology. DC electric energy
conversion is implemented by power electronic circuits and the conversion efficiency is one of the most important
performance considerations in hybrid vehicle system design. Application of solid-state devices such as diode, s ilicon-
controlled rectifier (SCR), thyristors, gate turn-off thyristors, TRIAC, bipolar junction transistor (BJT), Power MOSFET
and so on for control and conversion of electric power is called as power electronics. Application of power electronics in
automotive applications plays a major role in controlling automotive electronics.

Figure shows the block diagram for locomotive design methodology using Radioisotope thermoelectric generator.

Automotive electronics include modern electric power steering, HEV main inverter, central body control, braking system,
seat control, and so on. Application of power electronics with components such as silicon-based Power MOSFETs and
IGBTs that are used as power electronic switches in the power train system of automotive electrical and electronic systems
for reducing the overall size. And also for managing thermal issues in which a high power of kW range is being used for
improving fuel efficiency. Limitations can be overcome by using a wideband gap semiconductors like silicon carbide with a
high-operating temperature that allows placing the circuit near high temperature location. It has two or three times higher
thermal conductivity than silicon, which will eliminate need of big copper blocks and water jackets. Silicon carbide has
high breakdown voltage and capable of switching at high frequencies with very less power loss which makes the overall
size of circuitry very small.

Results

The aim and objective is to study various radioisotopic fuels, best suitable for generation of electric power to drive the
powertrain. The use of americium-241 provides an economic solution at high isotopic purity and is product of a separation
process from stored plutonium produced during the reprocessing of civil nuclear fuel. This isotope in very small 1
microcurie quantities - provides the ionizing alpha radiation that makes smoke detectors in all our homes work. In larger
quantities, this same alpha radiation generates heat in a similar way to plutonium-238. Compared to plutonium-238, which
has a half-life of 87.7 years and heat output of 0.4 watts per gram, americium-241 lasts longer with a half-life of 432 years
but has a lower heat output of 0.1 watts per gram. The longer half-life means that the heat, and therefore the power output,
reduce more slowly through time when compared to systems of equal power output. In addition, the higher isotopic purity
of the americium-241 (greater than 99%) partially compensates for the reduced heat and power output. Americium-241 is
also well-suited to heat-only systems such as Radioisotope Heater Units (RHU). In these systems, the lower power density
of americium is less important, making americium an attractive option. These units also offer the possibility of very small,
sub-watt RTGs, where energy harvesting using thermoelectric conversion offers an attractive option for low-cost
applications. The longer half life of 241Am (433 y cf 88 y for 238Pu) requires a greater mass of fuel for a given power,
however does provide the advantage of more consistent power. Americium-241 was more attractive because it's cheaper,
even though it produces only one quarter of the power (115 W/kg, but the Pu-238 is apparently only 85% pure). The
selection of the radioistopic fuel depends upon its half life. It must be long enough so that it will release energy at a
relatively constant rate for a reasonable amount of time. The amount of energy released per time (power) of a given
quantity is inversely proportional to half-life. An isotope with twice the half-life and the same energy per decay will release
power at half the rate permole. Typical half-lives for radioisotopes used in RTGs are therefore several decades, although
isotopes with shorter half-lives could be used for specialized applications.

Conclusions & Contributions

Nuclear processes have long been exploited for generating heat and electricity for energy needs. In most of these cases,
both the methods of generation and eventual applications are often associated with larger-scale structures (power plants)
and distribution (national usage). However, there are indeed much smaller scale situations involving the production of
energy using nuclear processes. The typical design of an RTG is actually relatively simple and straightforward, consisting
of two crucial ingredients: fuel that will decay radioactively and a large set of thermocouples to convert heat into electricity.
The next criterion for choosing a fuel is a long half-life. Considering that most RTGs will end up in isolated environments
with very little human presence and thus chances to re- fuel, the need for an isotope that can continuously produce energy
for long periods of time is rather obvious. Of course the exact isotope half-life requirements will vary based on the
situation, but generally, longer half-lives are desirable, leading to sustained levels of energy production. The final parameter
for choosing an acceptable isotope is mostly a statement of size efficiency. To create a compact RTG device, every element
must be reasonably small including the fuel content. Even if a particular isotope passes all of the above criterion for fuel
choice, if it takes an inordinate amount of the substance to produce the required energy, it will be less attractive. For RTGs
that will end up in small extraterrestrial vehicles/applications, weight and efficiency end up being the most important
factors.

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