EE1/ISE1 Analogue Electronics 2008/2009

Part 5: Switched Transistor Circuits

Transient behaviour of RC and RL circuits

Switched transistor circuits
Transistor oscillator circuits

EE1/ISE1 Analogue Electronics 2008/2009 – Part 5 1

Simple RC Circuit - Step Response

R Icap

V
V C Vcap or, equivalently: R R C

• Source is DC, but may be switched between different values

dVcap
• Need to solve:   Vcap  V with V = const.,  = RC
dt

This gives:  
Vcap (t)  V  Vcap (0) - V exp- t/ 

where Vcap(0) = initial condition at t = 0

V - Vcap (0)
• Icap given by: Icap (t)  exp- t/  Icap (0).exp- t/ 
R
EE1/ISE1 Analogue Electronics 2008/2009 – Part 5 2
 Simple RC Circuit - Step Response
Vcap
R Icap
/e
V C Vcap V

Vcap(0)
 
Vcap (t)  V  Vcap (0) - V exp- t/ 
t
Key points: t=0 t=

• History for t < 0 is irrelevant

• Vcap approaches V exponentially as t  
 If we are told “V has been constant for a long time”,
we can assume:
Vcap = V and Icap = 0 ; STEADY STATE condition
EE1/ISE1 Analogue Electronics 2008/2009 – Part 5 3

RC Circuit - Multiple Steps

Vcap  V2  V1 - V2  exp- (t 2 - t1 )/
t2
Vcap t1 t2
V V2
Vcap V1

2 2/e

V3
t

Vcap  V2  V1 - V2  exp t - t1 / Vcap  V3   Vcap - V3  exp t - t 2 /

 t2 

• Vcap is continuous (current must be finite!)

• Same equation applies in each phase
• Initial value for each phase = value of Vcap just before
transition in V
EE1/ISE1 Analogue Electronics 2008/2009 – Part 5 4
 Simple RL Circuit - Step Response
IL R

I R L VL or, equivalently: IR L

dI L
• Now solving:   IL  I with I = const.,  = L/R
dt

Same type of equation as for capacitor, but now solving for

current
 I L (t)  I  I L (0) - I exp- t/

where IL(0) = initial condition

• VL given by: VL (t)  R I - I L (0)exp- t/   VL (0).exp- t/ 

EE1/ISE1 Analogue Electronics 2008/2009 – Part 5 5

Simple RL Circuit - Step Response

IL
IL
/e
I R L I
VL

IL(0)
I L (t)  I  I L (0) - I exp- t/
t
t=0 t=

• As for RC cct, history for t < 0 is irrelevant

• IL approaches I exponentially as t  

 STEADY STATE condition is IL = I and VL = 0

EE1/ISE1 Analogue Electronics 2008/2009 – Part 5 6

 Large-signal BJT Models
VC
CUT-OFF VC

IC VB < 0
IB  IB, IC  0 VB
VB

NB: assumes VC > 0, otherwise transistor could be

reverse active

ACTIVE IB IB IC
VC SATURATED
IB > 0 IC = IB  0.2 V
IB > 0
VC > VCEsat IC < IB

• Need to look at rest of circuit to know which is applicable !

EE1/ISE1 Analogue Electronics 2008/2009 – Part 5 7

Example 1 (1993 exam)

+10 V
VIN changes from -1 V to +2 V at t = 0,
4 k 1 F after being at -1 V for a long time.
Sketch time variation of VOUT
VOUT
27 k
 = 50
VIN

EE1/ISE1 Analogue Electronics 2008/2009 – Part 5 8

 Example 2 (1996 exam)
+10 V vOUT
vA
1 k
vB
i 2 k vC
100 mH vD

i 0 20 t (sec)
vOUT
iA
8 k
 = 20
v iB
iC

t (sec)

V has been at 8.7 V for a long time. It then falls to -2 V at t = 0, remains at this level
for 20 sec, and then rises to +2.7 V. Assign values to vA, vB, vC, vD and iA, iB, iC.

EE1/ISE1 Analogue Electronics 2008/2009 – Part 5 9

Example 3

VIN (V)
5

0
0 200 t (msec)

Both transistors have  = 100. Sketch the time variation of VOUT when an input pulse
is applied as shown. Assume VIN was at zero volts for a long time before t = 0.

EE1/ISE1 Analogue Electronics 2008/2009 – Part 5 10

 Switching Oscillators -1
Ring Oscillator Astable Multivibrator

• Odd number of inverters connected in ring

is ASTABLE i.e. has no stable state
(check for yourself!)
• Simple circuit suitable for very high
oscillation frequencies • Two MONOSTABLE multivibrators
connected in loop
• Oscillation period (=1/frequency) is sum
of inverter propagation delays: T = kR1C1 + kR2C2
• where k(1) depends on detailed design
T   t PHLi  t PLHi
i of monostables
EE1/ISE1 Analogue Electronics 2008/2009 – Part 5 11

Switching Oscillators - 2
Discrete Astable Multivibrator (historical/lab interest only!)

During Phase A, current flows in C1

via R1 and Q2. VB1 rises from initial
value of (0.9 – VCC) until Q1
switches on, so T1 given by:
0.7  VCC + (0.9 – 2VCC)e -T1/(R1C1)

 2V  0.9 
 T1  kR1C1 with k  ln CC 
 VCC  0.7 
EE1/ISE1 Analogue Electronics 2008/2009 – Part 5 12
 Switching Oscillators – 3
Relaxation Type
• Characterised by single RC network with comparator(s) to control switching
of source
• Comparator version:

• Schmitt version:
• T1 given by VTH+  Vomax + (VTH- –Vomax)exp{-T1/(RC)}
with similar relation for T2
• For comparator version, thresholds are set by resistive
feedback network, with VTH+ = Vomax RB/(RA+RB) etc

• More complex circuit also possible, with two comparators and latch, as
in 555 timer (see lab notes)
EE1/ISE1 Analogue Electronics 2008/2009 – Part 5 13

Sinusoidal Oscillators - 1
Transistor amplifiers with feedback can be made to oscillate under certain conditions –
sometimes this even happens when we don’t want it to!
To see how oscillation can arise, consider following system:

x G(s) y y G (s)
- H(s)  
x 1  KG (s)
K

H(s) is the closed loop transfer function, expressed in terms of complex frequency,
s =  + j. This tells us about the response of the system to inputs of the form exp(st).
Signals of this form with ,  0 correspond to oscillations with growing (> 0) or
decaying ( < 0) amplitude. H(s) can be obtained by normal nodal analysis, using
ZC = 1/sC and ZL = sL in place of the normal impedance expressions for capacitors and
inductors.
Note that H(s) → at (complex) frequencies where the loop gain KG(s) → -1. At such
frequencies it is possible to have a finite output with zero input i.e. the circuit can generate
an output signal without an input signal…

EE1/ISE1 Analogue Electronics 2008/2009 – Part 5 14

 Sinusoidal Oscillators - 2
x G(s) y y G (s)
- H(s)  
x 1  KG (s)
K

The equation 1 + KG(s) = 0 is referred to as the characteristic equation. Later in the

course (year 2) you will find that the stability of a feedback system depends on where the
roots of the characteristic equation lie in the complex plane. For our purposes, we only need
to know that:
roots with  < 0: oscillations will die away over time in absence of input
roots with  > 0: oscillation amplitude will grow with time
roots with  = 0: oscillation amplitude will be stable what we want for an oscillator!

The key to making a sinusoidal oscillator is to construct a circuit with feedback for which
the characteristic equation has one (complex conjugate) pair of imaginary roots, and no
roots with  > 0.
An alternative way of stating the first requirement is that there should be a unique frequency
0 for which -KG(j0) = 1 i.e. for which the total gain around the loop (including the “–”
sign on the input combiner) is unity. This is the Barkhausen Criterion.

EE1/ISE1 Analogue Electronics 2008/2009 – Part 5 15

Sinusoidal Oscillators - 3
• Typical oscillator structure:
Passive frequency-selective Amplifier (K real & >0)
network (RC, RL or RLC)
G(s) -K

Stable oscillations will occur at some frequency 0 provided:

Arg{G(j)} =  and K = 1/|G(j)| = K0
Note that K has to be controlled precisely - too large and oscillations will grow; too
small and they will decay away. In practice, the amplitude of oscillation is controlled by
having a second feedback mechanism that reduces K as the amplitude increases. At turn-
on, oscillations build up until amplitude is reached where K = K0.
Traditional methods for amplitude control include:
• exploiting natural o/p swing limitations of amplifier (leads to distortion)
• introducing clamp diodes to limit signal amplitude (ditto)
• incorporating temperature-dependent resistors (e.g. thermistors or filaments) in
gain-defining network so that gain decreases as signal power rises

EE1/ISE1 Analogue Electronics 2008/2009 – Part 5 16

 Sinusoidal Oscillators – RC type
Phase-Shift Oscillator Wien Bridge Oscillator

• Transfer function of RC network is:

vi u3 • Transfer function of RC network is:
G(s) = vo = 3
u + 6u2 + 5u + 1 sR2C1
G(s) =
where u = sRC. Also note K = RF/R sR2C1 + (1 + sR1C1)(1 + sR2C2)

• Barkhausen criterion (KG = -1 with and K = -(1+R3/R4) (NB amp is non-

s = j0) gives: inverting!)
1 • Barkhausen criterion gives:
0  ; K  29
6RC 1 R 3 R1 C 2
0  ;  
R1C1R 2C2 R4 R 2 C1
EE1/ISE1 Analogue Electronics 2008/2009 – Part 5 17

Sinusoidal Oscillators – LC type

e.g. Single Transistor Colpitts Oscillator

• Oscillation frequency determined by resonance of LC

network.
• Transistor provides gain to compensate for losses
(represented in SSEC by ro , although in practice other
components will also be lossy!)
• Oscillation amplitude controlled by transistor non-
linearity (transistor enters triode region)
• Conditions for oscillation obtained by nodal analysis of
SSEC, which yields characteristic equation directly:

s3LC1C2 +s2LC2/ro + s(C1 + C2) + (gm + 1/ro) = 0

Imposing the condition s = j0 we obtain:

1 C2
0  ; g m ro 
LC1C2 C1
C1  C2
EE1/ISE1 Analogue Electronics 2008/2009 – Part 5 18
ANALOGUE ELECTRONICS
PROBLEMS 5

1. In the circuit below, VIN = -1 V for t < 0 and +1 V for t  0. Derive an expression for
VOUT(t) and calculate the time at which it reaches +0.5 V. (Ans: t=139 sec)

1 k
VIN VOUT

100 mH

2. For the simple CR network below, write down a general expression for VOUT(t), t  0, if
the value of VOUT(0) is known, and VIN is constant. Starting from this result, show that if
a square wave of amplitude V0 and frequency f is applied to the input of the network,
then the peak-to-peak amplitude of the waveform at the output will be given by:

 1 
2V0 tanh 
 4fRC 

Sketch the output waveforms for the cases f = 1/10RC, f = 1/RC and f = 10/RC.

R
VIN VOUT

Hint: make t = 0 correspond to a transition in the input waveform, and apply the
condition VOUT(1/2f) = -VOUT(0) over the following half-cycle.

3. In the circuit of Figure Q3 overleaf, the switch S has been closed for a long time, and is
opened at t = 0. Draw dimensioned sketches showing the time variations of the voltages
VE, VR and VC, and also of the voltage VCAP across the capacitor, starting just before t =
0 and extending to t = 100 msec. Indicate any points at which the transistor moves from
one mode of operation to another. (from 1995 Exam)

EE1/ISE1 Analogue Electronics 2008/2009 - Problems 5 ASH 1

 +10 V

VC
20 F
VCAP

VE VR
5.7 V
5 k 3 k

Figure Q3

4. In the circuit below, the voltage VIN has been zero for a long time. At t = 0 it is raised
instantaneously to 5 V, held at this value for 500 sec, and then returned to zero. Derive
an expression for the voltage V(t), starting just before t = 0, and continuing until t = 2
msec.

+10 V

500 
1 k

200 mH

4.3 k
VIN = 100

Figure Q4

EE1/ISE1 Analogue Electronics 2008/2009 - Problems 5 ASH 2

5. Show by nodal analysis that the transfer function of the passive network in Figure Q5
can be expressed as:
u3
G (s) 
u 3  6 u 2  5u  1

where u = sRC and s is complex frequency. Hence, by applying the Barkhausen criterion,
derive the conditions for oscillation and the oscillation frequency of the phase-shift
oscillator shown on page 8 of the lecture notes (Part 5b).

Figure Q5

6. (tricky) Figure Q6 below shows the basic configuration of a Hartley oscillator (NB no
bias components shown!). Draw a small-signal equivalent circuit of the oscillator,
ignoring the transistor’s output resistance, and show by nodal analysis that the
characteristic equation is of the form:

L1L2C(1  )s 3  (L1  L 2)Crbe s 2  L1s  rbe  0

Hence show that the condition for oscillation and the oscillation frequency are given by:

L1 1
 ; 0 
L2 (L1  L 2)C

Figure Q6

EE1/ISE1 Analogue Electronics 2008/2009 - Problems 5 ASH 3