OPEN-ENDED QUESTIONS

Open-ended questions should begin with words such as "why" and "how" or phrases
such as "What do you think about . . ." Open-ended questions should lead students to think
analytically and critically. Ultimately, a good open-ended question should stir discussion and
debate in the classroom sparking enthusiasm and energy in your students.

From: http://www.fortleavenworthmwr.com/cdsresource/OPNEND.html
Asking Open-Ended Questions
A question like "What color is that block?" evokes a one-word answer. But an open-ended
question, "Tell me about the blocks you are using," encourages a child to describe the blocks
or explain what she is doing. There is no right or wrong answer here. An answer to an open-
ended questions gives us a window into what the child is thinking and feeling. And the
response is sometimes wonderfully creative. In explaining or describing, children also use
language more fully. Try to think of good “Open-Ended” questions to ask:
-Tell me about ___________.
-What else can you do with the _________?
-What could you use to make the ___________________?
-What do you think would happen if ________________?
-Is there another way to ___________________?
It is difficult to change the closed-end question habit. But when we ask open-ended questions,
students reap great benefits as they think through their responses to express what they want to
say. And with their answers, we find out more about what they think and feel.

From: http://www.infopeople.org/training/past/2002/ref_interview/Open-
endedQuestions.pdf
Open-Ended Questions
Open-ended questions cannot be answered by yes or no. These questions begin with "who,"
"what," "why," "where," and "when."
Some of the questions listed here will feel natural to you and you can practice using them in
your work. Circle three or four that you feel most comfortable with and make them part of
every small group session you conduct.
1. What kind of information on ________________ are you looking for?
2. What is it you want to know about __________ ?
3. What would you like to know about this topic ?
4. What do you mean by _____________ ?
 DICHOTOMOUS QUESTIONS

By definition a dichotomy has two parts. In the framework of survey design, dichotomous
questions have two possible answer choices. The most common being the Yes/No dichotomy.
Other options include:

 True/False
 Male/Female (although it is becoming increasingly common to see transgender)
 Up to 45/Over 45

This question framework is appropriate for factual reporting, but can be used inadvertently in
a leading manner. The benefits of dichotomous questions are two-fold – they are easy to
comprehend and they are short. Any time we can simplify the survey experience the user
(respondent) wins and this can lead to greater survey completion rates.

But what about the cons?

The ease and simplicity of dichotomous questions inherently limits the analysis that we can
perform on the data. If we ask a respondent if they have used our product in the last six
months (Yes/No)

Post-facto in the analysis phase we can now look at average product usage by group. As
analysts we can always collapse data down (0 = non-user and 1+ = user), however we cannot
expand from a dichotomy.

Below are examples of two ways to enquire about the perceived impacts of a menu change.

1. Do you think our new menu additions have improved the dining experience at La
Grange? Yes/No
2. In your opinion, how have the menu changes at La Grange impacted your dining
experience?

Dichotomous questions have the advantage of ease response and ease of analysis. However,
they can be limiting. A suggestion is to begin with a broader scope of choices and collapse
down in the analysis phase.

https://www.google.co.in/?gws_rd=ssl#q=dichotomous+questions+examples&start=40
 MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

A traditional multiple choice question (or item) is one in which a student chooses one answer
from a number of choices supplied. A multiple choice question consists of a :

 stem - the text of the question

 options - the choices provided after the stem
 the key - the correct answer in the list of options
 distracters - the incorrect answers in the list of options

Writing Stems

Present a single, definite statement to be completed or answered by one of the several given
choices

A. Weak question:

Polysaccharide

a. are made up of thousands of smaller units called monosaccharides

b. are NOT found in the aloe vera leaf
c. are created during photosynthesis
d. can be described by the chemical formula: CHHOH

http://caacentre.lboro.ac.uk/resources/objective_tests/anatomy.shtml
 MEASUREMENT SCALES

Each scale of measurement satisfies one or more of the following properties of measurement.

Identity. Each value on the measurement scale has a unique meaning.

Magnitude. Values on the measurement scale have an ordered relationship to one another.
That is, some values are larger and some are smaller.
Equal intervals. Scale units along the scale are equal to one another. This means, for
example, that the difference between 1 and 2 would be equal to the difference between 19
and 20.
A minimum value of zero. The scale has a true zero point, below which no values exist.

Nominal Scale of Measurement

The nominal scale of measurement only satisfies the identity property of
measurement. Values assigned to variables represent a descriptive category, but have no
inherent numerical value with respect to magnitude.
Gender is an example of a variable that is measured on a nominal scale. Individuals may be
classified as "male" or "female", but neither value represents more or less "gender" than the
other. Religion and political affiliation are other examples of variables that are normally
measured on a nominal scale.

Ordinal Scale of Measurement

The ordinal scale has the property of both identity and magnitude. Each value on the
ordinal scale has a unique meaning, and it has an ordered relationship to every other value on
the scale.
An example of an ordinal scale in action would be the results of a horse race, reported
as "win", "place", and "show". We know the rank order in which horses finished the race. The
horse that won finished ahead of the horse that placed, and the horse that placed finished
ahead of the horse that showed. However, we cannot tell from this ordinal scale whether it
was a close race or whether the winning horse won by a mile.

Interval Scale of Measurement

The interval scale of measurement has the properties of identity, magnitude, and equal
intervals.
A perfect example of an interval scale is the Fahrenheit scale to measure temperature.
The scale is made up of equal temperature units, so that the difference between 40 and 50
degrees Fahrenheit is equal to the difference between 50 and 60 degrees Fahrenheit.
With an interval scale, you know not only whether different values are bigger or smaller, you
also know how much bigger or smaller they are. For example, suppose it is 60 degrees
Fahrenheit on Monday and 70 degrees on Tuesday. You know not only that it was hotter on
Tuesday, you also know that it was 10 degrees hotter.

Ratio Scale of Measurement

The ratio scale of measurement satisfies all four of the properties of measurement:
identity, magnitude, equal intervals, and a minimum value of zero.
The weight of an object would be an example of a ratio scale. Each value on the weight scale
has a unique meaning, weights can be rank ordered, units along the weight scale are equal to
one another, and the scale has a minimum value of zero.
Weight scales have a minimum value of zero because objects at rest can be weightless, but
they cannot have negative weight.

Test Your Understanding

Problem 1
Consider the centigrade scale for measuring temperature. Which of the following
measurement properties is satisfied by the centigrade scale?
I. Magnitude.
II. Equal intervals.
III. A minimum value of zero.
(A) I only
(B) II only
(C) III only
(D) I and II
(E) II and III

Solution
The correct answer is (D). The centigrade scale has the magnitude property because each
value on the scale can be ranked as larger or smaller than any other value. And it has the
equal intervals property because the scale is made up of equal units.
However, the centigrade scale does not have a minimum value of zero. Water freezes at zero
degrees centigrade, but temperatures get colder than that. In the arctic, temperatures are
almost always below zero.

http://stattrek.com/statistics/measurement-scales.aspx?Tutorial=AP
 CENSUS VS SAMPLING

Census and sampling are two methods of collecting data between which certain differences
can be identified. Before we move forward to enumerate differences between Census and
sampling, it is better to understand what these two techniques of generating information
mean. A census can simply be defined as a periodic collection of information from the entire
population. Conducting a census can be very time-consuming and costly. However, the
advantage is that it allows the researcher to gain accurate information. On the other hand,
sampling is when the researcher selects a sample from the population and gathers
information. This is less time consuming, but the reliability of the information gained is
doubtful. Through this article let us examine the differences between a census and sampling.

What is a Census?

Census refers to a periodic collection of information from the entire population. It is a time-
consuming affair as it involves counting all heads and generating information about them. For
better governance, every government requires specific data and information about the
populace to make programs and policies that match the needs and requirements of the
population. A census allows the government to gain such information.

What is Sampling?

There are times when a government cannot wait for next Census and needs to gather current
information about the population. This is when a different technique of collecting information
that is less elaborate and cheaper than Census is employed. This is called Sampling. This
method of collecting information requires generating a sample that is representative of the
entire population.

When using a sample for data collection the researcher can use various methods of sampling.
Simple random sampling, stratified sampling, snowball method, nonrandom sampling are
some of the mostly used sampling methods.

There are stark differences between Census and sampling though both serve the purpose of
providing data and information about a population. Howsoever accurately, a sample from a
population may be generated there will always be a margin for error, whereas in case of
Census, the entire population is taken into account and as such it is most accurate. Data
obtained from both Census and sampling is extremely important for a government for various
purposes such as planning developmental programs and policies for weaker sections of the
society.
What is the Difference Between Census and Sampling?

Definitions of Census and Sampling:

Census: Census refers to a periodic collection of information about the populace from the
entire population.

Sampling: Sampling is a method of collecting information from a sample that is

representative of the entire population.

Characteristics of Census and Sampling:

Reliability:

Census: Data from the census is reliable and accurate.

Sampling: there is a margin of error in data obtained from sampling.

Time:

Census: Census is very time-consuming.

Sampling: Sampling is quick.

Cost:

Census: Census is very expensive

Sampling: Sampling is inexpensive.

http://www.differencebetween.com/difference-between-census-and-sampling/
 HYPOTHESIS TESTING

Hypothesis testing is an essential procedure in statistics. A hypothesis test evaluates two

mutually exclusive statements about a population to determine which statement is best
supported by the sample data. When we say that a finding is statistically significant, it’s
thanks to a hypothesis test. How do these tests really work and what does statistical
significance actually mean?

In this series of three posts, I’ll help you intuitively understand how hypothesis tests work by
focusing on concepts and graphs rather than equations and numbers. After all, a key reason to
use statistical software like Minitab is so you don’t get bogged down in the calculations and
can instead focus on understanding your results.

To kick things off in this post, I highlight the rationale for using hypothesis tests with an
example.

The Scenario

An economist wants to determine whether the monthly energy cost for families has changed
from the previous year, when the mean cost per month was $260. The economist randomly
samples 25 families and records their energy costs for the current year. (The data for this
example is FamilyEnergyCost and it is just one of the many data set examples that can be
found in Minitab’s Data Set Library.)

I’ll use these descriptive statistics to create a probability distribution plot that shows you the
importance of hypothesis tests. Read on!

The Need for Hypothesis Tests

Why do we even need hypothesis tests? After all, we took a random sample and our sample
mean of 330.6 is different from 260. That is different, right? Unfortunately, the picture is
muddied because we’re looking at a sample rather than the entire population.

Sampling error is the difference between a sample and the entire population. Thanks to
sampling error, it’s entirely possible that while our sample mean is 330.6, the population
mean could still be 260. Or, to put it another way, if we repeated the experiment, it’s possible
that the second sample mean could be close to 260. A hypothesis test helps assess the
likelihood of this possibility!

Use the Sampling Distribution to See If Our Sample Mean is Unlikely

For any given random sample, the mean of the sample almost certainly doesn’t equal the true
mean of the population due to sampling error. For our example, it’s unlikely that the mean
cost for the entire population is exactly 330.6. In fact, if we took multiple random samples of
the same size from the same population, we could plot a distribution of the sample means.

A sampling distribution is the distribution of a statistic, such as the mean, that is obtained by
repeatedly drawing a large number of samples from a specific population. This distribution
allows you to determine the probability of obtaining the sample statistic.

Fortunately, I can create a plot of sample means without collecting many different random
samples! Instead, I’ll create a probability distribution plot using the t-distribution, the sample
size, and the variability in our sample to graph the sampling distribution.

Our goal is to determine whether our sample mean is significantly different from the null
hypothesis mean. Therefore, we’ll use the graph to see whether our sample mean of 330.6 is
unlikely assuming that the population mean is 260. The graph below shows the expected
distribution of sample means.

You can see that the most probable sample mean is 260, which makes sense because we’re
assuming that the null hypothesis is true. However, there is a reasonable probability of
obtaining a sample mean that ranges from 167 to 352, and even beyond! The takeaway from
this graph is that while our sample mean of 330.6 is not the most probable, it’s also not
outside the realm of possibility.

The Role of Hypothesis Tests

We’ve placed our sample mean in the context of all possible sample means while assuming
that the null hypothesis is true. Are these results statistically significant?

As you can see, there is no magic place on the distribution curve to make this determination.
Instead, we have a continual decrease in the probability of obtaining sample means that are
further from the null hypothesis value. Where do we draw the line?

This is where hypothesis tests are useful. A hypothesis test allows us quantify the probability
that our sample mean is unusual. In my next blog post, I’ll continue to use this graphical
framework and add in the significance level and P value to show how hypothesis tests work
and what statistical significance means.

http://blog.minitab.com/blog/adventures-in-statistics/understanding-hypothesis-tests%3A-
why-we-need-to-use-hypothesis-tests-in-statistics
 PROBABILITY SAMPLING VS NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING

Non-probability Sampling Techniques

Non-probability sampling is a sampling technique where the samples are gathered in a

process that does not give all the individuals in the population equal chances of being
selected.

Reliance On Available Subjects. Relying on available subjects, such as stopping people on

a street corner as they pass by, is one method of sampling, although it is extremely risky and
comes with many cautions. This method, sometimes referred to as a convenience sample,
does not allow the researcher to have any control over the representativeness of the sample. It
is only justified if the researcher wants to study the characteristics of people passing by the
street corner at a certain point in time or if other sampling methods are not possible.

The researcher must also take caution to not use results from a convenience sample to
generalize to a wider population.

Purposive or Judgmental Sample. A purposive, or judgmental, sample is one that is

selected based on the knowledge of a population and the purpose of the study. For example, if
a researcher is studying the nature of school spirit as exhibited at a school pep rally, he or she
might interview people who did not appear to be caught up in the emotions of the crowd or
students who did not attend the rally at all. In this case, the researcher is using a purposive
sample because those being interviewed fit a specific purpose or description.

Snowball Sample. A snowball sample is appropriate to use in research when the members of
a population are difficult to locate, such as homeless individuals, migrant workers, or
undocumented immigrants. A snowball sample is one in which the researcher collects data on
the few members of the target population he or she can locate, then asks those individuals to
provide information needed to locate other members of that population whom they know. For
example, if a researcher wishes to interview undocumented immigrants from Mexico, he or
she might interview a few undocumented individuals that he or she knows or can locate and
would then rely on those subjects to help locate more undocumented individuals. This
process continues until the researcher has all the interviews he or she needs or until all
contacts have been exhausted.

Quota Sample. A quota sample is one in which units are selected into a sample on the basis
of pre-specified characteristics so that the total sample has the same distribution of
characteristics assumed to exist in the population being studied. For example, if you a
researcher conducting a national quota sample, you might need to know what proportion of
the population is male and what proportion is female as well as what proportions of each
gender fall into different age categories, race or ethnic categories, educational categories, etc.
The researcher would then collect a sample with the same proportions as the national
population.

Probability Sampling Techniques

Probability sampling is a sampling technique where the samples are gathered in a process that
gives all the individuals in the population equal chances of being selected.

Simple Random Sample. The simple random sample is the basic sampling method assumed
in statistical methods and computations. To collect a simple random sample, each unit of the
target population is assigned a number. A set of random numbers is then generated and the
units having those numbers are included in the sample. For example, let’s say you have a
population of 1,000 people and you wish to choose a simple random sample of 50 people.
First, each person is numbered 1 through 1,000. Then, you generate a list of 50 random
numbers (typically with a computer program) and those individuals assigned those numbers
are the ones you include in the sample.

Systematic Sample. In a systematic sample, the elements of the population are put into a list
and then every kth element in the list is chosen (systematically) for inclusion in the sample.
For example, if the population of study contained 2,000 students at a high school and the
researcher wanted a sample of 100 students, the students would be put into list form and then
every 20th student would be selected for inclusion in the sample. To ensure against any
possible human bias in this method, the researcher should select the first individual at
random. This is technically called a systematic sample with a random start.

Stratified Sample. A stratified sample is a sampling technique in which the researcher

divided the entire target population into different subgroups, or strata, and then randomly
selects the final subjects proportionally from the different strata. This type of sampling is
used when the researcher wants to highlight specific subgroups within the population. For
example, to obtain a stratified sample of university students, the researcher would first
organize the population by college class and then select appropriate numbers of freshmen,
sophomores, juniors, and seniors. This ensures that the researcher has adequate amounts of
subjects from each class in the final sample.

https://www.google.co.in/webhp?hl=en#hl=en-IN&q=probability+sampling+vs+non-
probability+sampling