TYPICAL ROAD STRUCTURE CROSS SECTION

DETAILS
admin | March 17, 2018 | Construction | No Comments

COMPOSITION OF ROAD STRUCTURE:

Road Structure Cross Section is composed of the following
components
1. Surface/Wearing Course
2. Base Course
3. Sub Base
4. Sub Grade
1. SURFACE/WEARING COURSE IN PAVEMENT
CROSS SECTION:
The top layers of pavement which is in direct contact with the
wheel of the vehicle. Usually constructed of material in which
bitumen is used as binder materials.
A. BITUMINOUS PAVEMENT:
Consists of combination of mineral aggregate with bituminous
binder ranging from inexpensive surface treatment ¼ in or less
thick to asphaltic concrete. For good service throughout the full
life bituminous pavement must retain following qualities.
 Freedom from cracking or raveling.
 Resistance to weather including the effect of surface water
heat and cold.
 Resistance to internal moisture, particularly to water vapors.
 Tight impermeable surface or porous surface (if either is
needed for contained stability of underlying base or
subgrade).
 Smooth riding and non skidding surface.
The design should be done so that to meet the above
requirements for considerable number of years (need proper
design and construction supervision). Pavement meeting all the
requirements above have been product if six distinctly different
construction processes as follows:
 Heat a viscous bituminous binder to make it fluid, then in a
plant mix it with heated aggregate place and compact the
mixture while it is hot.
 Use fluid bituminous binder, mix it with aggregate at normal
temperature. Mixing may be done at a plant (plant mix) or on
the prepared roadway base (road mix). Spread and compact
the mixture at normal temperature.
 Add solvent such as naphtha or kerosene to a viscous
bituminous binder to make it fluid with aggregate at normal
temperature by either plant or road mix methods. Spread and
compact at normal temperature before solvent evaporates.
 Use fluid emulsion of viscose bituminous binder in water,
mix it with aggregate at normal temperature by either plant or
road mix method. Spread and compact at normal temperature
before the emulsion breaks down with its components.
 Spread and compact clean crushed aggregate as for water
bound macadam. Over it spray heated dissolved or
emulsified bituminous binder which penetrates open areas of
the rock and binds the aggregate together. Thus is commonly
called “Penetration Method”.
 Spread bituminous binder over the roadway surface then
cover it with properly selected aggregate. This is commonly
called the “Inverted Penetration Method”.
Selections based on the requirements and economy, large
volume of heavy vehicles, low traffic volume etc.
2. BASE COURSE
It is the layer immediately under the wearing surface (Applies
whether the wearing surface is bituminous or cement concrete
and or more inch thick or is but a thin bituminous layer). As
base course lies close under the pavement surface it is subjected
to severe loading. The material in a base course must be of
extremely high quality and its construction must be done
carefully.
TYPES OF BASE COURSE
1. Granular Base Course
2. Macadam Base
3. In-water bound Macadam
4. Treated Bases
3. SUB BASE:
It is layer of granular material provided above subgrade
generally natural gravel. It is usually not provided on subgrade
of good quality. It is also called granular subbase.
A. FUNCTION OF SUB BASE IN ROAD CROSS
SECTION

 It enables traffic stresses to be reduced to acceptable levels in

sub-grade in the Road Cross Section so that excessive
deformation is prevented.
 It acts as a working plate form for the construction of upper
pavement layers.
 Acts as a drainage layer, by protecting the sub grade from
wetting up.
 It intercept upward movement of water by capillary action.
 It acts as a separating layer b/w subgrade and road base. By
this it prevent the two layers from mixing up.
B. CHARACTERISTICS OF MATERIALS USED IN SUB
BASE:
The subgrade material should be clean and free from organic
matter and should be able to be compacted by roller, to form
stable sub-base. The material should have following
characteristic.
 Well graded uniformity coefficient (D60/D10) should not be
less than 3.
 Fraction passing sieve #200 shall not be greater than 2/3rd of
the fraction passing sieve #40.
 Should have a L.L not greater than 25%.
 P.I not greater than 6
 CBR should not be less than 25. See also: CBR Test
Procedure
 In coarse grain, aggregate retained by #10 sieve, %age of
wear shall not be greater than 5%.
 The max dia of any particle shall not be greater than 2/3ed of
the layer thickness of sub-base.
 Typical particle size distribution for the sub-base (granular)
when will meet strength requirement are:

% By mass of total Aggr. passing

B.S Sieve Size
test sieve
50 100
37.5 80 – 100
20 60 – 100
5 30 – 100
 1.15 170 – 75
0.3 9 – 50
0075 5 – 25
* To avoid intrusion of silt and clay material in sub-base from
subgrade
D15 (sub base) < 5 D15 (sub grade)
 Recommended plasticity characteristic for granular Sub Base
(Road Note 31) are;


Climate Liquid Limit Plasticity Index

(L.L) (P.I)
Moist or wet < 35 <6
tropical
Seasonal wet < 45 < 12
tropical
Arid & Semi < 55 < 20
Arid
4. SUB GRADE:
Consists of the naturally occurring material on which the
road is built, or the imported fill material used to create an
embankment on which the road pavement is constructed.
Subgrades are also considered layers in the pavement
design, with their thickness assumed to be infinite and their
material characteristics assumed to be unchanged or
unmodified. Prepared subgrade is typically the top 12 inches
of subgrade.

The site engineers generally concentrate much on those issues:

 Bars which have the diameter more than 36 mm should avoid

lapping.
 The maximum chair spacing is 1.00 m (or) 1 No per 1m2.
 Minimum 12 mm diameter needed for dowel rod.
 12 mm diameter bar should be used in chair.
 The longitudinal reinforcement should follow the range
between 0.8 – 6 per cent of gross CS.
 For circular column, bars would be 4 Nos and 6 Nos.
 Slabs are important in any construction. The main bar slab (8
mm HYSD) or 10mm (plane bar), distributor should not be
less than 8 mm and more than 1/8th of slab’s thickness.
 125 mm is minimum slab thickness.
Concrete free fall maximum maximum 1.50 m.
 Remember lap slice should not be used in the bar larger than
36 mm.
 Brick water absorption should not be 15 per cent.
 PH value of water has to be 6.
 Brick compressive strength 3.5 N / mm2.
 8 kg per MT is the measurement of steel reinforcement
binding wire.
 Samples for ore cutting test in the soils filling for every
100m2.

Density of Materials:
Bricks: 1600 – 1920 kg/m3
Concrete block: 1920 kg/ m3
Reinforced concrete: 2310 – 2700 kg/ m3

Cube samples required for different quantity of concrete:

Quantity of
No. of cubes required
Concrete

1 – 5 m3 1 No’s

6 0 15 m3 2 No’s

16 – 30 m3 3 No’s

31 – 50 m3 4 No’s

Above 50 m3 4 + 1 No’s of addition of each 50

 m3

Curing time of RCC Members for different types of cement –

Super Sulphate cement: 7 days, Ordinary Portland cement OPC:
10 days and Minerals & Admixture added cement: 14 days.

Plastering is a process of covering the walls and ceiling with a

smooth finish by any type of plaster materials (Cement, POP
etc).
The below plastering work checklist and procedure will be
useful for any type plastering work.
PRE-PLASTER INSPECTION CHECKLIST
 Ensure all the checks ( Brickwork Checklist ) after block

work is completed.
 The aluminum template for openings (sometimes we use
sand to cover the electric holes) should be available at the
site.
 The blockwork should have been cured for 7 days and dry
before plastering is started.
 Fix button mark on the surface to be plastered keeping the
minimum thickness. 12mm plaster is the desired thickness.
The distance of button marks should be within an aluminum
straight edge length.
 Plastering mesh should be 8” wide and fixed rigidly before
plastering on the junction (between concrete and masonry
surface) with steel nails / wooden plug and nails. This strip
has to be plastered and cured for a minimum of 3 days before
the entire wall is plastered.
 Get the plastering specifications like lime finish, trowel
finish, sponge finish, rough plaster and zone of application
clarified from architects.
 Do not plaster for a thickness of more than 15mm. In case it
is required, the plastering should be done in 2 coats. The first
layer applied should be cured for a day before applying the
subsequent coats.
 The cement within 90 days old ( Reason ), Sand – fine silt
content low (<6%) and potable water should be used for
mixing mortar.
 All surfaces in concrete should be hacked (80 hacks per SQ.
ft) before plastering.

CHECKS DURING PLASTERING

 All surfaces to be plastered must be wet to prevent absorption
of water from plaster.
 Mix shall be generally CM 1:4 for ceiling and 1:6 for wall
plastering.
 Mix mortar on MS sheet using Measuring Box (Farma) for
volumetric batching.
 Mix thoroughly for uniform mix and the mortar should be
used within ½ to 1 hour of the mix.
 After plastering check the surface for undulations using
halogen lamps. Yellow light is thrown on the plastered wall
from one side shows undulations, if any, rectify immediately
while the plaster is still fresh. All cut-outs such as fan,
junction box, electrical box and skirting line should be
finished to perfection.
 Grooves and mortar bands should be given while the plaster
is wet.
 If lime rendering is required, do it within 3 to 4 hour of the
setting of cement mortar after plastering.
 Write down the date of work in the paint on the element for
plastering, concrete & monitor the curing accordingly.

INTERNAL PLASTER
 Check for smooth finish using spirit levels for undulations,
cracks and evenness/straightness in vertical and horizontal
directions
 Ensure plastered surface is cured for entire recommended
period
 Ensure the 1-metre level markings are made along all walls.
Measure the ceiling from this level – it should be even at all
points. [Check for ceiling plaster]
 Ensure plastering thickness is even at all points during
plastering.
 Ensure the button marking tiles are removed.
EXTERNAL PLASTER
 Ensure availability of specialized trowels to obtain different
structural finishes for the external plastering
 Check for undulations and unevenness by using spirit levels
 Ensure all plastered surfaces are cured for entire
recommended period

CARE TO BE TAKEN AFTER PLASTERING

 Cure the works for a minimum of 10 days. Write the date of
plastering on the wall/ceiling with a permanent marker. (So
you can track the curing days)
 All mortar waste stuck to walls, floor, and MS sheet shall be
cleared after the day’s work.
INSPECTION CHECKLIST FOR RCC GRADE BEAM
AND SLAB
admin | March 10, 2018 | Construction | No Comments

INSPECTION CHECKLIST FOR RCC GRADE BEAM

Proper inspection is must, to control the quality of a building
during construction. If you have a handy inspection checklist
during checking every part of a building, it’ll save your time and
you won’t forget any point to check.
In my personal experience, I noticed that if I check anything in a
building construction project without any checklist, I always
forget to check something. When I sit down at my desk after
completing checking, I always remember, oh! I forget that point
to check.
I just made different checklists for different work phases of
building construction and save it on my mobile. When I go for
checking anything in building construction I just open the
related checklist on mobile and check the things based on that
checklist.
In this post, I’ll share an Inspection Checklist for grade beam.

WHAT IS GRADE BEAM?

Grade beam is built on short column. It can be constructed on
the ground or above the ground. It works as a normal beam.
INSPECTION CHECKLIST FOR GRADE BEAM
Before pouring concrete into the grade beam, you should check
the Grade Beam. The question is what to check?
You need to check two things. One is shuttering and another
is reinforcement

INSPECTION CHECKLIST FOR GRADE BEAM

SHUTTERING
Check the following things on grade beam shuttering –

Shutter Strength: Check the strength of grade beam

shutter whether it is capable to withstand against a load of
concrete.
If you are using wooden shutter for grade beam formwork (we
normally use wooden shutter for grade beam), then the thickness
of wooden plank should be 1½”.

Waterproofness of grade beam form: Check the

waterproofness of the formwork of grade beam. We normally
use a thin metal sheet for this purpose.
The thin metal sheet is fixed on the wood joints by nail to make
the formwork waterproof. Check all the joints of the wooden
plank are covered with a thin metal sheet.
Check the size of grade beam form: Check the inside
measurement of the grade beam form. You’ll find the grade
beam size in the structural drawing.
Suppose, the grade beam size is shown in the drawing as 10” x
18”. That means, the breath of grade beam is 10” and the height
of grade beam is 18”.

So, the inside dimension of grade beam formwork should be 10”

x 18”.
Check supports for grade beam formwork: When you
construct a grade beam directly on the ground, you don’t need to
provide support at the bottom of the grade beam. In that case,
a brick flat soling is made below the grade beam. That brick flat
soling will support your grade beam.
But, if you need to construct the grade beam above the ground,
you need to provide support at the Bottom side of the beam.
Whether you construct the grade beam on the ground or above
ground, you need to give support to both sides of the form.
The spacing of the support should not be more than 2 foot.
So, check that there is at least one support within 2 feet distance.

Check the plumb of side shutter: Both sides of the grade beam
should be truly vertical. For this, you need to check the plumb
for both sides of the formwork. Plumb should be pointed at the
inside of the form.
But, one thing. If you check the breath of the grade beam at
bottom and top of the beam then you don’t need to check the
plumb. I found it very useful.

Check the placement of grade beam: Finally you need to

check the placement of grade beams.
To check the placement, you’ll need the “Grade beam layout”
drawing of the beam.
You can check the placement of grade beam visually. You just
need to check the placement of grade beams with reference to
columns. See the “grade beam layout” drawing – which side of a
column the grade beam is placed. Now check the formwork is
placed as shown in the drawing.
Okay. We’ve just finished checking the formwork of grade
beam. Now we will check the reinforcement of the grade beam.

INSPECTION CHECKLIST FOR GRADE BEAM

REINFORCEMENT
To check the reinforcement of grade beam you need a drawing
sheet – “reinforcement details of grade beam”.

Check reinforcement of grade beam: To check the

reinforcement of a grade beam, you need to check the number
and size of the following bars as specified in the drawing –
Top bar – The Top bar is placed at the top of the beam. Check
the number and size of the top bar as specified in the drawing.
Bottom bar – the Bottom bar is placed at the bottom of grade
beam. Check the number and size of the bottom bar as shown in
the drawing.
Extra Top bar – Extra Top bar is place placed on the support.
Check the number and size of an extra top bar as per drawing.
Also, check the length of an extra top bar as shown in the
drawing.
Extra bottom bar – The Extra bottom bar is placed at the bottom
of grade beam. Check the number and size of the extra bottom
bar as specified in the drawing. Also, check the distance
between the end of extra bottom bar and support. This distance
is normally shown in the drawing.
Stirrup – Check the size and spacing of stirrups as specified in
the drawing. Also, check the stirrups aren’t twisted. Those
should be truly straight with the cross-section of the grade beam.

Check hook of reinforcing bar: Hook should be provided as

suggested by the structural engineer in the structural drawing.
Normally, structural engineers suggest providing the hooks at
both ends of the top and bottom longitudinal
bars and stirrups.
So, check hooks are provided at both ends
of top and bottom bars.
The angle of stirrup’s hook is normally 135 degree. Check, it is
provided correctly. Workers always tend to provide a stirrup
hook at 90 degrees. So check this properly.
Hooks of stirrups should be placed alternatively on both sides of
the beam. That means, if one stirrup hook is placed at right side
of the beam then next stirrup hook should be placed at the left
side of the beam.

Check lap length of the bars: Sometimes we need to provide

lap in reinforcing bar if the grade beam is longer than the bar
length (one bar length is about 40 feet).
Check the lap length is accurate. You will find the required lap
length for different sizes of bars in the “general note sheet” of
structural drawing.
So, check the lap length is maintained as suggested in the
structural drawing.

Check the lap placement: For top bar, the lap is provided in the
middle half portion of the beam. And, for bottom bar, it is
normally provided on the support generall rule).
So check the placement of lap for both top and bottom bar if
they are placed properly.

Check concrete clear cover: Required concrete clear cover for

different structural member is shown in the structural drawing –
either in the “general note sheet” or in the “reinforcement
detailing of grade beam” sheet.
Check the specified Concrete Clear cover is maintained all
around the beam.
We normally maintain the concrete clear cover of grade beam
by providing “CC Cover Block”. Check sufficient “cover
block” is provided to maintain concrete clear cover for
reinforcement.
Cover Blocks are Normally provided at 2 feet distance. So
Check there is at least one cover block within 2 feet.

Check Spacer: If the grade beam has double layer reinforcing

bar than you need to maintain 1” gap between the layers.
To maintain this gap a spacer is provided between the layers.
We normally use 25mmø bar for this purpose.
Check spacers are provided to maintain 1” gap between layers.

Conclusion
If you found anything unusual during checking the grade beam,
go for correcting it. If everything is found correct, you can start
to cast concrete.
source

DIFFERENT BETWEEN ONEWAY AND TWOWAY SLAB

In this video today I will teach you the different b/w one way
and two way slab in detial in also there usage.
ONE WAY SLAB
in building one way slab, the following properties which are
given below:
the Support is provided by beams to one way slab in only two
sides.
Primary reinforcement is arranged in only one direction toward
one way slabs.
The proportion of longer span panel (L) to shorter span panel
(B) is identical or more than 2. Therefore, L/B>=2
Usually all the Cantilever slabs belong to one Way slab. Chajjas
and verandahs are the real instance of one way slab. In verandah
the slab is stretching in the shorter direction with primary
reinforcement and the allocation of reinforcement in the
transverse direction.

TWO WAY SLAB

The two way slab offers the following properties :-
the Support is provided by beams to the slabs in all four sides.
Primary reinforcement is set in both the direction toward two
way slab.
The proportion of longer span panel (L) to shorter span panel
(B) is below 2. Therefore, L/B<2
USEFUL NOTES FOR CIVIL ENGINEERS

CEMENT REQUIREMENTS:-
M10 : 210 Kg
M20 : 320 Kg
M25 : 340 Kg
M30 : 380 Kg
M35 : 410 Kg
M40 : 430 Kg
M45 : 450 Kg
UNIT WEIGHT:
water-1000kg/m3
cement-1440 kg/m3
steel – 7850 kg/m3
wood – 1200 kg/m3
sand – 1840 kg/m3
P.C.C – 2400 kg/m3
R.C.C – 2500 kg/m3
UNIT CONVERSION:
0.3048 M = 1 ft
1 m2 = 10.76 sq.ft
2.83m3 =100 C.F.T
1 C.F.T = 28.7 litres
1 cent = 435.6 sq.ft
1 ground =2400 sq.ft
GRADE OF CONCRETE:
M10 = lean mix
M15 = 1:2:4
M20 = 1:1.5:3
M25 = 1:1:2

WEIGHT. OF STEEL:
6 mm = 0.22 kg/m
8 mm = 0.39 kg/m
10 mm = 0.62 kg/m
12 mm = 0.89 kg/m
16 mm = 1 kg/m
We can find out the unit weight of steel = D2/162 = kg/m

CONCRETE SLUMP TEST

SCOPE
The Scope of this field test is to ensure the concrete’s
workability and consistency before casting it. The purpose of
this test is to avoid using the low-quality concrete mix for
casting.
We all use mostly RMC on site. So it is our responsibility to
ensure that the concrete is in good quality.

REQUIRED EQUIPMENT
 Slump Cone Model
 Trowel
 Tamping Rod
 Square Pan
Cone Mould Size should be
 Top Diameter – 10 cm
 Base Diameter – 20 cm
 Height – 30 cm

PROCEDURE TO DO THE SLUMP TEST

 The Inner surface of the cone should be free from dust &
moisture.
 Apply one coat of oil inside.
 Ensure the place is smooth and horizontal where you going to
place the cone.
 First, fill up the cone with concrete 1/4th of the height.
 Tamp the concrete layer with 20-25 times with help of
tamping rod.
 Then follow the same procedure by placing 1/2 & 3/4 of
concrete respectively.
 Once you fill the cone up to the top. Gently remove the cone
from the concrete. Refer the pictures.

TEST RESULTS
The result of this slump test value should be recorded in
millimeters. The resulting slump can be in different range.
TYPES OF SLUMP AND RANGES
Definition – Slump is the gap between the mold top (after
removal) and the top of result concrete.
 RANGE ASPECT

The concrete collapses completely. This

Collapsed
indicates very the concrete is too wet. Not
Slump
suitable for casting

Part of the concrete (top portion) slips

Shear
sideways as shown in the picture. We have to
Slump
reconduct the test again

Concrete slides down evenly keeping more or

True Slump less to shape. This is the right slump that we
used to measure.

CONCLUSION
ALLOWABLE SLUMP VALUES
WORK ALLOWABLE RANGE

Slab 50 mm to 150 mm
 WORK ALLOWABLE RANGE

Column

Beam

Wall

Mass Concrete 25 mm to 75 mm

HOW TO CALCULATE NUMBER OF RISER AND

TREADS OF STAIRCASE
admin | March 5, 2018 | Construction | No Comments

Today we are going to calculate the number of riser and treads

for a staircase.
This looks like a simple calculation but believe us there is more
demolition than perfect construction of staircase. Even though
we do the perfect calculation of rise and tread the way of
implementation is most important one.
If you have missed half a milli in some steps that will add up
and become major errors on a staircase. In order to rectify that
error either you have to demolish and reconstruct the entire
staircase steps or you’ve to raise the floor height entirely on top
which leaves a big hole in your pocket or maybe in project cost.
Without further due let’s get started.
STAIRCASE SECTIONAL DRAWING
Be Familiar with the below drawing.

From the Diagram,

Tread – It is the horizontal space where we will rest the foot
while climbing.
Rise – It is the vertical height between the risers.

Total Stair Tread or Total Run – It is the total horizontal

length between two landing platforms. Please refer the figure.
Total Stair Rise – Height between the two landings
In this post, we are going to take the above simple staircase
without landing as an example
POINTS TO BE CONSIDERED WHILE CALCULATING
RISE AND TREAD
Before starting please make the below assumptions

 The minimum height of the riser is 6” inches.

 The minimum tread width is 10” inches.
Note – This is not a rule. According to the type of buildings, the
riser height & tread width may increase or decrease.
For Example, In hospitals, the rise may be 5” because the
staircase mostly utilized only by the ill or sick people where
they have to climb without using their full energy. so the riser
may be shortened for easy access. The tread also should be
wider enough.
The reason we are providing 10” inches for tread is every person
will wear a slipper which may be maximum 10” for an average
adult person based on that we are making tread space as 10”
inches minimum.
TREAD AND RISE CALCULATION
Staircase Calculation Formula is
Total Required Number of Risers = Total Stair Rise / Height
of One Rise = 60” / 6” = 10 Riser
Total Required Number of Tread = Total Stair Tread or Run/
width of one Tread = 90” / 10” = 9 Tread.

METHOD OF CONCRETE CURING

There are various methods of curing. The adoption of a

particular method will depend upon the nature of work and the
climatic conditions. The following methods of curing of
concrete are generally adopted.

Curing of Concrete
 Shading concrete work
 Covering concrete surfaces with hessian or gunny bags
 Sprinkling of water
 Ponding method
 Membrane curing
 Steam curing
1. SHADING OF CONCRETE WORK
The object of shading concrete work is to prevent the
evaporation of water from the surface even before setting. This
is adopted mainly in case of large concrete surfaces such as road
slabs. This is essential in dry weather to protect the concrete
from heat, direct sun rays and wind. It also protects the surface
from rain. In cold weather shading helps in preserving the heat
of hydration of cement thereby preventing freezing of concrete
under mild frost conditions. Shading may be achieved by using
canvas stretched on frames. This method has a limited
application only.

2. COVERING CONCRETE SURFACES WITH HESSIAN

OR GUNNY BAGS
This is a widely used method of curing, particularly for
structural concrete. Thus exposed surface of concrete is
prevented from drying out by covering it with hessian, canvas or
empty cement bags. The covering over vertical and sloping
surfaces should be secured properly. These are periodically
wetted. The interval of wetting will depend upon the rate of
evaporation of water. It should be ensured that the surface of
concrete is not allowed to dry even for a short time during the
curing period. Special arrangements for keeping the surface wet
must be made at nights and on holidays.
3. SPRINKLING OF WATER
Sprinkling of water continuously on the concrete surface
provides an efficient curing. It is mostly used for curing floor
slabs. The concrete should be allowed to set sufficiently before
sprinkling is started. The spray can be obtained from a
perforated plastic box. On small jobs sprinkling of water may be
done by hand. Vertical and sloping surfaces can be kept
continuously wet by sprinkling water on top surfaces and
allowing it to run down between the forms and the concrete. For
this method of curing the water requirement is higher.
4. PONDING METHOD
This is the best method of curing. It is suitable for curing
horizontal surfaces such as floors, roof slabs, road and air field
pavements. The horizontal top surfaces of beams can also be
ponded. After placing the concrete, its exposed surface is first
covered with moist hessian or canvas. After 24 hours, these
covers are removed and small ponds of clay or sand are built
across and along the pavements. The area is thus divided into a
number of rectangles. The water is filled between the ponds. The
filling of water in these ponds is done twice or thrice a day,
depending upon the atmospheric conditions. Though this method
is very efficient, the water requirement is very heavy. Ponds
easily break and water flows out. After curing it is difficult to
clean the clay.

5. MEMBRANE CURING
The method of curing described above come under the category
of moist curing. Another method of curing is to cover the wetted
concrete surface by a layer of water proof material, which is
kept in contact with the concrete surface of seven days. This
method of curing is termed as membrane curing. A membrane
will prevent the evaporation of water from the concrete. The
membrane can be either in solid or liquid form. They are also
known as sealing compounds. Bituminised water proof papers,
wax emulsions, bitumen emulsions and plastic films are the
common types of membrane used.
Whenever bitumen is applied over the surface for curing, it
should be done only after 24 hours curing with gunny bags. The
surface is allowed to dry out so that loose water is not visible
and then the liquid asphalt sprayed throughout. The moisture in
the concrete is thus preserved. It is quite enough for curing.
This method of curing does not need constant supervision. It is
adopted with advantage at places where water is not available in
sufficient quantity for wet curing. This method of curing is not
efficient as compared with wet curing because rate of hydration
is less. Moreover the strength of concrete cured by any
membrane is less than the concrete which is moist cured. When
membrane is damaged the curing is badly affected.
6. STEAM CURING
Steam curing and hot water curing is sometimes adopted. With
these methods of curing, the strength development of concrete is
very rapid.
These methods can best be used in pre cast concrete work. In
steam curing the temperature of steam should be restricted to a
maximum of 750C as in the absence of proper humidity (about
90%) the concrete may dry too soon. In case of hot water curing,
temperature may be raised to any limit, ay 1000C.
At this temperature, the development of strength is about 70% of
28 days strength after 4 to 5 hours. In both cases, the
temperature should be fully controlled to avoid non-uniformity.
The concrete should be prevented from rapid drying and cooling
which would form cracks.

USEFUL NOTES FOR CIVIL ENGINEERS

CEMENT REQUIREMENTS:-
M10 : 210 Kg
M20 : 320 Kg
M25 : 340 Kg
M30 : 380 Kg
M35 : 410 Kg
M40 : 430 Kg
M45 : 450 Kg
UNIT WEIGHT:
water-1000kg/m3
cement-1440 kg/m3
steel – 7850 kg/m3
wood – 1200 kg/m3
sand – 1840 kg/m3
P.C.C – 2400 kg/m3
R.C.C – 2500 kg/m3
UNIT CONVERSION:
0.3048 M = 1 ft
1 m2 = 10.76 sq.ft
2.83m3 =100 C.F.T
1 C.F.T = 28.7 litres
1 cent = 435.6 sq.ft
1 ground =2400 sq.ft
GRADE OF CONCRETE:
M10 = lean mix
M15 = 1:2:4
M20 = 1:1.5:3
M25 = 1:1:2

WEIGHT. OF STEEL:
6 mm = 0.22 kg/m
8 mm = 0.39 kg/m
10 mm = 0.62 kg/m
12 mm = 0.89 kg/m
16 mm = 1 kg/m
We can find out the unit weight of steel = D2/162 = kg/m

CLASSIFICATION OF ROADS AND THEIR DETAILS

Road transportation is an essential network for any country.

Classification of roads based on many factors such as materials,
locations, traffic etc. are discussed.
CLASSIFICATION OR TYPES OF ROADS
The roads are classified based on many factors as follows.
 Materials
 Location & function
 Traffic volume
 Width
 Economy
 Traffic type
 Rigidity
 Topography
TYPES OF ROADS BASED ON MATERIALS
 Earthen roads
 Gravel roads
 Murrum roads
 Kankar roads
 WBM roads
 Bituminous roads
 Concrete roads

EARTHEN ROADS
Earthen roads are laid with soil. They are cheaper of all types of
roads. This type of road is provided for less traffic areas and or
for countryside areas. Good drainage system should be required
which reflects good performance for longer period.
GRAVEL ROADS
Gravel roads are also low quality roads but they are good when
compared to earthen roads. Compacted mixture of gravel and
earth is used as pavement material in this case.

MURRUM ROADS

Murrum is a matter obtained from the disintegration of igneous

rocks by weathering agencies. This is used to make roads called
as murrum roads.

KANKAR ROADS
Kankar is nothing but impure form of lime stone. Kankar roads
are provided where lime is available in good quantity. These are
also low quality and performance wise they are similar to gravel
and murrum roads.

WBM ROADS
Water Bound Macadam (WBM) roads contain crushed stone
aggregate in its base course. The aggregates are spread on the
surface and these are rolled after sprinkling water.
WBM roads provides better performance compared to earthen,
gravel, murrum and kankar roads.
WBM roads are laid as layers about 10cm thickness of each
layer. They are very rough and may disintegrate immediately
under traffic.

BITUMINOUS ROADS
Bituminous roads are very popular roads around the world. They
are most used roads in the world. They are low in cost and good
for driving conditions. They are flexible and thickness of
bituminous roads depends upon the subgrade soil conditions.

CONCRETE ROADS
Cement concrete is used to construct the pavements in case of
concrete roads. These are very popular and costlier than all other
types of roads. They are not flexible so, they require less
maintenance.
Concrete roads are suitable for high traffic areas. Concrete roads
are laid with joints and time of construction is more.
TYPES OF ROADS BASED ON LOCATION AND
FUNCTION
 National highways
 State highways
 District roads
 Rural roads or village roads
NATIONAL HIGHWAYS
National highways are main roads of a particular country. They
connects all major cities to the capital of the country. They run
throughout the length and breadth of the country. Minimum two
lane road is provided for national highways.

STATE HIGHWAYS
State highways are second main roads which connect major
parts of state with in it. State highway ultimately connects to the
national highways.
DISTRICT ROADS
District roads are provided with in the cities and connects
markets and production places to state and national highways.
Two types of district roads are there namely,
 Major district roads
 Minor district roads
Major district roads connect headquarters of neighboring district
with main parts of district while minor district roads are laid
with in the district.

RURAL ROADS OR VILLAGE ROADS

Village roads connects the nearby villages with each other. They
lead to nearby town or district roads. Usually low quality roads
are provided as village roads because of low traffic.

TYPES OF ROADS BASED ON TRAFFIC VOLUME

 Light traffic roads
 Medium traffic roads
 High traffic roads
LIGHT TRAFFIC ROADS
The roads which are carrying 400 vehicles daily on an average is
called light traffic roads.
MEDIUM TRAFFIC ROADS
If a road carrying 400 to 1000 vehicles per day then it is said to
be medium traffic road.
HIGH TRAFFIC ROADS
If a road is carrying is more than 1000 vehicles per day then it is
considered as high traffic road.
TYPES OF ROADS BASED ON ECONOMY
 Low cost roads
 Medium cost roads
 High cost roads
The economy depend upon the location and function of roads
and also on the traffic analysis.
TYPES OF ROADS BASED ON TRAFFIC TYPE
 Pedestrian ways
 Cycle tracks
 Motorways
PEDESTRIAN WAYS
Pedestrian ways are exclusively built for pedestrians and no
vehicles are permitted in this way.
CYCLE TRACKS
Cycle tracks or bicycle tracks are provided on both sides of
pavement for cyclists hence they can travel safely.
MOTORWAYS
Motorways are also known as expressways. Only few vehicles
are accessible to use this type of roads. The vehicles which can
move with high speed acceleration are permitted into this way.
Motorways makes travel quick and provides comfort for high
speed vehicles.
TYPES OF ROADS BASED ON RIGIDITY
 Flexible roads
 Rigid roads
FLEXIBLE ROADS
Flexible roads consists flexible layer as pavement surface which
require good maintenance otherwise it can be disintegrated
easily with heavy traffic. All types of roads except concrete
roads are come under this category.
RIGID ROADS
Rigid pavements are non-flexible and cement concrete roads are
come under this category.

TYPES OF ROADS BASED ON TOPOGRAPHY

 Plain area road
 Hilly area roads
PLAIN AREA ROAD
The roads constructed on leveled surface is known as plain area
roads.
HILLY AREA ROADS
Roads constructed in hilly regions are called as hill area roads or
ghat roads. Generally these are provided around the hill in spiral
shape.
TREATMENT OF DAMPNESS IN WALLS IN MANY
WAYS
admin | February 22, 2018 | Construction | No Comments

Dampness is the cause, reason and initiator of many defects and

diseases in all sorts of construction from roads and transport
systems to building and housing facilities. It might be a
headache for you in rainy season and it might not let you sleep
easily because of the danger and consequences of its presence.
This post will let you know how to treat if your walls or building
is being effected by dampness as well as will give you remedial
measure that will ensure safety of your structure from all such
devastating defects.

Dampness in walls
Before applying any remedial measure to a damp wall there
should be free escape for any water that has already entered in
the wall.
Silica Solution is transparent and very effective in resisting
dampness.

INTERNAL TREATMENT OF WALLS

Internal treatment of affected walls would consist of removing
the old plaster, applying a slurry coat of neat cement with a
water proofing compound and then cement rendering with a
dense mortar, of 1:2 with integral water proofer added.
Another internal treatment for damp walls is the application of
an impervious coating of some material or a coating of bitumen
or tar followed by blinding with sand and plastering.
PREVENTING DAMPNESS IN WALLS
The following methods are also used for preventing dampness in
walls
a) Two parts by weight of coal tar and one part by weight of
pitch are put in a vessel, heated and stirred, until the mixture is
sufficiently liquid. It is then applied on walls, and is found to
keep out dampness very wall.
b) Spray or paint the walls with a solution of sodium silicate,
followed by a solution of calcium chloride, which forms an
insoluble silicate.
 If dampness is confined to one position near ground floor level
above the D.P.C., it may be due to a hole or crack in D.P.C.
through which moisture can pass into the wall alone.
Dampness below ground level may be due to lack of sub-soil
drainage, absence of vertical D.P.C.
REPELLING MATERIALS
Water repelling compounds are mixed in cement to make it
water repellent, Examples are;
a) Chemically active ….. sodium and potassium soaps
b) Chemically inactive ….. calcium soaps and resin oils
Source :http://www.iamcivilengineer.com

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 BRICK MASONRY AND THEIR TYPES | TYPES

OF BRICKS MASONRY |

No Comments | Feb 27, 2018

DAM PROOF COURSE (DPC)- PROCESS OF DPC

INSTALLATION IN THE FIELD OF CONSTRUCTION
admin | February 21, 2018 | Construction | No Comments

To restrict the water movement through the walls and floors of

the underground layer, Moisture barrier (DPC) is used. The
following describes the materials to be used in the damp proof
process:
Materials requires on Damp proof course (DPC):
Properties of Effective moistureproof material are:
 It should be resistant to chemical corrosion.
 It should be resistant to water.
 Dimensional stability.
 It should not have deliquescent salt, such as sulfate, chloride
and nitrate.
 It should be tough and should withstand dead loads and loads
without damage.
Damp proof course material type is generally used to check the
humidity of the material. It can be divided into the following
three categories:
 Rigid materials: First-class brick, stone, stone, concrete, etc.
falls under rigid materials.
 Semi rigid materials: Frankincense resin, or material or
combination of asphalt layer are example of semi rigid
materials.
 Flexible materials: Burlap or fiber / glass fiber based asphalt
felt, plastic sheet (polyethylene sheet), etc. falls under
flexible materials.

How to select materials to build moistureproof course: The

selection of materials to be used as an effective moisture proof
need a careful consideration. It depends on the availability of
DPC, nature of the structure, atmospheric conditions and the
climate.
 DPC materials for the roof, floor and others: It is
recommended to have the greater wall thickness or DPC. It
should be placed in such as floor, roof and other large area.
You should choose only to provide a flexible material, such
as small number of joint cement asphalt, asphalt felt, plastic
plate, etc.The use of blankets should be used when properly
bonded on the surface of asphalt, and with proper grinding
and sealing joint.
 In the wet and humid environments, mixed concrete should
be used. Through the mixing process to the composition of
the waterproof material such as Pudlo, Impermo, Waterlock,
etc., make the concrete further dense. The utility model is
used for applying two layers of hot asphalt on the surface of
the concrete DPC.
 DPC materials for above the ground: DPC for above the wall
thickness should not be more than 40 cm. For above the
ground, you can use the following types of materials. But, the
cement concrete is usually used for the purpose of being
located at the bottom of the DPC material, 38 to 50mm thick
 cement concrete M15 (1:2:4 mixture) under normal
conditions.
 DPC material in case of differential thermal movement: In
the fence wall and other such areas, it is recommend to use
the like of frankincense resin, asphalt, asphalt felt and metal
(copper or lead) materials.It is significant to make sure that
the DPC material is flexible, so that it can avoid because of
the difference of thermal motion between the roof materials
and wall caused any damage or piercing materials.

Now everyone will be capable of obtaining all the functionality

required to produce a high-powered 3D viewer with full,
powerful interrogation functionality on a mobile device with the
aptitude to load CAD data devoid of processing it previously.
Picture Courtesy & Source: theconstructor.org

HOW TO ESTIMATE THE MATERIALS FOR FLOOR

admin | February 20, 2018 | Quantity Survey | No Comments

This construction video will introduce the detailed process for

calculating materials for floor. This is an easy to follow process.
Just select a simple floor section and measure all the applied
material in the similar floor with number and volume. This
video will be ideal for quantity surveyors to obtain materials for
floor.
Flooring Materials are segregated carpet, laminate, tile and
vinyl. The material for flooring is chosen on the basis of various
factors like cost, endurance, noise insulation, comfort and
cleaning effort. Some sorts of flooring are not recommended to
be installed below grade, along with laminate and hardwood
because of probable loss from moisture.

BASIC THINGS YOU SHOULD KNOW ABOUT BILL OF

QUANTITY (BOQ)
admin | February 16, 2018 | Quantity Survey | No Comments

BILLS OF QUANTITIES (BOQ)

The survival of any business is heavily depend on the success of
commercial management. When it comes to commercial
management in construction industry, Bill of Quantities
(BOQ) is the term which brings attention of every construction
professionals and stakeholders.
It is one of the communication tool which connects the parties
(Client, consultant & contractor) of construction project. Keith
defines, BOQ is a schedule which categories, details and
quantifies the materials and other cost items to be used in
construction project. It is important to know that, direct costs &
indirect costs are to be considered for complete cost of the
project which are covered in different parts of the BOQ.
Generally BOQ is in tabular form which contents description,
unit, quantity, rate & amount in different columns.
Sample BOQ Document, PDF
Description column provides a brief explanation of what to be
done. For example, in the first item, the 32mm diameter CPVC
pipes should be laid for cold water services in 20 bar operating
pressure. Specification & drawings are other two important
items to be analyzed in detail for clear understanding. Here the
term engineer means the consultant for the project.
THE IMPORTANCE OF BOQ
BOQ shall be used in every phase (pre-contract & post-contract)
of the project but need of BOQ differs based on different
contract agreements & project. The major usages are listed
below.
1. It provides basic idea of the project by giving the quantities
to tenderers.
2. It defines the extent of the work. (But it should be identified
in line with drawings & specification as well).
3. It gives estimated or anticipated contract sum. (very
important to client)
4. It provides a basis for valuation of variation. (Variation is to
be discussed in detail).
THE MAJOR PARTS OF BOQ
Parts of BOQ can be varied according to the project size as well
the practices. Generally it has measured works, Preliminaries &
Provisional sums. The contract sum would be addition of these
three items.

PRELIMINARIES
In construction industry, preliminaries is known as the indirect
cost for execution of project but these are the costs which is very
much vital for the construction activities. The reason for these
cost mentioned separately is it is very difficult to distribute these
cost amongst with measured works. The examples for
preliminaries listed below.
1. Charges for performance bond, advance payment guarantee
& Workmen compensation
2. Maintenance of the site clean
3. Requirement of site office, site stores & staff
accommodation.
4. Cost towards the project management staff (QS, Project
Manager, Engineering professionals)
5. Charges for drawings & safety
From the above mentioned examples, it can be understood these
costs cannot be distributed to work item but without these
expenses there will be no project.
MEASURED WORKS

It is the actual or estimated work will be carried out to complete

the project. The works have been measured in different units.
They are liner meter, square meter, cubic meter, number, item &
etc. Value of measured works will be calculated by
multiplication of quantities and rate.
PROVISIONAL SUMS
It is the sum which is allocated for the undersigned works at the
tender time. It will be adjusted after the execution of the project.
In summary BOQ is very much important for the commercial
management purposes. It should be understood by every
construction professional to deliver a quality and expected
product to client. In other words to provide value for money.
Written by Gowrinath © BasicCivilEngineering.com
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BASIC KNOWLEDGE FOR CIVIL ENGINEERS

Here in this article you are able to learn the basic knowledge for
civil engineers
Every Civil Engineers should be learn the given points
1)- BUILDING MATERIAL AND CONSTRUCTION
Lab test of Rock,Brick,Cement,Aggregate,Concrete etc
sand + Cement = Mortar
Mortar + Coarse aggregate = Concrete
Different Test of Brick
The standard brick compressive strength should be 10.5N/mm2
(1st class) 7.5(2nd class) 3.5(3rd class)
Stand. Size of brick- 19 x 19 x 9 the value is in the cm

2)- Water absorption test – Not more than 20% Of water by Wt.
If immersed in water for 24hr – 1st class
Not more than 22% water- 2nd class & 24% – 3rd class
Many other test of brick- Hardness test,Toughness test.
English,Fleming,strecher & Header bond of brick masonary.
CONCRETE
Strong in Compression & weak in tension (i.e we provide steel
bar)
Grade(Nominal mix)- M10- 1:3:6 M15- 1:2:4 M20- 1:1.5:3
M25- 1:1:2
Concrete should be fall from not more than 1.5 meter
we should use the M20 grade of concrete for slab
we have to keep the limit water ratio for cocnrte

IMPORTANT INFORMATION AND FORMULAS FOR

CIVIL ENGINEERS

Steel = 7850kg/Cum
Cement=1440kg/cum
brick=1682kg/cum or 1920kg/cum
sand=1100to 1600kg/cum
WATER-1000kg/cum
R.C.C-2500kg/cum (5% STEEL)
P.C.C-2400kg/cum
WOOD-1100kg/cum
CRUSHED BRICK-950-1250kg/cum
IMPORTANT POINTS TO REMEMBER
1. Minimum thickness of slab is 125 mm.
2. Water absorption should not be more than 15 %.
3. Dimension tolerance for cubes + – 2 mm.
4. Lapping is not allowed for the bars having diameters more
than 36 mm.
5. Chair spacing maximum spacing is 1.00 m (or) 1 No per 1m2.
6. For dowels rod minimum of 12 mm diameter should be used.
7. Chairs minimum of 12 mm diameter bars to be used.
8. Longitudinal reinforcement not less than 0.8% and more than
6% of gross C/S.
9. Minimum bars for square column is 4 No’s and 6 No’s for
circular column.
10. Main bars in the slabs shall not be less than 8 mm (HYSD)
or 10 mm (Plain bars) and the distributors not less than 8 mm
and not more than 1/8 of slab thickness.
11. Minimum thickness of slab is 125 mm.
12. Dimension tolerance for cubes + 2 mm.
13. Free fall of concrete is allowed maximum to 1.50m.
14. Lap slices not be used for bar larger than 36 mm.
15. Water absorption of bricks should not be more than 15 %.
16. PH value of the water should not be less than 6.
17. Compressive strength of Bricks is 3.5 N / mm
18. In steel reinforcement binding wire required is 8 kg per
MT.
19. In soil filling as per IS code, 3 samples should be taken for
core cutting test for every 100m2.
20. Compressive strength of Bricks is 3.5 N /mm2 .
FEW MORE
1. Maximum Free fall of concrete allowed is 1.50 m.
2. In soil filling as per IS code for every 100 sq m 3 sample for
core cutting test should be taken.
3. Electrical conduits shall not run in column.
4. Earth work excavation for basement above 3 m should be
stepped form.
5. Any back filling shall be compacted 95% of dry density at
the optimum moisture content and in layers not more than
200 mm for filling above structure and 300 mm for no
structure.
6. F soling is specified the soling stones shall be laid at 45° to
60° inclination (and not vertical) with interstices filled with
sand.
7. A set of cube tests shall be carried out for each 30 cum of
concrete / each levels of casting / each batch of cement.
8. Water cement ratio for different grades of concrete shall not
exceed 0.45 for M20 and above and 0.50 For M10 / M15.
9. For concrete grades M20 and above approved admixture
shall be used as per mix design requirements.
10. Cement shall be stored in dry places on a raised platform
about 200mm above floor level and 300mm away from walls.
Bags to be stacked not more than 10 bags high in such a
manner that it is adequately protected from moisture and
contamination.
11. Samples from fresh concrete shall be taken and at least a
set of 6 cubes of 150mm shall be prepared and cured. 3
Cubes each at 7 days and 28 days shall be tested for
 compressive strength. The test results should be submitted to
engineer for approval. If results are unsatisfactory necessary
action/rectification/remedial measures has to be exercised.
12. Water used for both mixing and curing shall be clean and
free from injurious amounts of oils, acids, alkali, salts, sugar
and organic materials or other substances that may be
deleterious to concrete or steel. The PH. shall be generally
between 6 and 8.
CALCULATING CEMENT, FINE AGGREGATE &
COURSE AGGREGATE FOR MORTAR MIXES

FOR EXAMPLE CONSIDER 1:4 MORTAR, 1 CUM OF

CEMENT MORTAR WORK IS TO BE DONE
1:4 means 1 part of Cement by volume 4 parts of fine aggregate
by volume

Total volume = 1 cum

Quantity of Cement = (1/(1+4)) x 1 = 0.20 cum
1 cum of Cement = 1441 Kg
Cement quantity required = 1441 x 0.20 = 288.2 Kg
Quantity of Sand = (1/(1+4)) x 4 = 0.80 cum
We have not done it correct, the above quantity would yield
hardly 0.63 cum of mortar because we have not
considered voids & cavities. So, we have to increase quantity by
50 – 60%.
So, the final quantity for producing 1 cum 1:4 mortar is
Cement = 288.2 + 60 % ( for voids & cavities) = 288.2 x 1.6
= 461.12 Kg
Sand = 0.80 + 60 % ( for voids & cavities) = 0.80 x 1.6 = 1.28
cum
WHAT ARE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MAIN BARS AND
DISTRIBUTION BARS IN SLAB

Different between main bars and distribution bars in slab. If you

are new or students, you should watch this video tutorial today.

1) Function of Main Bars in Slab.

Main bars are placed at the shorter span direction, to transfer
(B.M.) developed at the bottom of the slab to the
beam.
2) Function of Distribution Bars in Slab.
Distribution Bars (D.B.) are used in the slab to resist the shear
stress because the cracks are devloped due to shear
stress on the top of the slab.
Main Bars (M.B.)
1) Main bars are place at the shorter span direction.
2) Main bars are used at the bottom of the slab.
3) For main bars we select high (dia) of steel.
4) In one way slab, the slab is supported one direction or side, so
there should be placed main bars.

Distribution Bars (D.B.)

1) (D.B.) are placed at the longer span direction
2) (D.B.) are used at the top of the slab.
3) D.B select the lesser dia of steel.
For Distribution bars (D.B), it is required to choose the smaller
dimensions of steel, as it’s objective is to defy the shear stress in
the slab.

The purpose of distribution bar is to allocate the super imposed

load uniformly or resist the Shrinkage stresses formed because
of Temperature variation (Winter,Summer).
In Flat plate slab the, distribution bars are arranged in one
direction at Top of main bar (in longer span).
The distribution bars should not be under 8 mm in a diameter or
not be over 1/8 of the thickness of the R.C.C slabs.
The distribution bars are arranged to retain the mesh in perfect
place and sustain the center to center c/c, bars spacing among
main bars.

THE BEARING CAPACITY OF SOILS CAN BE

IMPROVED BY
The bearing capacity of soils can be improved by ?

increasing the depth of draining the sub-soil

A. B.
footing to Improve BCS water to Improve BCS

ramming the granular

material like crushed
C. D. all of the above
stone in the soil to
Improve BCS

The Correct Answer is ( D ) all of the above

To improve the BCS ( Bearing capacity of soil so we have to

use all the above points which can Increase the bearing capacity
of soil in any construction for any structure.

By the following method you can also increase the Bearing

Capacity of Soil
1: Increasing the foundation depth
2: Draining the Subsoil
3: Blending Granular materials
4: Confining the soil
5: Driving sand piles

TYPES OF FOUNDATION

In a structure, there are usually two sections, one is situated over

the ground and called as super structure and the other sub-
structure of the foundation is situated underneath the ground
level. The Foundation (alias footing) is the inherent part of the
structure and its objective is to transfer the load from the
structure to the ground soil. The foundation is laid on the solid
ground and it is as the foundation bed. The foundation delivers
the load of the structure and it’s self-weight to the soil remains
in such a manner that the ultimate bearing capacity of the soil
does not surpass (the shear failure is not permissible) and the
settlement is bearable.
In all structures, the foundation is set at the base for the
purposes given below:
 To disperse the load of the structure over a wide-ranging
bearing area.
 To load the bearing surface at identical rate with the purpose
of resisting unequal settlement.
 To stop the lateral movement of the supporting material.
 To improve the overall strength of the structure.
Contents:
Shallow Foundation
1. Wall Footing
2. Isolated column/Column Footing
3. Combined Footing
4. Cantilever (Strap) Footing
5. Mat (Raft) Foundation
Deep Foundation

1. Pile Foundation
2. Pier Foundation
3. Well (Caissons) Foundation
The selection of foundation is dependent on the following
factors:-
Depending on the transmittal of load to the ground, foundations
are divided into two sub-categories i.e. shallow foundation and
deep foundation.
Shallow Foundation
Shallow foundation stands for those foundations in which the
depth of the foundation is kept below the width of the
foundation (D < B). Shallow foundations are usually called as
spread footing as they transfer the load of the super structure
laterally into the ground.

Sorting of Shallow Foundation:

Based on the design, the shallow foundations are categorized as:

 Wall Footing
 Isolated column or Column Footing
 Combined Footing
 Cantilever (Strap) Footing
 Mat (Raft) Foundation

Wall Footing
This type of foundation spreads endless manner along the
direction of the wall and allows to transfer the load of the wall
into the ground. Wall footings are mostly effective where
transferrable loads are small and are inexpensive in dense sands
and gravels. In this type of foundation the width remains 2-3
times the width of the wall at ground level. Different types of
materials like stone, brick, plain or reinforced cement concrete
are utilized to build up wall footing.
Column Footing
To construct column footing, the depth should be over 1.5m.
Column footing is very cost-effective. In this type of foundation
the base of the column is expanded. Column footing comes in
the form of flat slab and may be built up with plain or reinforced
concrete.

CIVIL ENGINEERING NOTES

1) The concrete should be dropped from a maximum allowable

height of 1.5 m or 5’
2) Water absorption of bricks should not surpass 15%
3) The least density of slab should be 125 mm or 5”
4) Lapping is disallowed for the bars which contain a diameter
of 36 mm.
5) Minimum bars allowed for the square columns are 4 numbers
and 6 numbers for circular columns.

6) Main bars provided in slabs should not be under 8 mm for

High Yielding Strength Deformed bars or HYSD bars and 10
mm for plain bars and 8 mm for distributors bar. High Yielding
Strength Deformed bars contain more yield strength as
compared to mild steel. HYSD bars are graded as Fe 415 or
Fe500.
7) Allowable compressive strength of bricks should be 3.5 N/m2
8) While conducting soil filling with adherence to IS codes, 3
samples should be selected for core cutting test each 100 m2
area to check the compaction, moisture etc.