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M E T O C E A N I N F O R M A T I O N
F O R O F F S H O R E E N G I N E E R I N G D E S I G N & O P E R A T I O N A L P L A N N I N G
The copyright in this document is vested in Global Environmental and Ocean Sciences Limited, Hargreaves Road, Swindon, Wiltshire, SN2 5AZ UK. All rights are reserved.
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(electronic, mechanical, reprographic, recording or otherwise) without the prior written consent of the copyright owner.
C O N T E N T S
INTRODUCTION
METOCEAN PROCESSES
GEOS specialises in the collection, analysis and interpretation of environmental information to support the solution of
practical engineering and environmental management problems in coastal and offshore waters.
GEOS is a member of the Fugro group of companies. Other Fugro companies provide
geotechnical engineering.
GEOS operates world-wide with offices in the United Kingdom, the United States
and Singapore and, through the Fugro group, is represented by a further one
recognised partners who provide related services including advanced numerical modelling, weather forecasting, risk
management and offshore engineering. Particular attention has been paid to links with world class research and academic
institutions to ensure access to current research. Through these links, GEOS is able to constantly update and improve
Quality Assurance is an integral part of the GEOS commitment to meeting client needs and ensuring the integrity of
project work at all levels. GEOS operates a fully developed quality assurance system accredited to ISO9001.
GEOS’ client base includes all major offshore oil and gas companies, their specialist contractors, government agencies and
municipal authorities.
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S E A D ATA
information to support offshore operations and engineering design. The Seadata Manual provides an overview of applied
meteorology and oceanography and reviews the operational and design requirements for metocean information. Particular
emphasis is placed upon the potential cost and safety benefits arising from the application of meteorological and oceanographic
This manual is designed to provide specialists in the offshore industry with a basic understanding of the application of metocean
INTRODUCTION
METOCEAN PROCESSES
A guide to metocean processes and the generation of metocean statistical information for use in the offshore
industry.
A review of principal offshore operational and design activities and their specific requirements for metocean
information.
Explanation and definition of terminology commonly-used in applied meteorology, oceanography and offshore
engineering.
REGIONAL INFORMATION
An overview of regional oceanography and meteorology and a description of the different ways in which
metocean information is obtained, stored and disseminated.
Regional maps showing locations for which specific types of metocean data are available.
1
M E T O C E A N
I N F O R M AT I O N
Meteorological and oceanographic information is required at all stages during the lifetime of an offshore oil or gas field:
Exploration Drilling
Planning and Operation
Offshore Installation
Production
Recertification
Decommissioning
The planned acquisition of metocean information will help to achieve cost savings and safety benefits throughout the
lifetime of the field. Early metocean investigation, undertaken in support of the exploration phase, will permit a good
understanding of environmental conditions in the field, benefiting the subsequent structural design, offshore installation
and production operations. Co-ordinated management and application of metocean information is essential in order to
ensure that the necessary statistics and environmental understanding are available when required in support of any
offshore activity. Also, much new information on local metocean conditions will be gained during the lifetime of a field; it
is to the benefit of all activities if such information is carefully collated and made readily accessible.
The principal forms of metocean information, for use in offshore operations and structural design are:
Visual display of metocean information (wind, waves, current, water level etc) to indicate
present (real-time) and recent-past environmental conditions, and to display forecasts to assist in
operational planning.
10
5
represent the ‘end product’ of detailed measurement, numerical modelling, analysis and interpretation.
I N T R O D U C T I O N
They translate a firm understanding of the local marine environment into a set of defined parameter
values and associated probability levels for use in operational planning and structural design.
In the design of metocean monitoring systems and the preparation of engineering metocean statistics, it is extremely
important to have a clear understanding of the needs of the end-user, and to convey information clearly, concisely
2
S Y M B O L S &
P R E S E N TAT I O N
These symbols are used to indicate wind, current and wave profiles
under discussion.
N
0.5 (m/s)
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
NW
Any example tables and figures presented in this document are included purely to illustrate particular processes and
presentation techniques and such information should not be used or interpreted for any specific design purposes.
3
F R A M E O F
R E F E R E N C E
In all aspects of science and engineering, clear definition of a reference framework is extremely important. This
is especially so in metocean engineering where the scientific disciplines of meteorology and oceanography interface with
those of offshore engineering. The reference framework allows metocean information to be transferred and applied
Parameter units
information is presented.
4 Back to Contents
M E T O C E A N
P R O C E SS E S
C L I C K B U T T O N T O
G O T O T H A T S E C T I O N
WA T E R L E V E L
WA V E S
C U R R E N T
N
0.5 (m/s)
W I N D
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
S
WAT E R L E V E L
The term ‘water level’ is used to describe variations in sea surface elevation at periods longer than those of
surface waves. Water level comprises tidal elevation, non-tidal residuals and variations in Mean Sea Level. The tidal
component of sea level results from astronomical forcing associated with the gravitational
influences of the moon and sun, combined with shallow water resonance and frictional effects.
High Water
Low Water
Time in Days
Key
Water level must always be described relative to a defined datum level so that it can be related to bathymetry and engineering
structures. For coastal applications, a local engineering datum or Chart Datum (CD) may be used. For offshore applications,
water levels are generally quoted either relative to Mean Sea Level (MSL) or Lowest Astronomical Tide
level (LAT). Still Water Level (SWL) is the average instantaneous sea surface elevation in the absence of wave action.
deep water covering the earth’s surface this layer will become
Full Moon orbit the earth, the moon’s location relative to the earth’s surface
and full moon the gravitational forces of the sun and the moon on
Third Quarter
the sea surface will act along approximately the same axis, giving
During a year, the largest spring tides occur at the equinoxes when
the relative positions of the earth, moon and sun maximise the tidal force. In reality the dynamics of the earth, moon, sun
system are not this simple and the earth is not covered by a uniform layer of deep water so real tidal behaviour is much more
complex.
5
WAT E R L E V E L
For semi-diurnal tides, there is a clear fortnightly For mixed tidal regimes, reference levels are normally
spring/neap cycle; the spring range being larger than described in terms of mean higher and lower levels of
the neap range. Reference tidal levels can therefore high and low water:
be defined in terms of mean spring and neap high and
Tidal elevation may be described in terms of the phases and amplitudes of a series of harmonic constituents of known
rotational periods. The phases and amplitudes of each harmonic are determined from analysis of measured data or from
model simulation.
6
WAT E R L E V E L
For any location, the tidal elevation characteristics may be determined with reasonable accuracy from 30 days of careful
measurement. The number of harmonics which can be derived increases with the length of the available data set.
Resolution of the annual harmonic, Sa, requires a full year of data. Harmonics derived from measured data can then be
used to predict the tidal component of elevation for any moment in time.
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
The time series plot shows a typical set of measured water level data covering a period of fourteen days. The data series
has been harmonically analysed. The solid line shows the Still (measured) Water Level. The dashed line shows the
portion of elevation associated with tidal forcing. The difference between the two lines, plotted separately as a green
trace, is the water level residual or non-tidal component of surface elevation. This can be higher than the tidal
Seasonal variations in Mean Sea Level can be assessed by reference to long-term data from tidal measurement stations
or from published literature. In general, variations in MSL are small in comparison to the tidal and surge components of
water level.
Non-tidal residuals result from various forcing mechanisms. Surges result from meteorological factors such as prolonged
wind stress acting on the sea surface (causing positive or negative surges) and/or extremely high or low atmospheric
pressure (causing local depression or elevation of the sea surface respectively). In general, characteristics of surges are
complex and much influenced by regional bathymetry, topography and meteorology. Surge elevation is not readily
predictable, and must be quantified in terms of statistical likelihood. Estimating surge therefore requires either long
periods of observed water level measurement (several years) or regional numerical model simulation.
At any location, the full tidal cycle may be considered to repeat once every 18.6 years. Thus, if a good set of known
harmonic constituents are used to predict elevations over any 18.6 year period, an estimate can be made of the Highest
Astronomical Tide (HAT) and the Lowest Astronomical Tide (LAT). These are respectively the highest and lowest levels
7
WAT E R L E V E L
The most difficult water level descriptors to quantify are extreme maximum and minimum elevations. These represent
the worst case combined influences of tidal oscillation, Mean Sea Level variation and non-tidal residuals. Various
approaches may be used to estimate design extreme water levels, depending upon the information available. If long-term
measured or model hindcast data are available, extrapolation by extreme value analysis is undertaken. One approach is
to extrapolate Still Water Levels (tide+surge). A second approach is to estimate the extreme tidal components of
elevation (HAT and LAT) by harmonic prediction, and then to add extrapolated surge elevation, assuming the processes
of tide and surge to be completely independent. A third approach is to assess the combined probability of tidal elevation
and surge; this normally results in less conservative extreme level estimates than the other methods, but requires the
For design purposes, it is normal to quote 1:N year extreme maximum and minimum Still Water Levels (SWL) due to
the combination of tidal and surge effects, and also to consider the maximum individual wave crest elevation to obtain
The tables below show the principal water level descriptors used for engineering design purposes.
10 yr -ve SWL
50 yr -ve SWL
-1.26
-1.34
-0.24
-0.32
m above LAT
10.89
100 yr -ve SWL -1.37 -0.35
P R O C E S S E S
This figure shows how the extreme water level criteria, presented
in the table above, relate to an offshore jacket structure. The ‘air
AIR GAP
gap’ is the distance between the estimated extreme Total Water
Level and the platform cellar deck elevation.
8 Back to Contents
C U R R E N T
Current is the term used to describe the movement of water. For most
engineering applications, we are concerned with the velocity associated with water
current circulation.
Current conditions may be quoted either for a specified depth in the water column (e.g. near-surface) or as a depth-
averaged value; the geographical location of the information should always be defined. Current speed is the
scalar amplitude of flow velocity and should be quoted with an associated averaging period. Current direction
is quoted either as a compass direction or in degrees True, and generally describes the direction towards which the
flow is moving. This is contrary to the convention for wind and wave directions. Current velocity describes
the vector component of flow resolved along a defined axis; normally, paired orthogonal velocity components are
Speed
N
W
S Direction
(towards)
E
N
Velocity
with time. Current speed and direction will vary with time in response to the various forcing mechanisms influencing
applications.
W N
S E
9
C U R R E N T
This figure shows how current velocity in profile will vary with time. The figure shows hourly stick vector profiles. In
this example there is initially consistent southerly flow through the water column. The reversal of tidal flow sets in first
at the sea bed, giving rise to a sheared profile. Later on, northerly flow is established throughout depth, with intensification near
the surface.
Depth
Hourly
Velocity
Profiles 0830 0930 1030 1130 1230 1330 1430 1530
W N
Current velocity also varies with location. This is of particular importance when assessing conditions at
S E
For most engineering applications, it may be assumed that current flow is confined to the horizontal plane (i.e. vertical
P R O C E S S E S
motion is negligible).
Local bathymetry and coastal shape (headland effects etc.) wave propagation
M E T O C E A N
The dynamics of ocean circulation is a very complex subject. However, for engineering purposes, sufficient description
of local current conditions can generally be provided by local measurement, regional knowledge, numerical model
10
C U R R E N T
Tidal Current
Current velocity should be considered as the combination of tidal and non-tidal influences. The tidal component of flow is
regular and predictable in time. The non-tidal component represents the combined influences of all other forcing
mechanisms and is often highly complex.
The gravitational pull exerted by the moon and sun causes a response in the sea surface; this results in vertical displacement
(tidal elevation) and associated horizontal motion (tidal current). The tidal current will be influenced by local bathymetry
and frictional effects. As with tidal elevation, tidal current can be represented as a series of harmonic constituents;
these describe orthogonal components of horizontal current velocity in terms of the phase and amplitude of cosine
Speed
N
W
S Direction
(towards)
E
N
Velocity
For shallow shelf seas, the tidal current may represent a significant portion of the total flow. In such cases, derived harmonic
constituents can be used to provide useful predictions of currents for operational and extreme design cases. Given adequate
estimates of the harmonic constituents, tidal current is predictable in time. Current harmonics are essentially the same as
those used to characterise vertical tidal motion. However for currents, pairs of constituents are derived for orthogonal
Tidal current harmonics are often presented as ellipses. The ellipse shows the
locus of flow velocity for one harmonic constituent through one rotational period.
practice, ellipses are generally presented only for the dominant harmonics
(typically M2, S2, O1 and K1). The magnitude and eccentricity of the principal
flow is termed rectilinear with two periods of low (slack) current velocity during each tidal cycle. In the open ocean, current
ellipses may be near-circular. In this instance, current speed remains relatively constant through the tidal cycle and direction shows
11
C U R R E N T
showing the maximum tidal current predicted in each Extreme tidal current
direction sector. However, it is important to recognise velocities by direction
that such plots contain no information about non-tidal
components of flow. S
Non-Tidal Current
In most deeper water offshore environments, the tidal component of flow is small in comparison with other forcing
mechanisms. This results in complex flow patterns which are difficult to predict. The figure below shows a portion of
near surface current velocity data where persistent monsoon winds, combined with coastline influence, cause strong and
sustained southerly flow with very little tidal signature. Such characteristics may be very seasonal in nature. Great care
should therefore be taken to anticipate seasonal effects when interpreting brief segments of measured current data. In
certain locations, such as the Malacca Straits, Sulu Sea and Andaman Sea, intermittent occurrence of solitons (discrete
packets of solitary waves) can cause a significant increase in current velocity in the upper water column. Such processes
can have a major effect on offshore operations; they can be anticipated from previous measurements or examination of
satellite imagery, but are particularly difficult to predict in time and space.
P R O C E S S E S
Speed
N
W
S
E Direction
N
(towards)
Velocity
Where tidal and non-tidal flows are of similar magnitude (such as in the example on the first page of the current section),
variations in the non-tidal flow will cause major changes to the time of ‘slack water’; this can cause problems in planning
M E T O C E A N
of subsea operations.
12
C U R R E N T
Current Profile
Speed
N
W
S Direction
E (towards)
N
The density structure of the water column generally has an important influence on the current velocity profile through
depth. The presence of a strong density discontinuity may act as a boundary between flow layers. Typical examples of
layered flow are that associated with the presence of a seasonal thermocline in the upper layer and the vertical partition
between different ocean water masses. The figure above shows an example of flow in profile and time sequence. The
flow is strong and persistent in the upper 200 metres of the water column; below this depth, there is a sharp attenuation
in current speed.
Current velocities in the upper portion of the water column (top 10-15 metres below surface) may
be increased as a direct result of surface wind forcing. This process is distinct from regional wind-
induced circulation which normally occurs through a much greater portion of the water column.
Short-term wind forcing (1-2 day storms) causes temporary wind-induced flows near the surface. The
precise characteristics of wind-induced current will depend upon:
Sea fetch over which wind blows Sea state (surface roughness)
An empirical approach using a function of wind speed and duration may be adopted to estimate wind-
induced near-surface flows: but this is normally not very precise. Direct measurement should be made
where such flows are of operational importance. A logarithmic profile is often assumed to apply in
the surface 15 to 20 metres, as a result of wind-induced current.
Close to the sea floor, frictional effects normally cause a reduction in current velocity from that in the
waters above. From observation, bottom frictional effects are largely confined to the lower 15 to 20
metres of the water column. It is common to assume a logarithmic velocity profile or power law profile
close to the sea floor. Frictional effects will be influenced by bed roughness and flow velocity; however the
above theoretical profiles provide a working approximation to the real near-bed profile. Current
measurements are advisable when there is a need for detailed knowledge near the seabed. Where density
discontinuities occur close to the sea bed, internal wave propagation may cause unexpectedly strong flows.
13
C U R R E N T
N
0.5 (m/s)
0.4
This current scatter graph shows a portion of
0.3
mid-depth current velocity data for a location
0.2 where flows are predominantly tidal. The principal
S
Quantitative statistics can be presented as a table of
3.6% 1.2 0.0 4.8
Percentage Occurrence
speed/direction joint occurrence probability. NW
SW
8.2 16.8 4.2 0.2 29.4
This current speed/direction joint
Current Direction (towards)
P R O C E S S E S
14
C U R R E N T
For a full description of design currents, extreme current speed statistics (for nominal return periods 1, 5, 10, 25, 50 and
100 years) should be quoted as follows:
Various permutations of extreme current information are available, depending upon the specific application.
Return Period
This table shows all-year extreme current criteria at a series of depths throughout the water column.
15
C U R R E N T
Season
The table shows seasonal and all-year current criteria at a single depth, by direction and by season.
It is common practice to determine principal extreme criteria by data extrapolation (all-year, omni-directional values)
and then to apply derived scaling factors to estimate directional and seasonal variations. Various objective procedures
can be used to estimate scaling ratios.
The figure on the left presents extreme current
velocity estimates, by direction and through
N
depth. This represents the envelope of 1:100
year current estimates at the location of
E
interest. Extreme conditions may vary
considerably through depth and by season,
depending upon the water column structure
P R O C E S S E S
16 Back to Contents
WAV E S
The term gravity wave is used to describe oscillations in sea surface elevation with
periods of typically less than one minute and wave lengths less than one kilometre. Sea
waves are generated predominantly by the effects of the wind acting on the water
surface. The transfer of energy across the air-sea boundary propagates as waves. In
most aspects of offshore engineering design, waves impose higher structural loadings
than the other environmental factors (wind, current etc.). Also, sea state generally
represents the limiting condition for safe execution of offshore operations. The
surface characteristics of the real sea are extremely complex and variable, but may
be represented conveniently by a set of common metocean descriptors.
Wave conditions are normally defined for a single position, with surface characteristics (height, period, direction etc.)
specified. Wave height is generally quoted as the significant wave height parameter, Hs. This is equal to the average
of the largest one third of the crest to trough heights during a prescribed sampling period. Wave period is generally
quoted as the mean zero crossing period parameter, Tz. This is the average duration between successive upward wave
crossings of the Still Water Level (SWL) during a prescribed sampling period. Wave direction is quoted either as a
compass direction or in degrees True, and generally describes the direction from which the waves approach. There are
many descriptors used to describe characteristics of sea waves; further definitions are provided in the Glossary of Terms.
Sea Surface Elevation
Time (seconds)
This figure shows a short sequence of measured wave data. The trace shows variation in vertical level of the sea surface,
at a single point, with respect to time. There are some clear cyclical components in the trace, but also irregularities. The
dynamics of the ‘real sea’ are extremely complex and confused. However, in metocean engineering, a simplified
representation of the real sea is utilised, enabling the use of quantitative wave parameters to characterise particular
Height
Period
N
W
S Direction
E
(from)
N
day 1 day 2 day 3 day 4 day 5
This figure shows a five day time series of simple sea state descriptors, derived from analysis of measured wave motion.
Typically, representative statistical descriptors are determined once every thirty minutes. Thus, the confused ‘real sea’ is
17
WAV E S
Wave Height
Zero Up-Crossing frequency (linear or Airy wave
Still Water Level
theory). This type of wave can be
Wave Height - the vertical distance between a wave crest and the subsequent trough (twice the amplitude)
Wave Length - the horizontal distance between successive upward-crossings of the wave surface through
the Still Water Level (SWL)
Wave Period - at a single point of reference, the time duration between two successive ‘upward-crossings’
or ‘downward crossings’ of the wave surface through the SWL
Sea Surface Elevation
HN
P R O C E S S E S
Time
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 TN
T = Wave
Up-Crossing Period
This figure shows a short portion of real sea wave data to illustrate the basic statistical descriptors. Here, we are
concerned only with vertical motion of the sea surface at a single position, with no consideration of directionality.
Vertical motion is recorded with respect to time. Typically, discrete measurements of elevation would be made at half
second intervals for a duration of thirty minutes. Statistics are derived from such a sequence using counting analysis.
M E T O C E A N
Individual waves within the sample are segmented as the surface motion between successive upward-crossings of the
Still Water Level. Each individual wave has characteristics of period (T1, T2,..,TN) and height (H1, H2,..,HN)
18
WAV E S
From counting analysis of a thirty minute (or similar) segment of wave data, the following fundamental statistical wave
Significant wave height and mean wave zero-crossing period are often computed from wave spectra (as parameters
Hm0 and T0,2). For most practical purposes these parameters correspond to Hs and Tz.
Specification of the above parameters forms the basis of most offshore structural loading calculations.
of a perfect linear wave. The amplitude of the orbit decreases exponentially with depth below surface. At depths of
half the surface wavelength and greater, there is negligible particle motion. Such waves are termed ‘Deep Water Waves’.
In shallower water, there is interaction between the wave profile and the sea floor. Thus, the wave becomes distorted
and its dynamic characteristics change. Waves in water depths of less than half their surface wave length are termed
In coastal waters, various factors act to modify wave conditions and should be taken into account in a metocean study.
These include:
Refraction Shoaling
Diffraction Frictional Dissipation
Breaking Wave-current interaction
19
WAV E S
Wave Spectra
Time
Sea Surface Elevation
Wave Energy
Wave Frequency
Spectral Peak
+
High frequency, Short Wave Period
For most metocean engineering purposes, a spectral description of sea state may be used. Wave profiles in the ‘real
ocean’ are highly complex, but can be represented as a series of simple sine waves of varying frequencies and amplitudes
which, when summed together, are a close approximation to the ‘real’ sea surface.
A wave spectrum is a graph showing the distribution of energy with wave frequency (inverse of period). Thus, if
a sea state consisted entirely of uniform waves of constant frequency, the associated spectrum would be a discrete
energy line at that frequency. Real spectra show a spread of energy across frequency (equivalent to a large number of
Spectral analysis is a technique applied to real wave measurements to estimate the amplitude of each oscillatory
component from the first low frequency (long period) wave to high frequency (short period) components.
In metocean analyses, wave energy is normally expressed as spectral density, which is defined as the individual
oscillatory component amplitude squared divided by the frequency interval between adjacent components (spectral
A principal sea state characteristic which derives from the spectral representation is the spectral peak. The
metocean statistic which defines this is termed the peak period, Tp. In storm seas, there is normally a narrow
M E T O C E A N
Standard statistical wave parameters such as Hm0 and T0,2 can be estimated from wave spectra.
20
WAV E S
frequency bands. The dominant energy is associated with long Long Period
Swell Waves
amplitude.
Short Period
Swell is often of major operational concern as it can induce Wind Waves
Frequency
21
WAV E S
Swell Waves
The result of directional spreading is a discrete directional wave energy
d
spectrum. This is an energy surface which has dimensions of frequency and
rio
Pe
direction. Directional spectra are often plotted as polar contoured figures. These can W E
be very useful for the identification of different wave trains in a sea state, particularly
in real time for delicate operations such as offshore heavy lifts. Wind Waves
Spectral energy can also be displayed in time sequence to give a very detailed description of sea
S
state. This plot shows the development and decay of an intense westerly storm. As the storm decays,
Significant Wave
Height
Peak Wave
Period
P R O C E S S E S
N
W Peak Wave
S
E
Direction (from)
N
Wave Energy Density
Period
Wave Frequency
Spectrum
Sequence
Direction Spectrum (m2/degree)
Frequency Spectrum (m2/Hz)
N
Direction (from)
W
M E T O C E A N
Wave Direction
S Spectrum
Sequence
E
N
day 1 day 2 day 3 day 4 day 5 day 6 day 7
22
WAV E S
are available, depending upon the specific application. Examples of operational wave statistical presentations are:
Monthly, seasonal and directional statistics (maximum, mean and standard deviation)
Monthly, seasonal and directional wave height and period exceedence tables
s
es 4 1 :20
pn =1
Percentage Occurrence ee
St 4 1 ess This is a very common summary
10 e epn
av 5 4 Ste
W ve
1 28 5 Wa
8 presentation of wave statistics.
6 36 11
85 56 8 3
6 1:40
s =1
The graph shows an array of
62 213 18 4 3
tee pnes
Wave S 2
2 483 185 12 8 4
4 wave height and period
220 718 138 27 1 2
61 651 482 74
2 categories. In each cell there is
3 375 490 185 12
17 24 9 28 1 a number corresponding to the
0
3 5 7 9 11
Mean Wave Zero-Crossing Period Tz number of joint Hs/Tz
occurrences during the analysis data period. The array may be contoured to indicate regions of high occurrence. Lines
of constant wave steepness are normally plotted on the table. Wave steepness is the ratio of significant wave
height to wave length, based on the assumption of deep water linear waves. The limiting steepness on such tables is
normally around 1:16. Sea states much steeper than this will tend to break and dissipate energy. The distribution of
data points relative to the steepness lines indicates the primary characteristics of the sea state (steep wind sea or shallow
swell waves).
January 0.35m 0.91 1.18 1.30 1.59 2.20 2.40 3.20 3.28 3.46 3.53
February 0.26 0.51 0.72 0.98 1.43 1.99 2.16 2.49 2.56 2.61 2.62
March 0.56 0.70 0.89 1.02 1.29 1.61 1.67 1.92 2.03 2.14 2.15
April 0.28 0.39 0.51 0.65 0.85 1.03 1.07 1.23 1.25 1.45 1.46
Month
May 0.17 0.29 0.36 0.44 0.57 0.81 0.90 1.49 1.81 2.04 2.05
June 0.19 0.31 0.38 0.46 0.61 1.09 1.27 1.99 2.11 2.49 2.50
July 0.23 0.36 0.46 0.56 0.69 1.05 1.22 1.99 2.19 2.72 2.79
August 0.25 0.41 0.52 0.63 0.76 0.97 1.09 1.29 1.39 1.45 1.47
September 0.35 0.52 0.64 0.75 0.88 1.17 1.27 1.75 1.94 2.42 2.44
October 0.21 0.37 0.48 0.61 0.82 1.23 1.64 2.54 2.60 2.75 2.86
November 0.45 0.86 1.08 1.22 1.33 1.56 1.71 2.02 2.15 2.22 2.23
December 0.34 0.67 0.95 1.24 1.66 2.21 2.42 2.83 2.97 3.06 3.07
All-Year 0.17 0.38 0.55 0.77 1.06 1.60 1.85 2.52 2.71 3.20 3.53
exceedence thresholds, the table shows the corresponding value of Hs which will be equalled or exceeded for that
percentage of the month. Exceedence distributions can also be presented to show the exceedence percentage for each
23
WAV E S
Percentage Exceedence
Cumulative Probability
5 Years
10 Years
7.50m
7.24m
expected to be equalled or exceeded once during N
50 Years 8.70m
100 Years 9.02m years. N is called the return period.
The idealised PDF may be fitted to either the cumulative frequency distribution (CFD) of the available data or to the
distribution of peak values above a prescribed threshold level (POT). The PDF may be fitted either to the whole available
data distribution or a selected portion of its tail. Various curve fitting procedures may be adopted including:
Distributions are generally plotted on logarithmic axes as shown in the example extreme value extrapolation graph.
Plotted points represent the probability distribution of the source data set. The line represents the idealised probability
distribution function which has been fitted. Extreme value design tables are compiled presenting the derived metocean
Return Period
1yr 5yr 10yr 25yr 50yr 100yr
Hs (m) 9.9 11.0 11.4 11.9 12.4 12.8
Parameter
For the derivation of extreme criteria, extreme value extrapolations are performed on ‘basic’ parameters (such as all-year,
omni-directional significant wave height). Appropriate scaling ratios are then used to estimate
monthly, seasonal and directional severity. Established empirical relationships are used to determine
24 Back to Contents
W I N D
Wind is an important process in most aspects of metocean engineering. As well as representing a major
structural loading force, wind action has a very direct influence on sea state and current circulation, and can
also affect non-tidal surge elevation. Consideration of wind conditions is important for offshore operational
planning (crane and helicopter operations etc.) and in process engineering related
to the offshore industry (e.g. dispersion of airborne pollutants).
For metocean applications, wind speed should always be quoted for a specified elevation
(such as helideck level or the generally-quoted reference level of 10m above sea surface level),
unless otherwise defined. Wind speed is often quoted as the scalar value associated with one-
wind speeds are normally quoted as ten-minute mean values. It is very important that the
reference elevation and duration basis of a wind speed value is clearly defined. Wind
direction is quoted either as a compass direction or in degrees True, and generally
This figure shows a five day time series of wind velocity and atmospheric pressure. The data are from European waters and show the
passage of an intense depression with associated strong winds, rotation of incident direction vectors and fall in atmospheric pressure.
Speed
N
W
S Direction
E (from)
N
Velocity
Pressure
Wind speed varies considerably with elevation above sea or ground level. This is particularly important
for estimating structural loadings. The form of the vertical wind profile will depend upon:
Wind speed magnitude
Surface roughness
Various empirical formulae are available for estimating the wind speed profile. These are also relevant for
correcting measurements to a standard reference level (many anemometers on offshore installations are
sited at the top of the derrick in clear airflow). Turbulence around a structure can also result in regions of
intensification and sheltering of airflow.
25
W I N D
Superimposed on the mean airflow pattern is higher frequency turbulent flow. This
3 second gust speed
10 minute mean speed
results in short periods of more intense speed (gusts). In metocean statistics, all
quoted wind speeds should be qualified with the averaging period or gust period to
which they relate. The 3-second gust wind speed is defined as the maximum speed
which is persistently equalled or exceeded over three seconds during a particular
sampling period. Empirical procedures are normally used to estimate gust speeds and speeds for other averaging periods from
standard mean values. The figure shows comparison between measured 10-minute mean and 3-second gust wind speeds.
Wind Systems
In any metocean study, it is important to consider the dominant meteorological processes influencing ambient and
extreme design wind conditions. These include:
Persistent wind systems (e.g. Trade wind belts)
Temperate depressions
Cyclones (Tropical and Extra-Tropical)
Squalls
Land/sea breezes
Micro
Influences of local coastal relief
In assessing the climate, it is important to consider the variability and character of weather patterns which could impact upon
operations and structural integrity at a particular location. Operational wind conditions and design extreme wind statistics
are estimated from analysis of available observed, measured and model hindcast data. The data should encompass a
full range of meteorological conditions likely to be encountered at the location of interest.
Forecasting
For offshore operational planning, frequent provision of weather forecasts is required. Forecasting concerns global scale
numerical model simulation of meteorological processes. Typically, a global computer forecasting model will be run twice daily
to estimate conditions over the forthcoming four to five days. Finer scale ‘nested’ regional models may then be run more
P R O C E S S E S
frequently to provide detailed localised forecasts. Forecasting techniques also utilise assimilation of measured meteorological
data from a large array of reporting stations, ships and weather satellites.
Regional weather forecasts may be provided as ‘synoptic charts’ as shown
to the right. These present the estimated surface pressure field and wind
flow patterns (at the ten metre level) for a particular future time, or for
present conditions. More detailed site-specific forecasts may be provided
as tabulations of estimated meteorological and sea state parameters for a
series of defined future times for the location of interest. The reliability of
a forecast will diminish in relation to the time ahead.
M E T O C E A N
26
W I N D
Tropical Cyclones
The figure shows
historical cyclone tracks
in the Arabian Sea for a
16 selected month of the
6
year. In certain areas
20
(e.g. parts of South East
17 16 5 14
19
Asia and the Gulf of
18 15
13
4 Mexico), cyclonic
12
11
storms generate an
14
important extreme
13
design condition for
wind, wave and current
loading.
12
A Tropical Cyclone is an intense wind system rotating about an area of low pressure. The central low pressure area typically
persists for several days, following a trajectory over the ocean and progressively intensifying and then dissipating (normally on
reaching land). Tropical Cyclones are monitored closely by meteorologists; each is given a unique reference name and its
track history is recorded. For Tropical Cyclones, the following classifications are used to describe the stages of development.
In regions such as Vietnam and the Philippines, where cyclones occur frequently, they will be anticipated in the design process and
it may be possible to base extreme estimates on objective statistical analysis of past cyclone conditions. However, on the fringes of
cyclone regions, it may be more difficult to anticipate the design ‘worst case’.
Reference should be made to historical cyclone track records for any metocean study in a Tropical Cyclone region. Effects of related
metocean processes can be assessed from historical data (if available) and from model hindcasting of wave and current processes.
27
W I N D
The sequence below shows monthly wind roses for a location in South East Asia. The seasonal monsoon wind pattern
is clearly evident. Between November and February, winds are consistently strong and from the north east. Between
March and May, there is a weaker transitional pattern. Between June and September, winds are persistently southerly
(but less strong than in the north-east monsoon). In October, there is a brief transitional period of light and variable
winds between monsoons.
The seasonal monsoon pattern will vary, dependent upon location.
28
W I N D
Persistence analysis concerns the statistical assessment of available ‘windows’ for weather-critical operations. For example, if a topsides
installation can only be undertaken safely in wind speeds of less than 15 metres per second (the ‘threshold’ speed), and is expected to
take 26 hours to complete, persistence analysis will provide details of the likelihood of successful completion during a particular month or
season. When wind speed (or other parameter) exceeds a prescribed threshold, conditions are ‘unfavourable’ for the operation; when
the threshold is not exceeded,
Du1 Du2 Du3 conditions are ‘favourable’.
This table shows results of persistence analysis for each of a series of wind speed threshold values. Results are presented
as persistent mean and maximum event durations, both for ‘unfavourable’ (exceedence) and ‘favourable’ (non-
exceedence) cases. The percentage of time for which the threshold is exceeded and not exceeded is also shown.
29
W I N D
Direction (from)
N NE E SE S SW W NW All
1yr 28.4m/s 22.1 24.9 24.9 25.5 26.4 27.5 28.4 28.4
Return Period
This table shows extreme (non-directional) wind speed estimates in profile and for various
averaging periods. This type of presentation is suitable for the design of tall structures such
as masts and flare stacks, where short-term gust loading may be of particular importance.
Extreme criteria may be presented in various formats depending upon the particular design
requirements for wind statistics.
M E T O C E A N
30 Back to Contents
E N G I N E E R I N G
R E Q U I R E M E N T S
F O R M E T O C E A N
I N F O R M A T I O N
C L I C K B U T T O N T O
G O T O T H A T S E C T I O N
S E I S M I C E X P L O R A T I O N
F I X E D S T R U C T U R E S
E X P L O R A T I O N D R I L L I N G
I N S TA L L A T I O N O F
O F F S H O R E S T R U C T U R E S
O F F S H O R E O P E R A T I O N S
S U B S E A P I P E L I N E S
A N D C A B L E S
F L O A T I N G P R O D U C T I O N
S Y S T E M S
C O A S TA L FA C I L I T I E S
O F F S H O R E
SEISMIC EXPLORATION
Seismic exploration represents the first major operational phase of offshore field assessment. Seismic surveys may also
be repeated after development in order to monitor oil reservoir depletion and to re-assess the field. The operation
The principal metocean conditions which affect seismic exploration are sea state and near-surface current
velocity. Sea state limits the conditions in which the vessel can deploy and recover sources and streamers, and
introduces acoustic noise and positional uncertainty into the data. Surface current velocity can displace the streamer
from its intended line. Water level data may also be required for the reduction of geophysical data.
towed at a depth of 7 to 10
be up to 4 kilometres in length.
Cross-current (flow perpendicular to the survey line) will cause the streamer to
‘feather’. The angle of streamer feather is described by the offset of the tail buoy from the ship track. If the streamer
is displaced from the survey line, this means that the sub-bottom measurements are being made to one side of the
ship track.
Seismic exploration contracts require tight tolerances on survey coverage. Thus, it is important that the sub-bottom
measurement coverage is consistent with the planned survey lines. It is possible to navigate the ship in order to achieve
optimal streamer cover of the prescribed survey lines. However, strong and variable cross-currents may cause portions
of a line to be outside specified tolerance on coverage. In such circumstances, expensive ‘infill’ must be undertaken to
repeat measurements over the invalid portion of the line. Additionally, high sea states will cause degradation in the
measured acoustic signal which may necessitate repeat of portions of the survey.
31
OFFSHORE
SEISMIC EXPLORATION
I N F O R M A T I O N
Operational wind and wave statistics by month and direction for estimation of downtime.
Assessment of the ambient current regime in order to establish the best survey line orientation (should be
Predictions of tidal current for the proposed survey period (where flow is predominantly tidal).
seismic shoot (data should be maintained for future design and operational use).
Any problematic metocean conditions encountered during the survey should be noted for future reference
F O R
$ Optimal survey line orientation is important during survey planning. This requires understanding of the
COST BENEFITS
Excessive and variable cross-current during the survey will cause deflection of the hydrophone streamer array
and may necessitate repetition of lines to infill missing data. Detailed knowledge of current conditions (from
preliminary desk study and real-time measurement) will help to optimise the survey execution so that the
required line coverage can be completed in the minimum amount of ship time.
$ The seismic exploration exercise provides an excellent opportunity to obtain measured metocean information
in the block of interest, taking advantage of the infrastructure support for the seismic survey. Any understanding
of currents (and waves) gained at this early stage in the life of a (potential) field will have great benefit
E N G I N E E R I N G
32 Back to Contents
EXPLORATION DRILLING
Exploration drilling is one of the early activities in the life of a field. Increasingly, exploration is occurring in deeper waters
on the continental slope, in typical depths of 200 to 1500 metres. This presents many challenges in terms of drilling
technology and necessitates good understanding of metocean conditions. Often ocean dynamics are more complex at
Current velocity, wind and wave conditions are the principal metocean factors affecting exploration drilling. In
deep water, ocean current imposes major stress on the sub-sea drilling components, and is a principal parameter in riser
design. Environmental conditions affect rig selection, drilling methodology and optimal drilling season to minimise
operational down-time.
minimum flow.
Back to Contents 33
EXPLORATION DRILLING
I N F O R M A T I O N
Operational Planning
Monthly mean and percentage exceedence statistics for wind velocity, wave height and current velocity
Monthly persistence statistics for wind velocity, wave height and current velocity
M E T O C E A N
Offshore Drilling
Briefing to drillers on anticipated metocean conditions
$ Exploration drilling provides an excellent opportunity for the collection of metocean data. Measurements of
waves and currents undertaken at this early stage will benefit the efficiency of the drilling programme, and will
R E Q U I R E M E N T S
also be of great use in subsequent field development. There are major cost savings in undertaking metocean
measurements in frontier regions if advantage is taken of the infrastructure set up to support exploration
drilling (ships, helicopters, rig etc.).
$ In deep water, major cost savings can be achieved if the well can be drilled with the rig holding station on
COST BENEFITS
dynamic positioning using thrusters rather than deploying a multi-point anchor array. This requires good
knowledge and monitoring of environmental conditions.
$ The efficiency of offshore operations which are sensitive to current conditions (such as anchoring, riser
deployment and ROV operation) can be improved by knowledge of the ambient flow regime and the
provision of real-time and forecast current profile information.
$ In adverse environmental conditions, where the combination of current, wave and wind loadings may exceed
E N G I N E E R I N G
the rig’s operating envelope, it could become necessary to cease drilling operations. This can be hazardous
and extremely expensive. Early indications of the approach of adverse conditions (from understanding of
environmental conditions, real-time wave and current measurement and competent current and weather
forecasting) will allow safe, timely and cost-effective decision-making, and may actually allow operations to
continue with consequent large cost savings.
34
O F F S H O R E
O P E R AT I O N S
Offshore oil field operations involve a wide range of activities which are dependent upon metocean conditions. Many
operations are of a routine nature and require continual provision of real-time and forecast metocean information for
planning. Some major operations, such as structural modifications, require significant advanced planning and
preparation and may need specific metocean statistics such as weather downtime estimates.
Wind, waves and current velocity are the principal metocean factors affecting offshore operations. For operational
planning and optimisation, metocean statistics are required to describe typical and worst-case conditions by month,
allowing assessment of potential downtime. For on-going operational support, real-time provision of metocean
measurements and forecasts are required. In all aspects of offshore operation, there is benefit in
current monitoring.
Operational forecasting
Back to Contents 35
O F F S H O R E
O P E R AT I O N S
I N F O R M A T I O N
comprehensive operational metocean statistics for a particular region. Such a document can be widely circulated
and utilised for various applications. Planning of specific operations may require additional specialised analyses.
Monthly and all-year percentage exceedence statistics for wind speed, wave height and current speed
Directional all year percentage exceedence statistics for wind speed, wave height and current speed
Monthly or seasonal persistence statistics (favourable and unfavourable) for wind speed, wave height and
current speed
Description of characteristic wave spectra (indicating the occurrence of swell energy)
Real Time Metocean Information
It is common to have permanent measurement systems on selected offshore installations. Data acquired at these
stations can then be disseminated to other installations, vessels and helicopters in the vicinity. Real-time measured
F O R
data should also be quality-controlled, reported routinely and databased for subsequent use. Permanent real-time
$ Major cost savings, reductions in downtime and increased safety will be achieved in offshore operations if there
COST BENEFITS
is good understanding of metocean conditions (from operational statistics, real-time data and routine forecast
provision.
E N G I N E E R I N G
$ Real-time measurements undertaken to provide operational support are also of major value as long-term statistics.
$ The accumulation of metocean statistics during the lifetime of an oil field will help to refine extreme design
criteria. In many cases, it may be found that the original basis of structural design was conservative, in which
case there may be justification for increased functionality (greater deck loading etc.) and extension to platform
life.
36 Back to Contents
F L O AT I N G
PRODUCTION SYSTEMS
Floating production systems are of increasing importance in offshore field exploitation. Principal systems include
Tension Leg Platforms (TLPs) and Floating Production Storage and Offloading (FPSO) facilities. Floating systems allow
production in deep water environments where conventional fixed structures would not be cost-effective or feasible.
For marginal fields, with modest reservoirs, floating systems may provide the only economic production solution.
Floating system developments differ greatly from more conventional fixed-structure developments. Typically, there will
be a ‘fast-track’ field development where aspects of design and installation may occur at the same time. The field life
cycle may be relatively short, and ultimately the vessel may be re-used at another location.
Metocean factors are of importance during the design, installation and operation of floating production systems.
Of principal importance are current, wave and wind conditions. The response of the vessel and mooring system to
combined environmental forces may be extremely complex. In the design case, many permutations of current, wave
and wind loadings may need to be considered, with particular regard to long period wave excitation and the
occurrence of wind, waves and current from different directions. For FPSOs, operability and down-time due to adverse
metocean conditions are of major importance in terms of system viability. In deep water fields on the continental slope,
The schematic
system to a central turret, about which the vessel rotates. Flexible risers
37
F L O AT I N G
PRODUCTION SYSTEMS
The vessel has onboard storage volume for produced oil. However, this is limited and it is important that the shuttle
I N F O R M A T I O N
tankers can offload oil on a regular basis. If the storage volume is fully-used, production must be stopped, and waxing
may occur in flowlines under the influence of cold ocean bottom water. Therefore, at the feasibility stage, operability
statistics must be reviewed for shuttle tanker operations.
The combined influence of wind, waves and current is very important in terms of vessel response. If the near-surface
current is strong and from a different direction to the waves, the vessel may align to the current and be exposed to
adverse long period beam seas. Detailed understanding of vessel response is necessary for the design of flexible risers
and mooring systems.
The installation of moorings and subsea facilities requires extensive offshore operations involving specialised vessels and
underwater vehicles. Vessel selection, operational planning and execution all require detailed information about
metocean conditions, in terms of statistics, real-time measurements and operational forecasting.
M E T O C E A N
$ For many marginal fields, the only economically-viable development solution will be to use a floating production
system. Detailed study of metocean conditions will help to assess feasibility and select an appropriate system.
COST BENEFITS
E N G I N E E R I N G
$ Metocean statistics are important in assessment of vessel motion, particularly for appraisal of operational
windows for FPSO shuttle tanker berthing and potential disconnection frequency.
$ Once installed, certain elements of a floating production system, such as flexible risers and mooring
components, have a limited lifetime due to fatigue loading, and must be replaced periodically. Knowledge of
metocean conditions allows component fatigue lives to be estimated with confidence and helps to prevent
premature and unnecessary replacement.
38 Back to Contents
F I X E D S T R U C T U R E S
Fixed offshore structures are used in shelf sea fields, normally in water depths less than 200 metres. Principal structural
types are the piled steel jacket platform and the concrete gravity platform.
Metocean factors are of importance in the design of fixed structures. Extreme forces associated with
wave and current loading on the substructure and wind loading on the topsides form a major element of the design
basis. Extreme water level is important in setting the deck elevation to allow an adequate air gap. Near bed
currents determine the degree of scour protection required at the base of the structure.
type used in water depths of fifty to one hundred and fifty metres.
The wind velocity profile will vary substantially over the height
profile.
settlement.
Installation Decommissioning
39
FIXED STRUCTURES
I N F O R M A T I O N
Operations
Monthly wind roses and speed/direction joint occurrence tables
Monthly or seasonal wind speed exceedence and persistence statistics
Monthly wave height/period joint occurrence tables
Monthly or seasonal wave height exceedence and persistence statistics
Monthly or seasonal current velocity scatter plots at selected depths
Characteristics of current regime (predictability of times of slack water)
Tidal elevation harmonics and tidal predictions
F O R
$ The initial metocean design premise forms the basis for environmental loading calculations and is therefore a
very important element of the overall structural design. The design premise must be of sufficient integrity to
R E Q U I R E M E N T S
satisfy certifying authorities. If the premise is over-conservative, this can result in major additional material and
fabrication costs. If extreme loadings are under-estimated, the safety of the design may be impaired.
$ The degree of conservatism in design environmental loadings may be reduced safely if there is good knowledge
of the metocean conditions at the field. Thus, expenditure on measurement and numerical model hindcasting
COST BENEFITS
$
$
Long-term measured and hindcast metocean data sets can be used for joint probability assessment of design
extreme conditions. By considering the combined probability of occurrence of wind, wave and current loadings,
a more realistic basis of design will be established than with the more conventional method of considering each
For many existing fixed structures, improved knowledge of metocean loading conditions can be used to
E N G I N E E R I N G
demonstrate the conservatism of their original design. In such cases there may be justification, at the time of
re-certification for extending the function of the structure (e.g. increasing the deck loading by adding more
production plant).
$ Knowledge of metocean conditions can result in major operational cost savings by appropriate
planning (e.g. selecting the best time of year for a weather sensitive operation or scheduling an
40 Back to Contents
INSTALLATION OF
OFFSHORE STRUCTURES
Various procedures are used in offshore installation, depending upon the type of structure and the anticipated
environmental conditions. For fixed steel structures, the jacket is normally towed out on a barge and then slid off into
position. The topsides are then placed on the jacket. For concrete gravity structures, the assembly will be towed out
and then ballasted down onto the sea floor. For floating production systems, the principal installation activities consist
of the deployment of subsea components such as flowlines. The vessel will then be brought into the field, anchored
and have its risers connected. Accommodation support vessels are used during offshore construction, hook-up and
commissioning.
All offshore installation activities are extremely sensitive to metocean conditions. In most instances, long period
wave motion is a principal concern as this causes adverse vessel response which will impair operations. Current
conditions are important in installation, particularly for the actual touchdown operation, which should be undertaken
during a favourable window of weak flow. It is important to determine which combinations of environmental
conditions will prejudice installation; statistical analyses should be undertaken to assess likely durations of favourable
operational windows. Metocean information is also required for planning ocean tows of structures from the fabrication
yard to the field, and also for assessing fatigue loading during the tow-out.
the field for installation. Once the jacket has been installed, the
jacket.
41
INSTALLATION OF
OFFSHORE STRUCTURES
I N F O R M A T I O N
conditions.
Ocean Tows
Assessment of the principal metocean hazards along the tow route. Particularly whether there is risk of
$ Initial feasibility appraisal will help to optimise installation planning and scheduling and may result in
$ Adoption of novel installation techniques such as ‘float-over’ of topsides can result in major installation cost
COST BENEFITS
savings. However, such operations can only be justified after very careful assessment of likely environmental
conditions.
$ If the installation exercise is delayed due to adverse environmental conditions, downtime costs for the heavy
lift barge and associated support in the field may be extremely high.
E N G I N E E R I N G
$ Real-time monitoring during installation will assist in safe and efficient operations. In particular, information on
detailed sea state and structural motion will assist in judging when to perform critical installation tasks.
42 Back to Contents
S U B - S E A P I P E L I N E
& C A B L E D E S I G N
The oceanographic considerations for the design of sub-sea pipelines and cables are very similar. The scale of a pipeline
or cable project may range from a shallow estuary crossing to a major trans-ocean route.
The principal metocean factors affecting sub-sea pipeline and cable design are near-bed current velocity and wave
motion. These will impose direct stress during the installation and operation and may also induce sea bed scouring, thus
undermining the pipeline integrity. Oceanographic and meteorological conditions are also important when assessing the
feasibility of installation and repair, particularly in selection of suitable vessels and periods of operation. Sea bed
temperatures are important in determining the behaviour of gases and oil as they travel the length of the pipeline.
The schematic figure above shows a pipeline running ashore from a deep water oil field. As the route approaches the
Typically, at the landfall sites there will be trenching and/or armouring to protect against the action of waves and strong
currents. In intermediate water depths, below the depth of major wave influence, there may be armour protection in
regions of strong current. In deep ocean depths the pipeline or cable will generally lie exposed on the sea floor.
43
S U B - S E A P I P E L I N E
& C A B L E D E S I G N
Wave motion is attenuated with depth. At depths greater than half the surface wave length, wave motion is negligible. Wave
I N F O R M A T I O N
length and hence depth of influence, increases with wave severity. However, for most practical purposes waves do not have
significant influence at the bed in water depths greater then about 100 metres. In shallow coastal waters, waves will induce strong
sea bed current and stresses on the pipeline and major turbulence at the point of breaking.
Near bed current conditions are likely to vary appreciably over the length of a pipe route. In shallow shelf sea waters tidal flow
is likely to be the dominant factor and will be influenced by location and bathymetry. Estuarine discharge may also be a
consideration. In predominantly tidal conditions, current velocity will be attenuated by frictional effects near the bed. In deep
ocean waters bottom currents are often, but not always, benign. However, in most locations currents are extremely complex
being influenced by a combination of factors including tidal motion, large-scale ocean circulation and regional dynamic processes.
In deep water where pipelines and cables are unprotected on the sea bed, strong currents will induce resonance and vortex
shedding. This can be a particular problem in regions between elevated sea bed features, resulting in scour of the seabed to leave
M E T O C E A N
$ Large cost savings are achievable if knowledge of metocean conditions can justify reduced lengths of trenching
E N G I N E E R I N G
$
COST BENEFITS
Knowledge of metocean conditions will allow optimal selection of installation techniques and vessels, and also
selection of most favourable operational months.
$ Use of real-time current measurements and competent weather forecasting will optimise operational periods
during the installation phases and also assist in planned shut-down for approaching hostile conditions.
$ Knowledge of near-bed temperature conditions will ensure that adequate measures are taken to prevent
waxing in oil and condensates forming in gases. This will ensure efficient use of the pipeline and reduce
maintenance costs.
44 Back to Contents
C O A S TA L FA C I L I T I E S
The term coastal facilities is used to describe all engineering activities at the shoreline which are influenced by
metocean processes. In the context of the oil and gas industry, this relates primarily to fabrication yards, refineries and
LNG plants. Infrastructure for such facilities includes harbours, breakwaters, jetties and coastal protection. Metocean
conditions are also important for related process engineering such as plant cooling water abstraction.
Winds, waves, currents and water levels are all important processes in relation to the design and operation of coastal
facilities. However, metocean processes and their impact on engineering structures are very different at the shoreline
from those offshore. Wind conditions may be modified by land effects. Waves at the coastline are modified by shallow
water processes. Currents at the coastline are influenced strongly by local bathymetry and coastal alignment. Water
levels are a major factor in coastal engineering design, for setting structural deck elevations, channel dredge depths,
served by a maintained dredged channel. Ideally the jetty head should not be located
in a strong current stream as this will cause problems in berthing and mooring line tension.
Operability statistics are particularly important in terms of swell wave energy. In strong swell conditions it will not be
possible to conduct loading and off-loading and operations due to ship motion. At exposed coastal sites it may be
necessary to construct a protective breakwater. For benign sites major cost savings may be achieved by adopting a
45
C O A S TA L FA C I L I T I E S
I N F O R M A T I O N
Deck elevation determination (extreme water level + extreme wave crest elevation + contingency)
Coastal Protection
Normal and extreme near-shore wave conditions (by direction sector)
Normal and extreme water levels
Joint occurrence probability of extreme water levels and wave conditions
Marine Cooling Water and Desalination Systems
Monthly mean, maximum and minimum sea water temperatures at intended point of abstraction
Assessment of local current circulation regime to determine the potential for re-circulation of discharged hot
F O R
or hyper-saline water
Ambient and extreme water levels at points of abstraction and discharge
Onshore Industrial Plant
Ambient wind conditions for assessment of airborne pollutant dispersion
R E Q U I R E M E N T S
$ Major cost savings will be achieved if a wave climate assessment justifies coastal development without the
need for a protective breakwater.
$ Optimal jetty design can result in major construction cost savings. A shore-parallel jetty head will generally
COST BENEFITS
be much cheaper than a shore-perpendicular head, but must be justified in terms of berth operability
E N G I N E E R I N G
statistics.
$ The efficiency of an industrial plant may be very dependent upon the characteristics of influent air or water.
$ Careful design of air and water cooling systems requires detailed understanding of local metocean conditions.
For most coastal facility developments, there are many requirements for metocean information. Execution of
a co-ordinated study is likely to have benefit in many applications.
46 Back to Contents
G L O SS A R Y
Abyssal Plain Deep ocean floor (water depths typically in excess of 3000 metres).
Accommodation Unit on an offshore structure housing facilities such as crew’s
Module quarters and mess.
Accuracy The closeness of an estimate or measurement to the ‘actual’ value.
Advection Movement of water away from the point of interest due to the action of current flow.
Air Gap Distance between the design Extreme Water Level (Still Water Level + design Wave Crest
elevation) and bottom steel of the cellar deck of an offshore installation.
Altimeter Instrument on satellite to determine distance to sea surface. Used to estimate wave height along
satellite ground track.
Amplitude The magnitude of the displacement of a wave from a mean value. An ocean wave has an amplitude
equal to the vertical distance from still-water level to wave crest. For a sinusoidal wave, the
amplitude is one-half the wave height. Also, the half-range of a constituent tide.
Astronomical Associated with gravitational attraction on the ocean surface due to the moon and sun.
Attenuation (1) A lessening of the amplitude of a wave with distance from the origin. (2) The decrease of water-particle
motion with increasing depth. Particle motion resulting from surface oscillatory waves attenuates rapidly
with depth, and practically disappears at a depth equal to a surface wavelength.
Axial Velocity Velocity component resolved along defined axial direction.
Baroclinic Where the water density is influenced by changing properties (temperature and salinity) through
depth as well as pressure (depth). Thus, surfaces of constant pressure intersect surfaces of constant
density. Baroclinic (density-related) current varies with depth.
Barotropic Where the physical properties of water (temperature and salinity) are constant through the water
column and density depends only upon pressure (depth). Thus, surfaces of constant pressure are
parallel to surfaces of constant density. Barotropic currents are independent of vertical density
structure, and are usually quite uniform through the water column. The total current in the sea is a
combination of barotropic and baroclinic flow components.
Base Shear The shear force at the point where a structural member reaches the sea bed (due to combined
wind, wave and current loading on the structure).
Bathymetry Description of contours of seafloor depth (referenced to a defined datum).
Beaufort Scale Scale of wind speeds associated with descriptive sea states (used by ship’s observers).
Bed Friction Frictional retardation of current flow and wave motion close to the sea bed.
BOP Emergency shut-off valve at sea bed used to isolate the well from the surface drilling/production
(Blow Out Preventer) unit in the event of a ‘blow out’ associated with build up of gas.
Bore A very rapid rise of the tide in which the advancing water presents an abrupt front of considerable
height. In shallow estuaries where the range of tide is large, the high water is propagated inward
faster than the low water because of the greater depth at high water. If the high water overtakes
the low water, an abrupt front is presented, with the high-water crest finally falling forward as the
tide continues to advance.
Bottom Friction (see Bed Friction).
Boundary Layer Layer close to the sea bed where flow is retarded by bed friction.
Breaking Depth The Still Water Depth at the point where a wave breaks.
Capillary Wave A wave whose velocity of propagation is controlled primarily by the surface tension of the liquid in
which the wave is travelling. Water waves of length less than about 2cm are considered capillary
waves. Waves longer than 2cm and shorter than 5cm are in an indeterminate zone between Capillary
and Gravity Waves.
Casing Pipe used to line and seal the well and prevent collapse of the borehole. A number of casing strings
(lengths) are used in ever-decreasing diameters.
47
G L O SS A R Y
CD (Chart Datum) The plane or level to which soundings (or elevations) or tide heights are referenced. Usually set
at approximately the level of Lowest Astronomical Tide (LAT).
CD-ROM Mass storage device for digital data. Commonly used for dissemination of large volumes of
(Compact Disc - metocean data.
Read-Only Memory)
Celerity Wave Speed.
Central Pressure The estimated minimum barometric pressure in the eye (approximate centre) of a particular
Index (CPI) hurricane. The CPI is considered the most stable index to intensity of hurricane wind velocities in
the periphery of the storm; the highest wind speeds are associated with storms having the lowest
CPI.
Certification The process whereby an offshore structure or vessel is licensed as suitable for its designated
function. This is a pre-requisite for insurance purposes.
CFD Statistical distribution of measured or hindcast data. The CFD registers the cumulative percentage
(Cumulative Frequency of the total data set which has magnitude equal to or less than each of a series of regularly-spaced
Distribution) thresholds.
Chart Datum (See CD).
Chop The short-crested waves that may spring up quickly in a moderate breeze, and which break easily
at the crest.
Christmas Tree An assembly of valves attached to the wellhead and used to control well production.
Circulation The movement of water masses. The term normally relates to large-scale ocean dynamics, but can
also be applied to localised flow patterns.
Concession Block Defined geographical area leased or licenced for offshore exploration and production.
Constituent Single oscillatory component of tidal elevation or tidal current pattern. An example is the lunar
semi-diurnal constituent, M2.
T E R M S
Continental Shelf Ledge of shallow seas surrounding a continental land mass (water depths typically less than 200
metres).
Continental Slope The region of steeply-sloping sea bed extending from the edge of the continental shelf to the deep
ocean floor (water depths typically in the range 200 to 1500 metres).
Convergence In refraction phenomena, the decreasing of the distance between orthogonals in the direction of
wave travel. Denotes an area of increasing wave height and energy concentration.
M E T O C E A N
Co-ordinates Statement of geographical position in relation to a defined frame of reference. Co-ordinates are
normally quoted either as latitude and longitude (degrees, minutes and seconds) or as eastings and
northings in an orthogonal system such as Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM). It is important
that stated positional co-ordinates are qualified in terms of the projection, spheroid and datum of
the reference system.
Current A flow of water. The term does not normally refer to the oscillatory flow associated with surface
waves.
Current Direction The direction towards which the water flows (oceanographic convention). Normally expressed in
degrees or compass points relative to True North.
Current Profile
O F
Description of the way in which flow velocity varies with depth between the sea surface and the
sea bed.
Current Speed The magnitude of the flow velocity. Usually expressed in metres per second or knots. The averaging
G L O S S A R Y
48
G L O SS A R Y
Cyclone System of intense winds rotating about an area of low atmospheric pressure.
Data Attributes Descriptive details of a data set used in database storage. Data attributes are normally selected from
a controlled list to allow structured querying.
Database A structured digital system for storage of information. Data are stored with a series of descriptive
‘attributes’ (such as position, data type, units etc.). This allows selective querying and easy access.
Data Set A discrete block of digital information. May be used to describe all the information recorded during a
single oceanographic instrument deployment. An entity of information within a database storage system.
Datum A defined horizontal reference plane to which vertical elevations (heights and depths) are related.
At the coastline, the datum will usually be Chart Datum or a defined local engineering datum.
Decommissioning The process whereby a structure or vessel is taken out of service at the end of its viable life. This
normally involves physical removal from the sea bed.
Deep Water In the context of wave dynamics, deep water refers to depths greater than half the surface
wavelength. In such depths, the wave is little affected by the sea bed.
Density The weight of a unit volume of fluid (air or water). The density of sea water is a function of
temperature, salinity and pressure. Thus sea water density varies with depth, location and water
mass. Density is an important controlling influence on ocean circulation. Vertical (pycnoclines) and
lateral (fronts) discontinuities in water density are often regions of intense oceanographic activity.
Depth Average The vector average of current flow between the sea surface and sea bed. This is a useful
Velocity descriptor in well-mixed shallow waters, but can be very misleading when there is definite vertical
structure or layering in the water column.
Design Criteria A statement of the worst-case environmental conditions (winds, waves, currents, water levels etc.)
which a structure or vessel must be designed to withstand.
Desk Study A study to compile information. Often an initial assessment of available information on metocean
conditions at a particular location. Conducted in the early stages of a project (often at feasibility
stage).
Development Activities associated with setting up the means for offshore oil production.
Dew Point Temperature at which liquids condense from a gas.
Diffusion Spreading of particles within a body or water, due to concentration gradient and/or turbulence.
Directional Description of the way in which a metocean process varies with direction. For example, directional
extreme winds define the design loading condition from each nominal direction sector.
Directional A term used in the description of sea state. Spreading describes the degree to which wave energy
Spreading is spread from the principal direction of propagation. Zero spreading would infer a completely
uni-directional sea state. Spreading angle is normally quoted for each frequency band of a directional
wave spectrum.
Discontinuity Boundary between two water or air masses of different character. A lateral boundary is called a
front. A horizontal boundary may be termed a thermocline, halocline or pycnocline, depending
upon the principal cause of density difference.
Dispersion Spreading and dilution within a fluid mass due to the influences of advection and turbulent diffusion.
The term is frequently used to describe the fate of airborne or marine pollutants. Dispersion can
be defined quantitatively in terms of dispersion coefficients, and is normally simulated numerically.
Diurnal One cycle per day. Diurnal tidal constituents (such as O1 and K1) have rotational periods of around
24 hours. A diurnal tidal pattern shows only one high water and one low water each day.
Divergence In refraction phenomena, the increasing of distance between orthogonals in the direction of wave
travel. Denotes an area of decreasing wave height and energy concentration.
Downtime Periods when offshore operations must be suspended due to adverse metocean conditions.
Downwelling Downward vertical movement of near-surface waters associated with coastal boundary currents.
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G L O SS A R Y
DP Vessel station-keeping using dynamic thrusters. Normally, the vessel’s positioning system will indicate
(Dynamic Positioning) range and bearing offset from intended location and the thruster system will act to move the vessel
back towards station. This technique is used on drilling semi-submersibles and can eliminate the
need for anchoring.
Drift Current A broad, shallow, slow-moving flow, normally associated with wind-forcing.
Drill Cuttings Debris from drilling operation, normally dumped on seabed.
Drill String Lengths of casing (see casing).
Drilling Derrick Tower in centre of platform or rig inside which lengths of drill string (casing) are suspended vertically
ready for use.
Ebb Current The tidal current away from shore or down a tidal stream; usually associated with the decrease in
height of the tide.
Ebb Tide The period of tide between high water and the succeeding low water; a falling tide.
Eccentricity The ratio of major to minor axis lengths for a tidal ellipse.
Eddy Mass of water rotating around a central region. Eddies occur in the ocean at various scales. At small
scale, eddies occur downstream of offshore structures due to water flow around cylindrical
members. At large scale, eddies occur due to the interaction between different ocean currents and
water masses; such eddies may represent significantly increased loading conditions and periods of
irregular flow.
Elevation Vertical position relative to a fixed datum level. This can either be a height above or depth below
datum. For floating structures, care must be taken when expressing depths below surface as the sea
surface elevation will vary with tidal motion.
Ellipse Summary description of the characteristics of a single tidal current constituent. The tidal ellipse
shows the locus of current velocity vectors associated with that constituent through one constituent
cycle.
T E R M S
Empirical Derivation of parameters using statistically-based factors and equations rather than theoretically-
based formulations.
Engineering A collection of tables and graphs stating the metocean design premise information for a project, field
Reference or structure. This is the end product of a design and operational criteria study. The information will
Document have been prepared by a metocean specialist, but will be widely circulated and used by project
engineers.
M E T O C E A N
Eulerian Description of velocity variation with time relative to a fixed point of reference. Time series
observations of current velocity from a fixed structure are an example of Eulerian measurements.
EWL The maximum surface water level which a structure should be designed to encounter. The EWL
(Extreme Water Level) represents the worst case combination of tidal elevation, surge, Mean Sea Level and extreme wave
crest elevation.
Exceedence Statistical distribution of measured or hindcast data. The exceedence distribution registers the
percentage of the total data set which has magnitude greater than each of a series of regularly-
spaced thresholds.
Exploration The process of searching for undiscovered oil reservoirs. This involves initial seismic surveying and
then drilling in locations which indicate promising subsea geology.
O F
Extratropical Any cyclonic scale storm that is not a tropical cyclone. Usually refers to the migratory frontal
Cyclone cyclones which occur in mid and high latitudes.
Extreme Value The estimated magnitude of a particular metocean parameter to be equalled or exceeded once
G L O S S A R Y
during a defined period (the Return Period). For design purposes, extreme values are estimated for
a series of return periods (typically 1, 5, 10, 25, 50 and 100 years).
Eye In meteorology, usually the “eye of the storm” (hurricane); the roughly circular area of comparatively
light winds and fair weather found at the centre of a severe tropical cyclone.
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G L O SS A R Y
Fatigue Repeated loading over the lifetime of a structure or vessel which may result in fracture of welds or
structural members. The principal fatigue mechanism is from cyclical wave loading.
Fetch Length The horizontal distance (in the direction of the wind) over which the wind generates waves.
Normally considered to be the distance from the point of interest to the nearest coastline along a
given radial direction.
FFT A numerical analysis procedure to decompose a measured signal into a series of approximating
(Fast Fourier cosines of differing period, amplitude and phase angle. This enables an energy spectrum to be
Transform) formed from a measured time series. Commonly used in wave analysis.
Flare Stack Elevated tower containing a pipe used for the discharge and burning of waste gases.
Flex-Joint Flexible coupling at the bottom of the riser which connects onto the BOP stack.
Float-over Topsides installation procedure where the structure is floated on a pontoon into position over the
jacket and then ballasted down into place. This does not require the use of a heavy lift barge.
Flood Current The tidal current toward shore or up a tidal stream, usually associated with the increase in the height
of the tide.
Flood Tide The period of tide between low water and the succeeding high water; a rising tide.
Flowline Piping which directs well fluids from wellheads to manifold or first process vessel.
Forecast Objective estimate of metocean conditions (wind, wave, current) over the forthcoming period.
Normally based on numerical model simulation incorporating measured data, with some manual
intervention and interpretation. The reliability of a forecast will generally diminish in relation to time
ahead.
FPSO A large moored vessel providing both oil production and limited storage. The vessel is anchored at
(Floating Production a central turret structure to allow rotation. A series of flexible risers connect the FPSO to subsea
Storage and Offloading) flowlines. Shuttle tankers moor onto the FPSO to offload and transport stored oil. FPSO technology
allows cost-effective exploitation in deep water.
Front A lateral discontinuity between two water masses.
Gale In general, an unusually strong wind. In storm warning terminology, a wind of 28 to 47 knots (14 to
24 m/s).
GIS (Geographical A computer system which allows storage of data referenced to geographical co-ordinates. Thus
Information System) maps can be produced showing data locations and geographical data distributions. Also complex
spatial analyses can be performed on the data.
GMT A central reference for time co-ordinates. Time is normally reported in hours relative to GMT. For
(Greenwich Mean Time) locations east of Greenwich (England), local time is in advance of GMT (e.g. Singapore local time is
GMT+8 hours). For locations west of Greenwich, local time is behind GMT (e.g. Mexico local time
is GMT-6 hours).
GPS (Geographical World-wide satellite-based system for determination of geographical position. Used extensively on
Positioning System) vessels. High precision is achieved by application of a ‘differential correction’ to the satellite data; this
is called DGPS.
Gravity Wave A wave whose velocity of propagation is controlled primarily by gravity. Water waves more than
5cm long are considered gravity waves. Waves longer than 2cm and shorter than 5cm are in an
indeterminate zone between Capillary and Gravity Waves.
Ground Swell A long high ocean swell which rises to prominent height in shallow water.
Gulf A large embayment in a coast; the entrance is generally wider than the length.
Gust Short-duration intense wind velocity. Normally quoted as 3-, 10- or 30-second gust. The n-second
gust is the maximum wind speed which is persistently equalled or exceeded for n seconds during
the sample period.
51
G L O SS A R Y
Halocline Vertical discontinuity in salinity of sea water. Often occurs in estuarine systems where riverine
discharge meets ocean water.
Harmonic Analysis Tidal and current analysis procedure of approximating a sequence of measured data as a series of
cosine functions of pre-determined periods, corresponding to astronomical or functional influences.
Least squares fitting is used to estimate the amplitudes and phase angles of each of a series of
harmonic constituents. These can be used subsequently for tidal prediction.
HAT The highest level of sea surface during an 18.6 year Perigean tidal cycle which would occur due to
(Highest astronomical tidal forcing alone. A higher Still Water Level than HAT may be encountered during
Astronomical Tide) the lifetime of a structure due to the combined effects of tide and positive surge. HAT can be
predicted with good accuracy using harmonic tidal constituents.
HATC The highest current speed during an 18.6 year Perigean tidal cycle which would occur due to
(Highest Astronomical astronomical tidal forcing alone.
Tidal Current)
Hc (Wave Crest Elevation of the uppermost point of a wave profile (not including white water) above Still Water
Elevation) Level. For structural design, the extreme individual wave crest elevation is normally quoted for each
of a series of return periods.
Heavy Lift Barge A barge with large cranes with heavy lift capacity, used for the installation of offshore structures.
Helideck Deck on a platform or vessel for helicopter landing.
High Tide, The maximum elevation reached by each rising tide.
High Water (HW)
Hindcast Numerical model simulation of past environmental conditions (e.g. sea state or current velocity).
Wave hindcasting studies have been undertaken in most of the world’s major oil basins in order to
simulate long time histories of metocean conditions from which to estimate extreme events (e.g.
NESS - North Sea, SEAMOS - South East Asia, WAX - West Africa). Hindcasting studies have the
advantage that long time sequences of data can be generated, synthesizing a wide range of
T E R M S
conditions (including major severe storm events). Also, regional severity of sea or current conditions
can be assessed. Such models are very dependent upon the integrity of driving conditions (wind
fields etc.) and also the dynamical description of the modelled system. Concurrent hindcast data
series of winds, waves and currents can be used for combined (joint) probability analysis. This can
be used to justify lower extreme design loadings than those due to the combined loadings of
independent wind, wave and current extreme estimates.
M E T O C E A N
Hmax The maximum individual wave crest-to-trough height occurring within a defined duration. With
(Maximum Wave Height) measured data, Hmax can be determined directly. However, it can also be estimated empirically
from Hs by assuming a theoretical probability distribution of individual waves within a particular sea
state (e.g. Rayleigh distribution).
Hs The average crest-to-trough height of the third highest individual waves in a sample of sea state.
(Significant Wave Height) Approximated as Hm0 from spectral moments. This is the most fundamental descriptor of sea state
and is the basis of design wave loading definition.
Humidity Moisture content in the air. Normally expressed as percentage saturation.
Hurricane An intense tropical cyclone in which winds tend to spiral inwards toward a core of low pressure,
with maximum surface wind velocities that equal or exceed 65 knots (33 m/s). Equivalent to a
O F
Typhoon.
Hydrodynamics The study of dynamic flow processes (wave motion and time-varying current flow).
Hydrographic
G L O S S A R Y
The measurement of sea floor depths (charting). The term is sometimes also used to encompass
more general study of the oceans.
Hydrophone Underwater acoustic receiver/transmitter. Used in seismic exploration and in underwater
communications.
52
G L O SS A R Y
Individual Wave A single wave cycle, normally defined at a single point as the vertical motion between two
successive upward-crossings of the Still Water Level. For design purposes, the estimated extreme
individual wave characteristics (crest height, trough depth and period) are normally quoted for each
of a series of return periods. An appropriate wave formulation (such as Stoke’s 5th Order Wave
Theory) will be used to compute these parameters from the statistical extreme Hs estimate.
Inertial Current Flow associated with the inertia of a body of water after a change in wind forcing and under the
influence of the earth’s rotation. The period of inertial currents is dependent upon latitude. Inertial
currents occur intermittently.
Installation The operation associated with tow-out and physical placement of a new offshore facility (steel
jacket, concrete gravity platform, FPSO etc.)
Internal Wave Internal waves are waves that occur within a fluid whose density changes with depth, either abruptly
at a sharp surface or discontinuity (an interface) or gradually. Their amplitude is greatest where the
density discontinuity is greatest or, in the case of a gradual density change, somewhere in the interior
of the fluid and not at the free surface where surface waves have their maximum amplitude.
Isobath A contour line connecting points of equal water depths on a chart.
J-Lay Method of laying subsea pipeline. The pipe is deployed vertically from the lay-barge.
Jacket Steel lattice substructure supporting an offshore installation. Normally fabricated and installed
separately from the associated topside structure.
Jack-up A mobile floating rig which has three (or more) lowerable steel legs. For shallow water sites
(normally less than about 80 metres), the rig can lower its legs onto the sea floor and then ‘jack up’
its deck to an appropriate elevation above the water surface.
JFD (Joint Frequency The distribution of combined occurrence probabilities of two or more parameters (e.g. current
Distribution) speed and wave height).
Joint Probability The analysis of probability of joint occurrence of two or more metocean parameters (e.g. current
speed and wave height). Often, the analysis of probability of combined metocean loadings can be
used to justify reduced overall design criteria. (It is statistically highly unlikely that the 1:100 year wave
height and current speed will coincide).
Knot The unit of speed used in navigation equal to 1 nautical mile (1,852 metres) per hour.
Land Breeze A light wind blowing from the land to the sea, caused by unequal cooling of land and water masses.
Land-Sea Breeze The combination of land breeze and sea breeze as a diurnal phenomenon.
Lagrangian Description of particle trajectory with respect to time. The time-tagged positional track of a floating
object in the ocean is an example of Lagrangian measurement.
LAT (Lowest The lowest level of sea surface during an 18.6 year Perigean tidal cycle which would occur due to
Astronomical Tide) astronomical tidal forcing alone. A lower Still Water Level than LAT may be encountered during the
lifetime of a structure due to the combined effects of tide and negative surge. LAT can be predicted
with good accuracy using harmonic tidal constituents. LAT level relative to a defined point on a fixed
structure can be determined objectively by tidal measurement and analysis. Thus it is often used as
an objective datum level. Repeat surveys of LAT level can be used to estimate vertical settlement
of fixed structures.
Lee Shelter or the part side sheltered or turned away from the wind or waves.
LNG Gas compressed to reduce its volume for storage and transportation. The compression may
(Liquified Natural Gas) reduce volume by as much as 700 times. LNG is transported world-wide, as a fuel commodity, using
specialised bulk carrier ships. Coastal compression plant and tanker loading facilities are required at
a suitable site in the vicinity of the gas field.
53
G L O SS A R Y
Load Statistics Objective statistical analysis of metocean data (wind, wave and current) as the aggregate loading on
Modelling a reference structure. Thus, rather than examining individual environmental parameters, extreme
design statistics are assessed as associated shear forces and bending moments. This approach is
gaining increasing use in offshore engineering, but requires long-term concurrent wind, wave and
current data sets.
Lunar Associated with the moon. The lunar tide is the tidal motion associated with the gravitational pull
of the moon on the earth’s ocean surface.
Magnetic Deviation The measurement anomaly of a magnetic compass due to the effects of the artificial magnetic field in
its immediate vicinity (e.g. steel components in a ship). For a fixed compass installation, there should
be a deviation curve which indicates the angular deviation correction to be applied for each heading.
Magnetic Variation The angular difference between True North and the North determined by magnetic compass
measurement. Magnetic variation is associated with local anomalies in the earth’s magnetic field, and is
normally defined spatially on ocean charts. ‘Variation’ should not be confused with ‘deviation’ which is
the anomaly associated with the magnetic field in the immediate vicinity of an individual compass.
Mean Wind Velocity The average wind velocity over a defined period (e.g. 10-minute mean). Values should be quoted
as ‘vector-averages’ of successive data values. However, when quoting a monthly or seasonal mean
velocity, the ‘scalar-average’ should be used, as this gives a better indication of magnitude (the
average of many equivalent north and south velocity measurements is zero).
MHHW The average level of the higher daily high water (applies to mixed tides).
T E R M S
MHLW The average level of the higher daily low water (applies to mixed tides).
(Mean Higher Low Water)
MHWN The average high water level during the neap phase of the tidal cycle (applies to predominantly
(Mean High Water Neap) semi-diurnal tides).
M E T O C E A N
MHWS The average high water level during the spring phase of the fortnightly tidal cycle (applies to
(Mean High Water Spring) predominantly semi-diurnal tides).
Mixed Tide A type of tide in which the presence of diurnal and semi-diurnal components is evident.
MLHW The average level of the lower daily high water (applies to mixed tides).
(Mean Lower High Water)
MLLW The average level of the lower daily low water (applies to mixed tides).
(Mean Lower Low Water)
MLWN The average low water level during the neap phase of the tidal cycle (applies to predominantly
(Mean Low Water Neap) semi-diurnal tides).
O F
MLWS The average low water level during the spring phase of the fortnightly tidal cycle (applies to
(Mean Low Water Spring) predominantly semi-diurnal tides).
G L O S S A R Y
Monochromatic A series of regular waves of equal period and amplitude. The most simple approximation to real
Waves sea waves.
54
G L O SS A R Y
Monsoon Seasonal wind pattern which occurs over Asia, associated with large-scale regional pressure systems.
During the monsoon periods, winds are characteristically persistent in strength and direction.
MSL (Mean Sea Level) The average sea surface elevation over a prolonged (and defined) period of time. MSL derived from
a full year of observation should be essentially stable and repeatable. MSL derived from a month of
observation will be influenced by the phase of the annual tidal cycle and will therefore vary from
one month to the next. Long-term climatic changes cause variation in MSL.
Mudline The elevation of the seafloor at the base of a fixed structure. Should be quoted relative to a defined
reference datum (e.g. Platform LAT).
Nautical Mile The length of a minute of arc, 1/21,600 of an average great circle of the Earth. Generally one minute
of latitude is considered equal to one nautical mile. The accepted value is 1,852 metres.
Neap Tidal state occurring at first and third quarters of the lunar cycle (i.e. once every 2 weeks). The lunar
and solar influences on sea surface ‘bulge’ are not coincident and therefore tidal ranges and
associated tidal currents are weakest.
Near Bed Close to the sea bed. The term is generally used to describe current conditions in the bottom 2 to
5 metres of the water column. Description of near-bed conditions is important for many sub sea
operations (diving, ROV work, pipeline loadings etc.). In this region, flow is generally attenuated by
bottom frictional effects.
Near Shore General term used to describe conditions close to the shoreline. Normally applies to waters within
around 1 kilometre of the shore, typically with depth less than 10 metres.
Node In numerical modelling, a node is one point on the computational grid. In dynamics, a node is that
part of a standing wave at which vertical motion is least and horizontal motion is greatest.
Non-tidal Current or water level movement which is not attributable to astronomical forcing. This term may
usually refers to oceanic currents of meteorologically-induced surges in water level.
Numerical Model A computer simulation of the dynamics of the real world. In metocean work, numerical models are
used to synthesise wind, wave, current and water level processes over discrete portions of the
ocean. Numerical models are used both in forecasting and in hindcast mode to recreate severe past
storm conditions.
Occurrence Statistics which describe the proportion of time during which a metocean parameter occurs within
a given class interval (e.g. for 30% of January, Hs is in the range 3 to 4 metres).
Oceanography The study of the sea, embracing and indicating all knowledge pertaining to the sea’s physical
boundaries, the chemistry and physics of seawater, and marine biology.
Offshore Normally refers to marine activities occurring remote from the coastline.
Operational Metocean statistics used for routine offshore operations and planning. Typically, these include
Statistics monthly mean, occurrence, percentage exceedence and persistence statistics.
Operational Window Period of time of sufficient duration for the completion of a given activity (e.g. offshore installation),
during which combined metocean conditions do not exceed the operational limiting threshold.
Persistence analysis is commonly used to assess the probability of favourable operational windows
for particular activities. Such statistics are important in assessing risk of weather downtime and also
the safety of a particular activity.
Orbital Velocity Water particle velocity at a particular level in the water column under the influence of wave action.
In ‘deep water’ (depth greater than half the surface wavelength) particles have an oscillatory circular
orbit which is attenuated with depth and ceases to have effect at depths below half the wavelength.
In ‘intermediate’ water depths (depth between half and one twenty fifth of the surface wavelength)
an elliptical orbit occurs, attenuating towards the bed, but with finite velocity at the bed. In ‘shallow
water’ (depth less than one twenty fifth of the surface wavelength) particle velocity is horizontal.
55
G L O SS A R Y
Phase In surface wave motion, a point in the period to which the wave motion has advanced with respect
to a given initial reference point.
Pile Steel or concrete member set (normally driven) into the sea floor to provide foundation support
for a structure.
Position Quantitative description of the geographical location of a point in relation to a defined co-ordinate
system.
M E T O C E A N
POT (Peak-Over Analysis procedure whereby a series of parameter threshold values are defined. For each threshold,
Threshold) Distribution individual peaks are identified associated with each threshold-crossing event. POT analysis is often
used in extreme value work to identify and rank storm peaks (wave, wind and current).
Predicted Estimate of the current velocity or tidal elevation, at a specified location, for a selected period of
Current/Tide time. Concerns only the astronomical component of flow or elevation. Prediction is based on
harmonic constituents.
Production The activity of abstracting oil.
Profile Description of the way in which a parameter varies in vertical section (e.g. current velocity or
temperature profile through the water column or wind velocity profile though the height of an
offshore installation).
O F
wind, wave, current and water level data for operational use.
56
G L O SS A R Y
Re-certification Formal reappraisal of the suitability and safety of an offshore structure or vessel for its purpose.
Conducted by international certifying authorities such as Lloyds and Det Norske Veritas (DNV). Re-
certification concerns detailed inspection and reassessment of the basis of design (including
environmental loadings).
Rectilinear Current Flow which follows a near-linear reversing pattern (very flattened tidal ellipse). This is typical of flow
in a confined estuary or channel.
Refraction (see Wave Refraction).
Remote Sensing Measurement made remote from the point of interest. Normally refers to measurements of the
earth or sea surface made from satellites or aircraft. Satellite altimetry is now used routinely to
determine ocean wave height along the satellite ground track. Thermal imagery and Synthetic
Aperture Radar (SAR) are used in oceanography to identify features such as fronts and solitary
waves.
Residual The component of a water level or current data series left over once tidal component has been
extracted.
Resolution The minimum measurement step or digitisation increment for an instrumental recording system.
Return Period Statistical term used in extreme value estimation of design parameters. The return period is a
duration in years. The associated extreme value estimate is that which is expected to be equalled
or exceeded once during the defined return period. It would be normal to design an offshore
structure to withstand the 1 in 50 or 1 in 100 year return period wave height.
Rig Selection The process of selecting an appropriate rig for a particular offshore operation (normally exploration
drilling at a defined location). This requires knowledge of the operational and extreme metocean
conditions which the rig will need to withstand.
Rip A body of water made rough by waves meeting an opposing current, particularly a tidal current;
often found where tidal currents are converging and sinking.
Rip Current A strong surface current flowing seaward from the shore. It usually appears as a visible band of
agitated water and is the return movement of water piled up on the shore by incoming waves and
wind. With the seaward movement concentrated in a limited band its velocity is somewhat
accentuated.
Riser The vertical portion of a subsea pipeline arriving on or departing from a platform. For drilling
vessels, the riser is the vertical outer casing through which the drill string runs.
Rotary Current Tidal flow sequence which follows a near-circular orbital pattern during the tidal cycle (i.e.
progressive and continuous change in flow direction). This is typical of flow in the open ocean.
Rotary Spectral Numerical analysis procedure to determine the characteristics of ocean current velocity at different
Analysis frequencies from measured data. For each frequency band, component velocity amplitudes are
estimated for clockwise and anti-clockwise rotary vectors. Spectra of clockwise, anti-clockwise and
total current energy can be presented to summarise the rotary characteristics of the flow regime.
Roughness Term used to describe the nature of the sea floor in terms of its frictional resistance to current flow
or wave propagation. Various empirical coefficients are used to describe bed roughness. Commonly-
used for numerical modelling purposes.
ROV (Remotely Unmanned submersible vehicle used for offshore subsea operations (installation, repairs, inspection
Operated Vehicle) etc.). Connected by umbilical cable to the surface facility. Powered by thrusters. Normally fitted with
cameras and manipulator arms.
S-Lay Method of laying subsea pipeline. The pipe is deployed horizontally from the lay-barge, forming an
‘S’ shaped curve on reaching the seabed.
Salinity Quantitative description of the dissolved mineral salt content in a sample of ocean water. It is
measured in ‘practical salinity units’ (psu). Oceanic waters have typical salinity of around 35psu.
Salinity and temperature are major controls on water density. Salinity also influences the rate of steel
corrosion.
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Satellite Image Image of the earth and/or sea surface, usually with wide spatial coverage. Various types of imagery
are possible, depending upon the measurement technique and application. Thermal infra-red
imagery is used to determine sea surface temperature and hence identify ocean features such as
thermal fronts; such remote-sensing does not penetrate cloud cover.
Scalar Average Averaging of scalar values of parameter magnitude (as opposed to vector-averaging).
Scour Removal of seabed material in the vicinity of a jacket, subsea wellhead or pipeline due to wave
and/or current action.
Sea Breeze A light wind blowing from the sea toward the land caused by unequal heating of land and water
masses.
Seasonal Environmental process which changes with time of year.
Seasonal Horizontal band of temperature discontinuity between two different water masses. A ‘seasonal
Thermocline thermocline’ occurs close to the ocean surface (typically in the upper 30 to 50 metres) due to
seasonal solar heating of surface waters.
Sea State Description of the sea surface with regard to wave action. Also called state of sea.
Seiche Oscillation in sea surface elevation caused by resonance in confined basins (such as harbours).
Seismic Use of high energy acoustic transmissions and their reflections from deep sub sea geology to assess
geological structure and potential for oil reservoirs.
Semi-Diurnal Two cycles per day. Semi-diurnal tidal constituents have rotational periods of around 12 hours (M2
is 12.42 hours and S2 is 12.00 hours). A semi-diurnal tidal pattern shows two high waters and two
low waters each day.
Semi-Submersible Mobile drilling or production vessel; superstructure supported on sub sea pontoons. Ballasted up
during transport and down when in operation. Used extensively for deep water drilling.
Shear Lateral or vertical flow gradient (rate of change of velocity).
Shuttle Tanker Moderate-sized oil tanker used to transport oil from larger vessels to port.
T E R M S
Significant Wave The average crest-to-trough height of the third highest individual waves in a sample of recorded sea
Height Hs state. Approximated as Hm0 from spectral moments. This is the most fundamental descriptor of
sea state and is the basis of design wave loading definition.
Slope Current Current which flows parallel to sea floor contours, at the position of the continental slope. Normally
occurs as a narrow band (tens of kilometres in width) of intensified persistent flow.
Solar Associated with the sun. The solar tide is the tidal motion associated with the gravitational pull of
M E T O C E A N
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Stoke’s Wave Theoretical formulation for individual wave profile which provides a more accurate representation
of form and loading than simple linear wave theory. Commonly, Stoke’s fifth order wave theory is
used to estimate extreme wave crest elevations and in structural modelling.
Stratification Partitioning between layers of ocean water (or air) of differing characteristic densities. The
horizontal boundary between different water masses may be termed Thermocline, Halocline or
Pycnocline depending upon the major reason for density difference.
Streamer Long cable towed behind seismic exploration vessel. The streamer contains a series of hydrophones,
designed to detect acoustic energy returned from deep subsea geological features.
Supply Boat Vessel used in offshore operations to transport materials (e.g. drill string and containers) to and
from drilling and production installations. Typically, supply boats have a long, open back deck.
Surge Difference between ‘actual’ and predicted tidal elevation of sea surface due to meteorological
forcing (direct wind set-up or response to high or low pressure system). Operationally, surge may
be identified in real-time water level measurements or by using computational forecasting models.
Swell Long period (low frequency) waves generated remote from the point of observation.
SWL (Still Water Level) The average instantaneous sea surface elevation (i.e. the instantaneous surface elevation in the
absence of wave action).
Synoptic Chart A chart showing the distribution of meteorological conditions over a given area at a given time.
Popularly called a weather map.
Thermocline Discontinuity between two water layers of differing temperature. A thermocline can occur with
sharp temperature discontinuity or with gradual gradient.
Tidal Sea surface motion and current flow associated with lunar and solar (astronomical) forcing.
Tidal Constituent Single oscillatory component of tidal elevation or tidal current pattern. Derived from harmonic
analysis of measured data. An example is the lunar semi-diurnal constituent, M2.
Tidal Cycle Normally used to describe the sequence of sea surface elevation of current velocity variation
between two successive high waters. The term may also be used to refer to longer period cycles
in the tidal pattern such as the fortnightly spring/neap cycle or the 18.6 year Perigean cycle.
Tidal Elevation Still Water Level (SWL) relative to a defined datum, due only to the influences of astronomical
forcing (lunar and solar). Tidal elevation (which excludes the effects of meteorologically-induced
surge) is predictable in time, given adequate description of the tidal harmonic constituents. These
may be derived from analysis of long-term measurements or from numerical model simulation.
Tidal Stream Current flow due only to the influences of astronomical forcing (lunar and solar). Tidal current
(which excludes the effects of meteorologically-induced surge, wind drift and ocean circulation) is
predictable in time, given adequate description of the tidal current harmonic constituents. These
may be derived from analysis of long-term measurements or from numerical model simulation. Tidal
streams are often quoted as velocity vectors for each state of the tidal elevation cycle (HW-6, HW-
5 etc.).
Time Zone Worldwide coordinate system for the definition of time. The local time zone is quoted in hours
relative to Greenwich Mean Time. For locations east of the Greenwich meridian, time is expressed
in hours in advance of GMT (e.g. GMT+8 in Singapore). For locations west of Greenwich, time is
expressed in hours behind GMT (e.g. GMT-6 for Mexico). For any time sequential metocean data,
it is extremely important that the time zone to which the data refer is clearly stated.
TLP Floating semi-submersible production platform which is tethered to the sea bed by a series of cable
(Tension Leg Platform) tendons under tension. Suited to deep water production environments (e.g. Hutton Platform,
Northern North Sea).
Tmax Wave period associated with defined individual wave.
Topography Description of contours of land elevation (referenced to a defined datum).
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Topsides The portion of an offshore structure which is permanently above water level. This includes the
operational decks, accommodation modules and all surface units and structures. For a fixed
platform, the topsides are normally fabricated separately from the substructure (jacket) and installed
by heavy lift or float-over.
Total Water Level The height of a wave crest above defined datum level (normally Platform LAT). Total Water Level
is the combination of tidal elevation, non-tidal surge, Mean Sea Level variation and wave action. In
the extreme design case, Total Water Level represents the maximum estimated elevation of water
surface relative to the structure. The clearance between the estimated extreme Total Water Level
and the base of the cellar deck is termed the ‘air gap’.
Tp (Peak Wave Period) The period associated with the spectral band at which peak wave energy occurs. This parameter
describes the periodicity of the dominant wave energy component in a given sea state. It is of
importance in structural loading calculation and also in assessment of vessel motion.
Tropical Cyclone System of intense winds rotating about an area of low atmospheric pressure, occurring in tropical
regions. Tropical cyclones can cause major operational disruption and structural damage. Cyclones
are each given a unique name, and monitored closely by meteorologists in terms of trajectory,
central pressure and intensity. The stages of growth and decay are classified in terms of intensity
(depression, storm, typhoon, dissipation).
Tropical Depression Wind system rotating about an area of low atmospheric pressure, often the precursor to a Tropical
Storm or Typhoon. Maximum surface wind velocities less than 34 knots (17.5 m/s).
Tropical Storm Wind system rotating about an area of low atmospheric pressure, often the precursor to a
Typhoon. Maximum surface wind velocities between 34 knots and 64 knots (17.5 to 33 m/s).
True North The bearing along a great circle route from the point of interest to the North Pole. Forms the
reference datum for angular measurement (e.g. wind direction).
Tsunami A wave caused usually by a landslide, volcanic or seismic actions that can travel great distances
across oceans. In deep water the wave height is small with a long wave period. When the wave
T E R M S
reaches shallow water the energy is transformed into a huge wave which can have devastating
effects.
Turbulence Disturbed, semi-random motion of water particles. Occurs where flow (current or wave) interacts
with a structure.
Typhoon An intense tropical cyclone in which winds tend to spiral inwards toward a core of low pressure,
with maximum surface wind velocities that equal or exceed 64 knots (33 m/s). Equivalent to a
M E T O C E A N
Hurricane.
Tz (Mean Wave The average duration between successive upward crossings of Still Water Level due to wave
Zero-Crossing Period) motion. Wave period is one of the fundamental descriptors of sea state. Short period waves are
principally caused by local wind disturbance. Long period (swell) waves may be associated with
remote ocean disturbance such as that due to monsoonal winds or Tropical Cyclones. Long
period waves impose much greater structural loading than wind waves, and tend to excite
unfavourable vessel motion.
Umbilical Cable system connecting an underwater vehicle (ROV) to its surface power and control system, and
also to relay subsea data to the surface.
Units The reference system in which parameter values are quoted. Clear statement of units and
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conventions is of great importance when metocean information is utilised for engineering design.
Upwelling Vertical upward movement of deep oceanic waters associated with coastal boundary currents (e.g.
the Peruvian upwelling). Upwelling coastlines are extremely rich in nutrients and marine life.
G L O S S A R Y
UTC (Universal Time co-ordinate system equivalent to Greenwich Mean Time (GMT).
Temps Co-ordinaire)
UTM (Universal Worldwide orthogonal co-ordinate system for definition of position.
Transverse Mercator)
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Vector Average The average of a series of vector velocity measurements. The basis for most oceanographic flow
measurement systems. In a purely oscillatory flow the vector average velocity will be zero. Thus
vector-averaging in current measurement effectively removes high frequency wave influence.
Velocity Vector component of speed in a specified direction. In metocean engineering, the term velocity can
be used either to describe the magnitude of orthogonal components of flow (e.g. north and east
current velocity vectors) or to describe the local flow in terms of its combined speed and direction.
VIV Vibration induced in a drilling riser by strong and persistent flow through the water column. May
(Vortex-Induced induce major additional stresses and, in extreme cases, severe damage.
Vibration)
VOF Merchant ships which take routine weather observations whilst on passage and report them to the
(Voluntary Observing World Meteorological Organisation (WMO) for forecast verification, pressure mapping in open
Fleet) ocean and statistical databasing.
Water Column Term used to describe the full vertical section of ocean water between the sea bed and sea surface.
Wave Breaking Collapse of the wave profile and associated energy dissipation. Occurs in shallow water when there
is strong frictional retardation at the sea bed, but also in open ocean under high wind action or
when the profile becomes too steep. There are four classifications for breaking waves (spilling,
plunging, surging and collapsing breakers). Various empirical formulae may be used to estimate the
point at which waves will break in shoaling water.
Wave Crest In plan view, the line perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation at which the wave is at the
peak of its cycle. In open ocean, swell waves are characteristically ‘long-crested’. Disturbed wind-
generated seas are typically ‘short-crested’.
Wave Crest The elevation of an individual wave crest above the Still Water Level. Note that wave crest is defined
Elevation as an amplitude rather than as a height.
Wave Decay The change waves undergo after they leave a generating area (Fetch) and pass through a calm, or
region of lighter winds. In the process of decay, the significant wave height decreases and the
significant wavelength increases.
Wave Diffraction Lateral transfer of energy along the wave crest. Most noticeable when a wave meets an obstruction
such as a breakwater or small island. In this instance, diffraction causes bending of the wave crest,
and local intensification of wave energy.
Wave Direction The direction from which a wave propagates. Note that this convention is consistent with that for
wind direction but contrary to that for current direction. Direction may be quoted as a mean value
for the sea state (Mean Wave Direction), as the direction associated with the spectral peak
frequency (Peak Wave Direction) or as the direction associated with an individual frequency
component.
Wave Group Velocity The velocity of a wave group. In deep water, it is equal to half the velocity of the individual waves
within the group.
Wave Height The vertical distance between a wave crest and the subsequent trough (twice the amplitude).
Wavelength The horizontal distance between similar points on two successive waves measured perpendicular
to the crest.
Wave Period At a single point of reference, the time duration between successive ‘upward-crossings’ of the wave
surface through the Still Water Level.
Wave Reflection The reflection of wave energy from a physical barrier (e.g. sea wall, breakwater or beach). Different
structures will have different wave reflection characteristics; some frequency components will be
reflected more strongly than others.
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Wave Refraction As waves enter shallower water, velocity is attenuated by frictional resistance at the sea bed. If the
incident wave crests are not initially parallel to the sea bed contours, the leading portion will reach
shallow water in advance of the trailing portion. Thus, differential velocity attenuation will occur
along the wave crest, causing it to bend and become more aligned with local bed contours. This
results in regions of wave focusing (height increase) and height reduction. Refraction is dependent
upon wave period, direction, spectral form and water depth. Refraction causes significant local
variation in wave intensity in coastal waters, and should be assessed by numerical model simulation
for any coastal engineering project.
Wave Shoaling As waves enter shallower water, velocity is attenuated by frictional resistance at the sea bed.
Shoaling is the associated increase in wave height to conserve momentum.
Wave Spectrum In ocean wave studies, a graph, table, or mathematical equation showing the distribution of wave
energy as a function of wave frequency. The spectrum may be based on observations or theoretical
considerations. Several forms of graphical display are widely used.
Wave Steepness The ratio of wave height to wave length. Beyond a critical steepness, breaking will occur.
Weibull Distribution Probability distribution function used in extreme value analysis as an approximation to the ‘real’ data
distribution. Two and three parameter formulations of the Weibull PDF are used. From the
controlling parameters, estimated from data, the function is extrapolated to extreme return period
probability levels to determine associated design parameters.
Wellhead Permanent equipment used to secure and seal the casings and production tubing and to provide a
mounting place for the Christmas Tree.
Wind Direction Direction from which the wind is blowing. Note that this convention is consistent with that for wave
direction but contrary to that for current direction. Wind direction should be quoted for a
particular elevation above land or sea surface, and for a defined averaging period (e.g. 3 second gust
or 10 minute mean).
Wind Profile Vertical section of wind velocity (for example, the design extreme profile over the height range of
T E R M S
an offshore structure).
Wind Sea Wave action generated by local wind conditions (as opposed to remotely-generated swell waves).
Wind sea is of relatively short period (high frequency) and normally follows the direction of wind
forcing.
Wind Speed Speed magnitude of local wind flow.
Wind Velocity Speed of local wind flow along a defined direction. Wind velocity should be quoted for a particular
M E T O C E A N
elevation above land or sea surface, and for a defined averaging period (e.g. 3 second gust or 10
minute mean).
WMO World Meteorological Organisation.
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