Water Treatment Processes

Clean, safe water is vital for every day life. Water is essential for health, hygiene and the productivity of
our community.

The water treatment process may vary slightly at different locations, depending on the technology of the
plant and the water it needs to process, but the basic principles are largely the same. This section
describes standard water treatment processes.

Coagulation / Flocculation

During coagulation, liquid aluminium sulfate (alum) and/or polymer is added to untreated (raw) water.
When mixed with the water, this causes the tiny particles of dirt in the water to stick together or coagulate.
Next, groups of dirt particles stick together to form larger, heavier particles called flocs which are easier to
remove by settling or filtration.

Sedimentation

As the water and the floc particles progress through the treatment process, they move into sedimentation
basins where the water moves slowly, causing the heavy floc particles to settle to the bottom. Floc which
collects on the bottom of the basin is called sludge, and is piped to drying lagoons. In Direct Filtration, the
sedimentation step is not included, and the floc is removed by filtration only.

Filtration

Water flows through a filter designed to remove particles in the water. The filters are made of layers of
sand and gravel, and in some cases, crushed anthracite. Filtration collects the suspended impurities in
water and enhances the effectiveness of disinfection. The filters are routinely cleaned by backwashing.

Disinfection

Water is disinfected before it enters the distribution system to ensure that any disease-causing bacteria,
viruses, and parasites are destroyed. Chlorine is used because it is a very effective disinfectant, and
residual concentrations can be maintained to guard against possible biological contamination in the water
distribution system.

Sludge Drying
Solids that are collected and settled out of the water by sedimentation and filtration are removed to drying
lagoons.

Fluoridation

Water fluoridation is the treatment of community water supplies for the purpose of adjusting the
concentration of the free fluoride ion to the optimum level sufficient to reduce dental caries. Hunter Water
is required to fluoridate water in accordance with the NSW Fluoridation of Public Water Supplies Act
1957.

pH Correction

Lime is added to the filtered water to adjust the pH and stabilise the naturally soft water in order to
minimise corrosion in the distribution system, and within customers’ plumbing.

Water Treatment
Water treatment is a process of making water suitable for its
application or returning its natural state. Thus, water treatment
required before and after its application. The required
treatment depends on the application. For example, treatment
of greywater (from bath, dish and wash water) differs from the
black water (from flush toilets). Composting toilet is not allowed in urban dwelling.
Yet, composting toilets are used in a 30,000-square-foot office complex at the
Institute of Asian Research, University of British Columbia.

Water treatment involves science, engineering, business, and art. The treatment may
include mechanical, physical, biological, and chemical methods. As with any
technology, science is the foundation, and engineering makes sure that the technology
works as designed. The appearance and application of water is an art.

In terms of business, RGF Environmental, Water Energy Technologies, Aquasana

Store, Vitech, Recalyx Industrial SDN BHD and PACE Chemicals ltd are some of
many companies that offer various processes for water treatment. Millipore, a Fisher
Scientific partner, offers many lines of products to produce ultrapure water, using a
combination of active charcoal membranes, and reverse osmosis filter. Internet sites
of these companies offer useful information regarding water.
An environmental scientist or consultant matches the service provider, modify if
necessary, with the requirement.

 Natural Water includes some discussion on hard and soft water. Softening
hard water for boiler, cooler, and domestic application is discussed therein.
These treatments prepare water so that it is suitable for the applications.
 Water Biology deals with water and biology. Drinking water is part of making
water suitable for living. Thus, this link gives some considerations to drinking
water problems.
 There are many different industry types, and waters from various sources are
usually treated before and after their applications. Pre-application treatment
and wastewater treatment offer a special opportunity or challenge. Only a
general consideration will be given to some industrial processes.
 General municipal and domestic wastewater treatment converts used water
(waste) into environmentally acceptable water or even drinking water. Every
urban centre requires such a facility.

General Wastewater Treatment

Water is a renewable resource. All water treatments involve the removal of solids,
bacteria, algae, plants, inorganic compounds, and organic compounds. Removal of
solids is usually done by filtration and sediment. Bacteria digestion is an important
process to remove harmful pollutants. Converting used water into environmentally
acceptable water or even drinking water is wastewater treatment

Water in the Great Lakes Region is an organization dealing with the water
resources. Ontario Clean Water Agency (OCWA) is a provincial Crown corporation
in business to provide environmentally responsible and cost-efficient water and
wastewater services. It currently operates more than 400 facilities for 200
municipalities. This web site provides information on water and water treatment.

In April 1993, 403,000 people in Milwaukee were ill as a result

of cryptosporidium contaimination of water due to spring run off.
This outbreak caused the more stringent regulations to be implemented in the public
dringking water system. The measures were aimed at removing cryptosporidium.

In May 2000, due to torrential downpour surface water got into shallow wells in a
small town Walkerton, Ontario, Canada. On May 17, some residents complained of
fever, bloody diarrhea and vomiting. This was know as the Walkerton E.
Coli Outbreak. Nearly half of the population of the town fell ill, and several people
died due to the E. Coli O157:H7 infection. A public inquiry recommended many
measures to prevent similar outbreaks. These measures were aimed at eliminating E.
Coli.

Sewage Treatment
As a general discussion, let us look at a typical process in sewage treatment. A flow
diagram for a general sewage treatment plant from Water Education, Department of
Computer Science, University of Exeter, U.K., is shown below:

Sewage is SCREENED to remove large solid chunks, which are disposed in

LANDFILL SITE. It flows over to the SETTLEMENT TANK to let the fine particles
to settle. The settlement is called the activated SLUDGE. The supernatant is then
PERCOLATING FILTERED and/or AERATED. The water can be filtered again, and
then disinfected (chlorinated in most cases). When there is no other complication, the
water is returned to nature back to the ecological cycle.

The SLUDGE removed from the settlement is composed of living biological material.
A portion of it may be returned to the AERATION TANK, but the raw SLUDGE is
digested by both microorganism. Anaerobic (without oxygen) and aerobic (with air)
bacteria digestions are used. At the digestion stage, carbon dioxide, ammonia, and
methane gases are evolved. Volume of the digested sludge is reduced, and it is
acceptable as a fertilizer supplement in farming.

Wastewater Treatment
Although the sewage water may be discharged back to the ecological system after
AERATED DIGESTION and PERCOLATING FILTRATION, but in some cases, further
treatment is required. Some general consideration of water treatment is given
below.

A rather recent book, Chemistry of Water Treatment by S.D. Faust and O.M. Aly, 2nd
Ed. (1998) [TD433 F38 1998], addresses the problem of quality natural and treated
water.

The first three chapters discuss the criteria and standards for drinking water quality,
organic compounds in waters, taste and order of water. Understandably, the standards
change over the years. So are the standards of treated waters. Guidelines are available
from government agencies such asEnvironment Canada which is equivalent to U.S.
Public Health Service and the Environment Protection Agency (EPA). We have talked
about drinking water in Water Biology.

Next seven chapters deal with the removal of the following:

 organics and inorganics by activated carbon

 particulate matter by coagulation
 particulate matter by filtration and sedimentation
 hardness and other scale-forming substances
 inorganic contaminants
 corrosive substances
 pathogenic (disease producing) bacteria, viruses, and protozoans
(microorganisms).

There is a chapter dealing with aeration

These items cover the chemistry, biology, and physics involved in the treatment of
water. Some of these topics have been discussed in chemistry of water, physical
properties of water, biology of water, and natural water. Introductions are going to be
given to some selected topics below.

Treatment by activated carbon

Treatment by activated carbon is mostly due to adsorption or absorption. When a
chemical species is adhered to the surface of a solid, it is an adsorption. When partial
chemical bonds are formed between adsorbed species or when the absorbate got
into the channels of the solids, we call it absorption. However, these two terms are
often used to mean the same, because to distinguish one from type from the other is
very difficult.

Application of activated charcoal for the removal of undesirable order and taste in
drinking water has been recognized at the dawn of civilization. Using bone char and
charred vegetation, gravel, and sand for the filtration of water for domestic application
has been practised for thousands of years. Active research and production of activated
charcoal was accelerated during the two world wars. The use of poison gas prompted
the development of masks. They are still in use today.

Charcoal absorbs many substances, ranging from colored organic particulates to

inorganic metal ions. Charcoal has been used to remove the colour of raw sugar from
various sources.

Charcoal consists of microcrystallites of graphite. The

particles are so small in charcoal that they were
considered amorphous. The crystal structure of graphite
consists of layers of hexagonal networks, stacked on
top of each other. Today, making activated carbon is a
new and widely varied industry. Other molecules attach
themselves to the porous surface and dangling carbons
in these microcrystallites.

Carbon containing substances are charred at less than

900 K to produce carbon in the manufacture
of activated carbon. However, the carbon is activated
at 1200 K using oxidizing agent to selectively oxidize
portions of the char to produce pores in the material.
Because of the special process to produce used, these materials with high surface to
mass ratio, they are called activated carbon rather than activated charcoal. Factors
affecting the absorption are particle size, surface area, pore structure, acidity (pH),
temperature, and the nature of the material to be absorbed. Usually, adsorption
(absorption) equilibria and rate of adsorption must be considered for effective
applications.

Coagulation, flucculation and sedimentation

Natural and wastewater containing small particulates. They are suspended in water
forming a colloid. These particles carry the same charges, and repulsion prevents
them from combining into larger particulates to settle. Thus, some chemical and
physical techniques are applied to help them settle. The phenomenon is known
as coagulation. A well known method is the addition of electrolyte. Charged
particulates combine with ions neutralizing the charges. The neutral particulates
combine to form larger particles, and finally settle down.

Another method is to use high-molecular-weight material to attract or trap the

particulates and settle down together. Such a process is called flocculation. Starch and
multiply charged ions are often used.

Historically, dirty water is cleaned by treating with alum, Al2(SO4)3.12 H2O, and lime,
Ca(OH)2. These electrolytes cause the pH of the water to change due to the following
reactions:

Al2(SO4)3.12 H2O, -> Al(aq)3+ + 3 SO4(aq)2- + 12 H2O

SO4(aq)2- + H2O -> HSO4(aq)- + OH- (causing pH change)
Ca(OH)2 -> Ca(aq)2+ + 2 OH- (causing pH change)

The slightly basic water causes Al(OH)3, Fe(OH)3 and Fe(OH)2 to precipitate, bringing
the small particulates with them and the water becomes clear. Some records have
been found that Egyptians and Romans used these techniques as early as 2000 BC.

Suspension of iron oxide particulates and humic organic matter in water gives water
the yellow muddy appearance. Both iron oxide particulates and organic matter can be
removed from coagulation and flocculation. The description given here is
oversimplified, and many more techniques have been applied in the treatment of
water. Coagulation is a major application of lime in the treatment of wastewater.

Other salts such as iron sulfates Fe2(SO4)3 and FeSO4, chromium sulfate Cr2(SO4)3,
and some special polymers are also useful. Other ions such as sodium, chloride,
calcium, magnesium, and potassium also affect the coagulation process. So do
temperature, pH, and concentration.

Disposal of coagulation sludge is a concern, however.

Sedimentation let the water sit around to let the floculated or coagulated particles to
settle out. It works best with relatively dense particles (e.g. silt and minerals), while
flotation works better for lighter particles (e.g. algae, color). A settling tank should be
big enough so that it takes a long time (ideally 4 hours +) to get through. Inlets and
outlets are designed so the water moves slowly in the tank. Long and narrow channels
are installed to let the water to snake its way through the tank. The settled particles,
sludge, must occasionally be removed from the tanks. The water is next ready to be
filtered. Sedimentation is used in pre-treatment and wastewater treatment.

Filtration
Filtration is the process of removing solids from a fluid by passing it through a
porous medium. Coarse, medium, and fine porous media have been used depending
on the requirement. The filter media are artificial membranes, nets, sand filter, and
high technological filter systems. The choice of filters depends on the required
filtering speed and the cleanness requirement. The flow required for filtration can be
achieved using gravity or pressure. In pressure filtration, one side of the filter
medium is at higher pressure than that of the other so that the filter plane has a
pressure drop. Some portion of this filter type must be enclosed in a container.

The process of removing the clogged portion of the filter bed by reversing the flow
through the bed and washing out the solid is called back washing. During this
process, the solid must be removed out of the system, but otherwise the filters must be
either replaced or taken out of service to be cleaned.

Aqua-Rain manufacture water filters as shown here.

This unit consists of four filters. Regarding the filtering
system, its techinical info gave the following statement.

At the heart of the AquaRain� Water Filtration

System are Marathonr State-of-the-art ceramic
elements utilizing a long-proven filtration
process that is over 100 years old which will
safely remove dangerous waterborne pathogens
such as cysts (Cryptospordium, Giardia lamblia)
 and bacteria (E. coli, Samonelli typhus, etc...). These innovative Marathonr
ceramic elements are also filled with a high grade silvered granulated
activated carbon (GAC). The GAC reduces pesticides, chemicals, chlorine, tastes
& odors, while leaving the naturally occurring minerals found in the water
unaffected.

The units are designed for emergency and perhaps undeveloped countries.

AquaSelect of Mississauga has a pitcher water filter system, and its cartridge contains
hundreds of high efficiency activated carbon and ion exchange beads, its web site
claims. Brita filters is very popular.

Aeration
Bringing air into intimate contact with water for the purpose of exchanging certain
components between the two phases is called aeration. Oxygenation is one of the
purposes of aeration. Others are removal of volatile organic substances, hydrogen
sulfide, ammonia, and volatile organic compounds.

A gas or substance dissolved in water may further react with water. Such a reaction is
called hydration. Ionic substance dissolve due to hydration, for example:

HCl (g) + x H2O = H(H2O)x+ + Cl(aq)-

H2S = H(aq)+ + HS(aq)-

These reactions are reversible, and aeration may also causes dehydration resulting in
releasing the gas from water. Henry's law is applicable to this type of equilibrium for
consideration. Methods of aeration are

 Diffused aeration - Air bubbles through water.

 Spray aeration - Water is sprayed through air.
 Multiple-tray aeration - Water flows through several trays to mix with air.
 Cascade aeration - Water flows downwards over many steps in the form of
thin water falls.
 Air stripping - A combination of multiple tray and cascade technique plus
random packed blocks causing water to mix thoroughly with air.

Reverse osmosis water filter system

In the following discussion, a
dilute solution and a
concentrated solution are
considered. The dilute solution
can be a clean water whereas
the concentrated solution
contains undesirable solute
(electrolyte or others).

When a compartment containing a dilute solution is connected to another

compartment containing a concentrated solution by a semipermeable membrane,
water molecules move from the dilute solution to concentrated solution. This
phenomenon is called osmosis. Pig bladders are natural semipermeable membranes.
As the water molecules migrate through the semipermeable membrane, water level in
the solution will increase until the (osmotic) pressure prevents a net migration of
water molecules in one direction. A pressure equivalent to the height difference is
called the osmotic pressure. The illustration given on the right is from the PurePro,
one of the many companies that manufacture reverse osmosis water filter
devices. Millipore also use this technique.

By applying pressure in the higher

concentration solution, water molecules
migrate from a high concentration
solution to a low concentration solution.
This method is called reverse osmosis
water filter system. The concept of
reverse osmosis is illustrated in the
diagram here from PurePro.

In this technique, the membrane must

be able to tolerate the high pressure,
and prevent solute molecules to pass through. Regarding membranes, PurePro made
the following statement:

Semipermeable membranes have come a long way from the natural pig
bladders used in the earlier osmosis experiments. Before the 1960's, these
membranes were too inefficient, expensive, and unreliable for practical
applications outside the laboratory. Modern advances in synthetic materials
have generally solved these problems, allowing membranes to become highly
 efficient at rejecting contaminants, and making them tough enough to
withstand the greater pressures necessary for efficient operation.

This technology certainly works, and it has been used to convert salt (ocean or sea)
water into fresh water. With this technique, the water with higher concentration is
discharged. Thus, this technology is costly in regions where the water cost is
high. Free Drinking Water also uses reverse osmosis filter system for domestic
applications.

Industrial wastewater Treatment

The Environment Canada's (Atlantic Region) Waste Management and Remediation
Section contains links to detailed information on the programs and activities relating
to Petroleum and Allied Petroleum Storage Tank Systems, Ocean
Disposal, Contaminated Sites, and Hazardous Waste Disposal Advice for the
provinces of Newfoundland and Labrador, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and Prince
Edward Island. It also contains links to sites within and outside of Environment
Canada with related information.
Water and waste treatment in a brewry, distillery, or winery
This section is underconstruction. The fermentation industry is interesting, but
you may not think it is.

First of all, for the process involved in a brewry, a proposal called Alcohol
Fermentation to Produce Beer gives some details about the brewing process. Brewing
equipment is available from CDC Inc.

Water Treatment Related Companies

The listing of these companies is not an endorsement of them. They are listed here
for information only.

 Cleanwater H2OAustralia company for water in the environment.

 accepta Water and waste water treatment chemicals, test kits, analysis etc, a
U.K. Company
 Environmental Expert provides a large list of companies for water technology.
 Machines for Water Systems - a company with addresses in Niagara Falls, N.Y.
and Hamilton in Ontario, Canada.
 Aquapedia background
 SURFACE WATER TREATMENT

 A tremendous amount of time and technology is expended to make

surface water safe to drink. Surface water undergoes many processes
before it reaches a consumer’s tap.

 When water enters a treatment plant [see also Water Treatment], the
first step is coagulation, the rapid mixing of coagulants such as
aluminum sulfate, ferric chloride and organic polymers into the water.
This alters electrical charges surrounding the suspended, undesirable
particles to make them attract and coagulate, or clump together, into
larger particles known as flocs.

 The next step is flocculation: water is gently agitated so the flocs or

particles will collide with each other, stick together and entrap other
 suspended particles, forming larger, heavier particles that will settle out
in the next step.

 In the sedimentation phase, the flocculated water moves slowly through

a basin or tank to allow the heavy floc particles to settle to the bottom,
so they may be removed.

 Water is passed through a filter made of sand, coal particles or similar

materials that removes particles such as silt, other very fine solids, and
some pathogens not settled in the sedimentation process. Filtration
further reduces turbidity and results in water that is crystal clear.

 Activated carbon also may be used to remove chemical contaminants.

Rather than being trapped in the small passageways between grains of
sand, contaminants stick to the surface of carbon and are removed, a
process known as carbon adsorption.

 At the disinfection stage, chlorine, chloramines, ozone or other

disinfectants are added to the water to destroy potentially harmful germs
such as bacteria, viruses, parasites and other organisms. During the
treatment process, an effort is made to add enough disinfectant to leave
a residual amount in the water to continue to kill any pathogens in the
pipelines that convey the water to users.

 Because chlorine produces disinfection byproducts that are suspected

to cause cancer, ozone, chlorine dioxide and ultraviolet light are being
evaluated and tested to determine their effectiveness as a replacement
for chlorine. However, there are byproducts of some of these alternative
disinfectants that also are potential health risks, leaving drinking water
suppliers and consumers in a dilemma.

 Aeration, the mixture of air with water, sometimes is used if undesirable

amounts of iron and manganese are present; the elements remain in
solution in water in the absence of oxygen. Aeration is done primarily to
improve the aesthetics of water: color, taste and odor.

 In some systems, fluoride is added to reduce tooth decay. California law

requires fluoridation of water in systems with 10,000 or more
 connections. State officials say 30 percent of all public water providers
in California fluoridate their water.

 Other chemicals may be added to water during the course of treatment

for specific purposes. Caustic soda or lime, for example, may be added
for corrosion control. [See also groundwater treatment.]

 In California, treatment rules require water systems to filter all surface

water and certain groundwater supplies to remove infectious disease-
causing microbes, unless the water supplier can show that the water
supply is not exposed to such contaminants. [See also Water Quality.]

SEAWATER DESALINATION WITH

REVERSE OSMOSIS
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Desalination technology has been around for the better part of the last century. Many countries,
municipalities, armed services and ships have the need to produce fresh water by desalination
because of their lack of natural sources of fresh water. Desalination technology has brought fresh
water and hence industrial and commercial development to areas of the world that otherwise might
have remained unproductive. Not only has development been enhanced by this technology but,
more importantly, the health and welfare of many people have been improved by the supply of
sanitary fresh water supplies.
The first desalination systems were probably ones developed by the navy. These systems utilized
distillation technology and, most times, were operated by waste heat from the ship engines.
Distillation-type desalination systems require large amounts of energy to produce fresh water and,
because of these, only where low cost energy is available is distillation economically feasible for
applications.
In the late 1960s, reverse osmosis (RO) was developed for desalting saline water supplies. This
process is based on the principal of osmosis and requires a membrane barrier to separate salts from
water. Because RO technology required considerably less energy to operate than distillation, it was
considered to be the technology that would make desalination much more attainable to the world’s
water scarce areas. Indeed, RO for water purification has become widely utilized not just for drinking
water applications but for high purity industrial process applications such as manufacturing of
electronic components, pharmaceuticals, chemicals, boiler feedwater, medical applications and
industrial and municipal wastewater recovery systems as well. However, in the early days of RO
commercialization, historical design and operations information wasn’t available and, as with any
new technology, many problems arose. Therefore, in the initial years of RO membrane plant
application, many owners and operators experienced costly downtime attributable to lack of
applications experience by engineers, vendors, etc. As both membranes and applications
engineering became more advanced with time, RO systems were installed and operated with greater
success. Today, with the necessary understanding of feedwater source conditions, pretreatment
needs and high quality system engineering, RO can be applied to almost any ground or surface
water desalination/purification application. Advancements in membrane manufacturing and
applications engineering have made RO the leading process in the worldwide water desalination
market.
The definition of desalination generally is considered to be the production of fresh water from
seawater. However, the term also is commonly used by engineers to describe desalting of slightly to
moderately saline waters normally referred to as brackish. For the remainder of this discussion, we
will focus on desalination as defined by seawater desalting.
Principles of RO

Desalination by RO requires the use of an osmotic membrane (i.e., one that allows water to pass
through it at much higher rates than dissolved salts). Osmotic membranes occur naturally in living
organisms everywhere. The osmotic membrane also is referred to as a semipermeable membrane
because of its capability to allow some constituents to pass through it while holding back others.
The osmosis phenomenon in nature is one where a dilute solution is transported across a
semipermeable membrane toward a concentrated solution on the other side. The process of RO is
just the opposite of osmosis and is illustrated in Figure 1. In osmosis, the solvent water passes
through the membrane until the pressure difference across the membrane is equal to the osmotic
pressure (approximately 350 psig for a fresh water/seawater interface). In the RO desalination
process, a pressure greater than the osmotic pressure applied to the saline water will cause fresh
water to flow through the membrane while holding back the solutes (salts). The higher the applied
pressure above the osmotic pressure, the higher the rate of fresh water transports across the
membranes.
System Design Consideration

When designing a seawater RO system, many factors must be considered. First and extremely
important is the feedwater source. Seawater either will be drawn from a surface water supply, a
beach header-lateral face well system or a borehole well system. Typically, seawater well systems
are preferred because they provide a low turbidity feedwater requiring less pretreatment. However,
even well systems produce varying seawater quality depending on the origin of the strata they are
constructed in. Once the best feedwater source (i.e., the system that requires the least amount of
pretreatment) is selected and characterized, both chemically and physically, the pretreatment
system must be designed to create the optimum conditions for membrane operation and
performance. With a high quality feedwater (one with low colloidal, microorganism, organics and iron
content), a seawater RO system needs only five micron cartridge filtration for pretreatment. Lower
quality feedwater may require much more pretreatment including any and all combinations of the
following
• infection coagulation

• clarification
• multi-media filtration

• sequestering and dispersant chemical feeds

• five micron cartridge filtration.

After the pretreatment system, a pump pressurizes the feedwater salinity and recovery rate. Typical
seawater ranges between 28,000 to 35,000 ppm total dissolved solids (TDS). However, some saline
surface waters are much higher such as the Red Sea at 40,000 to 45,000 ppm TDS. The feedwater
then enters the membrane system where organic and inorganic contaminants are separated into a
product water stream and a concentrated reject water stream. Optimum performances are obtained
by hydraulically balancing velocities and flows of water along and through the membrane surfaces. A
simple illustration is provided in Figure 2. System water recovery rates range from 20 to 40 percent
for small to large systems, respectively, for typical 36,000 ppm feedwater.
A properly designed plant, from the aspects of feedwater source, pretreatment and hydraulic
balancing, will reduce organic, inorganic and biological membrane fouling tendencies, thereby
minimizing membrane-cleaning requirements. To say that a membrane plant will never need
cleaning is not an accurate statement. Thus, all land-based plants should be designed with an in-
place cleaning system that also will act

as a sanitizing system when needed.

On shipboard systems, especially small yachts and boats, there is very limited space, so membrane-
cleaning systems are not sold with the desalination system. Instead, membranes generally are
replaced each year.
Pumps

The two most basic individual components in a seawater RO system are the high pressure feed
pump and the RO membranes. These components comprise the heart of any RO system and
require careful selection and application for successful operation.
There are two types of high pressure pumping units on seawater RO systems: centrifugal and
positive displacement (PD) plunger pumps. Because plunger pumps operate at much higher
efficiencies (88 percent vs. 50 to 75 percent), these most often are the pumps of choice for plants
less than 150,000 gpd and where high-energy costs exist. In larger plants, the centrifugal pumps are
used most often because these pumps may approach 80 percent efficiency, are less costly and
require less maintenance. However, the majority of RO desalination systems are in the 1,000 to
100,000 gpd capacity range. PD pumps are most common due to the lack of availability of higher
pressure, low flow centrifugal.
Plunger pumps produce large output pressure variance (pulsation) due to their reciprocating action,
which translates to vibration. This vibration not only is potentially damaging to the pump but to all
other system components as well especially plumbing, instrumentation and the systems framework.
In order to minimize vibration damage to system components, the pump requires a discharge
pulsation dampener and, in some cases, a suction stabilizer (depending on the acceleration head
attributed to systems feed plumbing). Another important factor is pump speed in RPM. The slower
the pump speed, the less vibration transfers. Mechanical design for vibration isolation also is key to
minimizing vibration damage from the pumping system.
Because seawater RO pumps can generate pressures in excess of 1,000 psig, it is recommended
that a safety switch, in combination with a pressure relief valve, be incorporated in the design.
Severe damage or injury could occur if the pump pressure exceeds material strengths of the RO
design.
Membranes

Membranes are the largest single consumable cost factor in RO desalination Therefore, increasing
membrane life will contribute significantly to lowering operating cost. Membranes most often require
replacement because of reduced capacity, which in most cases is attributable to colloidal and/or
biological fouling. Fouling is a direct result of

either an inadequate feed source or pretreatment equipment. As previously mentioned, installing the
correct feed source and corresponding pretreatment system is critical in minimizing foulants.
It also was mentioned that a well-type feed source normally is the best source for reducing colloidal
content in the feedwater. However, in some circumstances, either because of well development cost
or lack of permeability of the ground structure, well systems are not feasible and surface intake
systems will be required. When surface water is utilized as a feed source, pretreatment systems can
become extensive in order to reduce feedwater colloid load. Even then, stormy weather conditions
will make operation of the

RO plant ill advised due to increased turbidity of the feed source.

Colloidal fouling tendency of an RO membrane is relative to the feedwater’s Salt Density Index
(SDI), an ASTM method for measuring small particulate/colloidal loading in water. Typical borehole
well systems that have been constructed correctly produce SDIs less than 3.0 and many times less
than 1.0 Header/lateral beach wells have produced SDIs less than 3.0. However, it is advisable to
expect a range of 2 to 5 for beach well systems. Surface water will produce SDIs much greater than
5 and, with an excellent pretreatment system, this can be lowered to 3 to 5. However, adverse
weather conditions and upsets in clarification systems can make these intake systems unreliable.
Intake systems, pretreatment and SDI must be stressed because membrane life and warranties are
directly correlated to these parameters. Spiral-wound membranes have a maximum allowable
operating SDI of 5.0, which is why they often are chosen.
The last item needing discussion relative to plant equipment longevity is corrosion of materials.
Systems should be constructed with plastics and nonferrous components wherever possible. All low-
pressure components should be constructed from PVC, fiberglass or plastics in general. High-
pressure components that require the use of metals should be of an acceptable alloy to their location
and application in the system. Seawater environments are highly corrosive, and only the highest
quality of material is acceptable. As an example, welded pipe should not be any grade lower than
super austenitic stainless steel.
Seawater RO system equipment capital costs range from $10/gpd production capacity to $2/gpd
capacity for systems ranging from 500 to 1.0 million gallons per day.
Intake and pretreatment costs can be substantial when considering a surface water source adding
anywhere from $0.50 to $2.00 per gallon to the system capital cost where pretreatment costs
predominant. Intake and pretreatment costs for a well system will add anywhere from $0.20 to $0.80
per gallon where intake costs predominate. Systems that can utilize a well-feed source that
produces a SDI of 3 or less are the least capital-intensive systems.
Operating costs will vary most predominately with varying power cost for the system as identified
earlier. Typical operating costs will range from $2/Kgal of product to $8/Kgal of product for the land-
based systems. When energy recovery equipment is incorporated, overall operating costs can be
reduced by roughly 20 to 30 percent. Operating cost includes system consumables such as power,
filter cartridges, chemicals, RO membranes and miscellaneous mechanical maintenance items and
does not include labor or plant capital cost amortization.
Marketplace

An RO desalination system marketplace is justifiably anywhere there is a lack of adequate fresh

water supplies, insufficient brackish water for lower pressure brackish RO operation and a good
source of available seawater. This tells us that anywhere there is growth and development in water
shortage areas, there is a candidate for desalination by RO. Historically, the world market has been
in the equatorial zone, arid environments and island coastal communities. Remote resort
developments have lead the way with this technology, but as quality water sources become more
and more scarce, both industry and municipalities are recognizing the need for RO desalination. In
California, Florida, The Caribbean, Central and South America, the Mediterranean, Middle-East and
the Pacific Rim (i.e., anywhere there’s an ocean and a need), RO desalination is a viable resource
for the world’s fresh water production requirements.