CHAPTER DRYING SUBJECT: INDUSTRIAL PHARMACY

Drying: is defined as the removal of small amounts of water or other liquid from a material
by the application of heat.
 Psychrometry: The determination of the vapor concentration and carrying capacity
of the gas is termed as Psychrometry.
Air-water system is mostly employed in pharmaceutical drying operations.
Humidity measurement:
The most accurate means of measuring humidity is by gravimetric method.
Humidity can be determined by taking two temperature measurements. The simplest
instrument for this purpose is the sling psychrometer.
Another different method for measuring humidity employs the hygrometer.

Theories of Drying
Drying involves both heat transfer as well as mass transfer. Heat must be transferred to the
material to be dried in order to supply the latent heat required for vaporization of the
moisture. Mass transferred is involved in the diffusion of water through the material to the
evaporating surface, in the subsequent evaporation of the water from the surface, and in
diffusion of the resultant vapor into the passing air stream.
Consider the film of liquid at the surface of material being dried. The rate of evaporation of
this film is related to rate of heat transfer by the equation: (temperature differential)
dW/dθ = q/λ -------❶
Where,
dW/dθ = rate of evaporation pounds of water per hour
q = overall rate of heat transfer (BTU per hour)
λ = latent heat of vaporization of water (BTU per pound).
The rate of diffusion of moisture into air is expressed by rate equations similar to those for
heat transfer. The driving force is humidity differential, whereas for heat transfer is a
temperature differential. The rate equation is as follows.
dW/dθ = K´A(Hs-Hg) ----------❷
Where,
dW/dθ = rate of diffusion
k´= coefficient of mass transfer
(it is not constant, but varies with velocity of passing air stream)
A = area of evaporating surface
CHAPTER DRYING SUBJECT: INDUSTRIAL PHARMACY

Hs = absolute humidity at evaporating surface

Hg = absolute humidity at passing air stream
After initial period of adjustment, the rate of evaporation is equal to rate of diffusion of vapor
and rate of heat transfer
dW/dθ = q/λ = K´A(Hs-Hg) ------❸
if overall heat transfer, q , is expressed as sum of rates of heat transfer by conduction,
convection and radiation, eq.3 is expanded to form :
dW/dθ = (qc + qk + qr)/λ = K´A(Hs-Hg) ------❹
Rate of drying can be accelerated by increasing any of the individual terms in eq.4.
Drying of Solids:
The moisture in a solid can be expressed on a wet-weight basis or dry-weight basis.
% Loss on drying (LOD):

% Loss on drying (LOD) = mass of water in sample ˟ 100

total mass of wet sample

% Moisture content (MC):

% Moisture content (MC) = mass of water in sample ˟ 100
mass of the dry sample

Equilibrium moisture content

 Evaporative drying processes will not remove all the possible moisture present in a
wet product b/c the solid equilibrates with the moisture present in the air.
 The moisture content present in a solid under steady-state ambient conditions is
termed the equilibrium moisture content.
Bound water: part of the moisture present in a wet solid may be adsorbed on surfaces of the
solid or be adsorbed within its structure
 prevent it from developing its full vapor pressure and from being easily
removed by evaporation.
Such moisture is described as 'bound' and is more difficult to remove than unbound water.

Equilibrium Moisture Content (EMC)

It is the amount of water present in the solid which exerts a vapor pressure equal to the vapor
pressure of the atmosphere surrounding it.
CHAPTER DRYING SUBJECT: INDUSTRIAL PHARMACY

Depending upon temperature and humidity conditions, solids may absorbs or lose moisture.
Free Moisture Content (FMC)
FMC is the amount of water that is free to evaporate from the solid surface.
Free moisture content (FMC) = total water content – EMC

Behavior of Solids during Drying or Rate of Drying

The rate of drying of a sample can be determined by suspending the weight material on a
balance in a drying cabinet and measuring the weight of sample as it dries as a function of
time.
Drying Rate = Weight of water in sample
Time (h) × weight of dry solid
Drying rate curve
It is obtained by plotting a graph of FMC on X- axis & drying rate On Y- axis.
Depending on external conditions & internal mechanism of fluid flow, solids show different
drying patterns.
A typical drying cycle of a solid can be divided into three distinct zones,
1. Initial Adjustment Period
2. Constant Rate Period
3. Falling Rate period
CHAPTER DRYING SUBJECT: INDUSTRIAL PHARMACY

Figure showing Drying Rate Curve

1. Initial Adjustment Period
It is time corresponding to AB curve, which is also called as ‘Heating Up Period’.
During this period, solids absorbs heat & temperature is increase i.e. An wetted substance
when kept for drying it absorbs heat from surrounding & vaporization of moisture takes place
which cools the surface. Heat flows to the cooled surface at higher rates, leads to rise in
temperature & evaporation again.
This continues & after some time heating & cooling rate becomes equal.
This temperature is equal to wet bulb temp. of drying air & is referred by the point B on
graph.
2. Constant rate period
It is time corresponding to BC curve in graph. The temperature remains constant & rate of
drying is constant. During this period, there is a continuous liquid film over the surface of
solid. Moisture evaporating from the surface is replaced by the water diffusing from the
interior of the solid. Also the drying rate remains constant as show in curve by region BC.
Rate of diffusion = Rate of evaporation
As drying proceeds, the coarse capillaries are completely depleted of water & solid fails to
maintain uniform film. The area over which moisture film is not present is known as ‘dry
spot’.
CHAPTER DRYING SUBJECT: INDUSTRIAL PHARMACY

Such dry spot start appearing & drying rate start falling & point (point C) at which
decrease in drying rate start is referred to as the critical moisture content (CMC)
3. First falling Rate period
Also known as period of unsaturated surface drying. It is time corresponding to CD curve.
During this period, surface water is no longer replaced at a rate fast enough to maintain a
continuous film on the surface.
Dry spots begin to appear & rate of drying begins to fall off. The point D is referred to as
second critical point.
Second falling rate period
It is time corresponding to DE in graph. During this period, rate of drying falls even more
rapidly than the first falling rate & no film is present on surface.
At the end, the drying rate becomes zero & moisture content of solids at this point
(Point E) referred to as Equilibrium Moisture Content (EMC).