MEDIA AND SOCIETY

[Document subtitle]
Table of Contents
1. Mass Media and society ................................................................................................................ 2
1.1 Importance of media..................................................................................................................... 3
1.2 Critical analysis of the role of media ............................................................................................. 5
1.3 Media impact on society ............................................................................................................... 7
1.4 Social responsibility of media ....................................................................................................... 9
1.5 Media fourth pillar of democracy ............................................................................................... 10
1.6 Media a double edged sword ..................................................................................................... 12
2. Media and democracy..................................................................................................................... 14
2.1 Public Sphere .............................................................................................................................. 14
2.2 Freedom of speech and expression ............................................................................................ 15
2.3 Right to information.................................................................................................................... 22
2.4 Right to Privacy (*****Notes*****)........................................................................................... 24
2.5 Media as a watch dog ................................................................................................................. 24
3. Mass Media and Public Interest .................................................................................................... 26
3.1 A critical study of media.............................................................................................................. 26
3.2 Analysis of Media Content (***did’t get the right info**Google it)........................................... 28
3.3 Media’s role in serving public and marginal groups ................................................................... 29
3.4 Role of media in social movements (***Notes***) ................................................................... 32
3.5 Role of media in political-cultural movements ........................................................................... 32
3.6 Role of media in National Integrity ............................................................................................. 33
3.7 Role of media in Communal Harmony ........................................................................................ 35
4. Ownership of Media, Content-Control ......................................................................................... 38
4.1 Internal and external threats ...................................................................................................... 40
4.2 Pressure on media ...................................................................................................................... 41
4.3 Media Regulations ...................................................................................................................... 43
4.4 Media and issue of social class ................................................................................................... 44
4.5 Media and poverty, development and public health(***Refer Class notes***) ....................... 45
5. Media Credibility ............................................................................................................................ 48
5.1 Factors effecting credibility of media ......................................................................................... 48
5.2 Media Performance (**just the definition**) ............................................................................ 51
5.3 More info on credibility .............................................................................................................. 51
5.4 Paid news .................................................................................................................................... 52

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 1. Mass Media and society
Mass media is the means used to communicate to the general public. Think about this for a second:
whenever you want to hear your favourite song, watch your favourite show, or see the latest current
events, where do you go? You more than likely turn on your television, radio, or computer. The source
that the majority of the general public uses to get their news and information from is considered mass
media. Mass media means technology that is intended to reach a mass audience. It is the primary means
of communication used to reach the vast majority of the general public. The most common platforms
for mass media are newspapers, magazines, radio, television, and the Internet. The general public
typically relies on the mass media to provide information regarding political issues, social issues,
entertainment, and news in pop culture.
Communication channels through which news, entertainment, education, data, or promotional
messages are disseminated. Media includes every broadcasting and narrowcasting medium such as
newspapers, magazines, TV, radio, billboards, direct mail, telephone, fax, and internet. Media is the
plural of medium and can take a plural or singular verb, depending on the sense intended.
The word media comes from the plural of the Latin word medium and it is used as a collective noun
refer to Television, Radio, Newspaper, Magazines, Films, The international network etc. The media can
be examined either in terms of broadcast media or print media.
A medium is described as hot, a high definition of channel of communication, such as print or radio,
which focuses on SINGLE SENSORY RECEPTOR.
It is cool meaning a low definition channel of communication, such as television, which stimulates
SEVERAL DIFFERENT SENSES and requires HIGH SENSORY INVOLVEMENT.
The word media has a wide connotation. It aims at educating masses and creating a socially conscious
nation, through its various facets such as newspaper, books, radio, TVs, internet etc. Hence, it plays a
pivotal role in transforming the society.
Today media has become the most authentic source of information for people. It helps in bringing
considerable changes in the existing laws as per the prevailing social conditions, by playing the role of
intermediary between the government and the mass. Although Media In the recent past has left a wrong
impression on people by following some unethical practices communication like sensationalism yet it
has not lost its credibility and mass audience is hungry for information. Media has been a platform of
debate and discussion for long time now. It is integral part of social fabric. In world where information
is power, availability of information and accessibility of media is an important parameter of
development of a society, it is important to weigh how significantly media is placed in society.
Traditionally, media is thought to be mirror to the society. But when it has started playing a more crucial
role in developing the society on the whole and even sometimes decides the direction of the
development.
Significance of mass media
Mass media become the center/ integral part of our lives. It influences individual as well as the society
in many ways. The individual is in constant touch with varied social mediums. This could be the
communication with family and friends or sharing ones experience through means of pictures, words
and videos. Another way could be research of information on the internet.
Media has become important because it gives us a sense of belongingness to a space and the extended
world around us. Social networking sites like face book and twitter have become so important these
days’ social mediums like these it also help in creating a personal identity of an individual.

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Media also plays an important role regards to the way one gathers information. This aspect has been
revolutionized with some major changes. Media has come long way from gathering large databases and
storing it in journals to the use of internet where all the information is just one click away.
Devices such as smart phones have brought communication right at our finger touch. One can now
share and upload any piece of information right with realm of our houses.
According to Denis Mc Quail, the media are significant because of the following reasons: They are a
power source they can influence and control the society. They can also infuse new innovations in it.
They are the primary modes of transmission as well as the sources of all sets of information. They
produce and disseminate such information as is needed by most of the institutions of the social sphere.
They are a location Mc Quail points out that, they are an arena, where many affairs of the public are
executed or handled; he has used both the context – national and international, while giving the logic
of location. They are source the media are a chief source of definitions and images of social reality. The
dynamic cultures and values of societies are made, stored and expressed at the place fondly called
media. They are the ticket to fame they make people celebrities due to their amazing reach and power
to mesmerize the audience. They are known to have catapulted the paean to the halls of fame. They
have also earned brickbats for many known and pious people of the yore, but Mc Quail has not
highlighted this (negative) aspect of the media. They create benchmarks the media create what Mc quail
calls public meaning system. This system defines what is normal in empirical and evaluative terms. The
system of bench mark also points out the deviations and makes comparisons in terms, of public terms
of normality. They are the popular tools for entertainment Mc quail has also referred to this element of
significant, although he has not linked it with the previous four points in his text. The media are the
most essential modes of entertainment now a days. Their combined power, as entertainers, is high today
because of their dependence upon the electronic communication technologies and gadgets.
Mass media has become an integral part of our lives and cannot be separated from our life. Today the
need for information is more important than ever. So the media is playing significant role in making
society educated, informed, and entertained. It has actually revolutionized the society in many ways, by
catering to masses and classes same time.

1.1 Importance of media

For many community groups and organisations, gaining positive and consistent coverage in the media
can have an incredible impact on the work they do. It can have a multiplier effect on the good work that
groups are doing. If people know what you have achieved and what you do, they are more likely to
support your group. The more support you get, the more likely you are to have a bigger impact. While
it is important that groups don't become obsessed about getting media attention as a bigger priority than
actually doing the work they do, it can make a difference.
The media is the single most powerful entity on Earth today, they have the power to create and change
public opinion with ease, armies are not needed anymore, the media is far more powerful than any army
could ever be, they control public discussion, they create opinions, they change opinions, they create
sentiments, they create realities. The media has the power to literally change societies if they wanted
to. How is it being used? It’s used as a propaganda machine, and an instrument to persuade people into
believing your selfish ideas. There are two types of journalism - advocacy journalism and informative
journalism. Advocacy journalists have the objective to persuade you into believing their narrative and
their view, they are not concerned with informing you of the whole picture, they want to persuade you
to believe the narrative that they believe, everything they say can be 100% true and fact, but they

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selectively omit certain information and craftily construct an information which serves their own
purpose of advancing and pushing forward their views.
1.1.1 It gets the message across to a wider audience.
The various forms of media – primarily television, newspapers and radio – spread and disseminate
information. Getting your information into the media will spread your group's story further than it could
be spread without media coverage.
1.1.2 It can help by targeting the message to the people you want to hear it.
The media is so varied that a community group or organisation can closely target almost any sector –
and through them, almost any section of the public - by looking closely at where it is directing its media
focus.
For example – a small, locally-based community group would probably look at concentrating on its
efforts in local newspapers, radio and (if applicable) television. A bigger event or bigger community
organisation could look further afield – to major daily newspapers and commercial radio and
television. And then there's the Internet, which continues to emerge as a component of the media.
1.1.3 It provides free publicity and exposure for not only your news, announcement, event or request –
but for your group or organisation as well.
A big benefit when it comes to news media coverage is that it is free – a factor of major importance
when it comes to community groups or organisations with tight budgets! And only does your event or
news receive free publicity or new coverage, your group is bound to receive a boost through this
coverage as well. It is important to remember though that while your group won't have to pay for this
coverage, it will have to work for it in other ways – building relationships with the media, preparing
information and releases for them, being willing to speak to them or be interviewed by them, etc.
Without putting in this type of work, your group will not reap the benefits of "free" media coverage.

1.1.4 It can help establish your group as "legitimate", and its activities as important or notable.

Gaining coverage in the media is a great way of providing your group and its activities with greater
credibility and that has a lot to do with the thought processes of the public which monitor and "consume"
the media each day. Readers, listeners and viewers who find out about something or read/hear/see
something in the media automatically place a greater level of credibility to it than if they saw it in a
paid ad. The attitude of most media consumers is: if the story is gets into the pages of the newspaper,
on the air or on TV, then it is "important" and worth taking notice of. So, if your story is among those
that make the grade, then it is "important" enough to be on the news and therefore worth taking notice
of.
1.1.5 It can increase your profile among the general public.
Media coverage can build your profile in the community, which means may be able to attract more
members, donors, fundraisers, supporters, helpers, etc.Not only this, but a raised profile through media
exposure will also shore-up and strengthen the support you already have among existing members,
donors, supporters, helpers, etc.It also builds brand definition for you – setting your group apart from
other groups operating in the same space.
1.1.6 It increases your profile among decision makers and VIPs.
Having a media profile not only gets you noticed by the general public, but also among decision makers,
VIPs and government. Those decision makers and VIPs can be peak bodies in your area of interest,
grant makers and philanthropic organisations, and others with influence or power.
Those in government that could notice you can be at a local, State or Federal level – or a combination

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of all three. Because of this, those decision makers or levels of government could become more likely
to ask for your group's input or opinion on matters relevant to you.
1.1.7 It can sway opinions.
One of the most significant powers the media has is that of being able to shape opinions.
For your community group or organisation, this presents great opportunities to get more people thinking
positively about you after hearing positive news coverage of your group and what it is doing.
Because of this, your group should actively seek out positive publicity through positive media coverage.
But your group should also remember that any positive opinions generated from positive media
coverage can be blunted or reversed by negative opinions generated through negative media coverage.
This means you need to have a plan in place if a "media crisis" hits. For more information on that, refer
to the Media & Marketing help sheet managing a Media Crisis.
Some more reasons for media’s importance
1) The media is a tool for communication
A human is a social being. Therefore he communicates. One cannot be social if he does not
communicate, can he? Everyone communicates, and it can be either verbal or non-verbal. Media is a
tool for communication, improving it and making it easier.
2) The media act as a watchdog of the society
When I was a still a student of my field, I was always told that media acts as the fourth estate of the
society, the government, the market, and the people being the other estates. That is one of the most
essential benefits of media. It tends to be a ‘lookout’ for the society: it reports and lets the people know
what the other estates are doing. It can, for example, question the government’s decisions and works. It
can explain why there is a price hike in the market.
3) The media moulds the people’s opinions and behaviour
The people’s opinions about a current issue of the society may be mould by a television network by
controlling what they show. A fashion trend may be controlled by a magazine.

1.2 Critical analysis of the role of media

The mass media plays a significant role in modern society. They bring about a general diffusion of
knowledge about life in the world today, thus influencing many aspects of our social, political and
economic patterns. Broadly speaking, there are four major primary roles performed by mass media
INFORM
The primary role of mass media is to provide the latest information in the fields of interest of the
audience. The latest technologies in media concentrate on making transfer of information from source
to audience faster and wider. In a society where information accessibility is a parameter of measuring
power, information rules roost. Example: The information about when will we have our next general
election, which cultural event is taking place in which part of the town, which latest gizmos are launched
in the market, the prevalent fashion and trends are all ways of getting informed. Media does it for the
masses.
ENTERTAIN
Entertainment is another use that we put media to. In fact, some media theories support the view that
entertainment is the basic function of media. According to this view, people look for entertainment even
in news. After grilling a day at work or studies, everyone looks for relaxation or an escape from the

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reality. Media provides its consumer some kind of escape diversion from the realities and anxieties of
daily living. This is made possible by the entertainment function of media. Example: Cartoon network
provides entertainment for children while teenagers watch MTV or V channel for the latest in music or
programmes of their taste. For men it may be the sports channels and for women folk, it may be the
soap operas. Entertainment is an important need which media serves.
EDUCATE
Media has the advantage of a great reach. It can simultaneously communicate to multitude of audiences
which makes is special. The best purpose media can serve and the best way it can contribute to social
progress is by educating the masses keeping in mind the real needs of the audience. Different audiences
have different needs to bring about development. Example: Housewives need to know about what kind
of food can keep their family healthier; students need career guidance, etc.
PERSUADE
Media also makes specialized communication to some select audience in order to bring about a desired
behavioural change. All advertising is an example of this. It is an effort to convince the audience to buy
the product or service the communication is advocating for. Advertisers aspire to bring about the change
in behaviour of the audience by convincing them to make positive decision to buy their product by
influencing them through their media messages. It may even be done by means of manipulating public
opinion regarding the image of an organization. Media exercises influence on the audience to change
their attitude towards on object or subject. Besides these primary functions, there are some secondary
functions that mass media serves. These affect public opinion, political opinion and government, to
improve the socio- political fabric of our democracy. These include:
SURVEILLANCE OF ENVIRONMENT
Media acts as a watchdog for the society. Surveillance of environment involves seeking out and then
transmitting information about the society and all other relevant elements. Most of this surveillance of
media is “news”. Wilbur Schramm (1980) explained this in relation to the audience need. According to
him, ‘we ask the mass media to serve as our eyes and ears, sometimes our voices in distant places. We
count on them to survey our environment and reports as per our interest and use them as a basis for
forming attitudes, stating opinions and taking decision.”
CORRELATION
Mass media helps us to relate to the larger society. It provides a forum of debate and discussion and
helps the audience to interpret better. It may help in improving the use of information for the people.
example: the editorial sections of the newspaper and programmes on television involving debates and
opinions on policy matters like public platform of discussion to the people amid themselves as well as
with their chosen leaders.
PUBLIC OPINION
Public opinion the engine that keeps the wheels of the democracy turning. Though we elect officials to
conduct our government, they are restrained by the influence of the same public opinion that put them
into office. The average person is strongly affected by the social group and the opinion leaders who
reflect the opinions obtained from the mass media. Thus the divergent views and in-depth analyses
presented by the mass are of vital importance in the stance public takes on critical issues.
POLITICAL AGENDA
Though similar to public opinion, political agenda indicates a wider scope. It includes all those matters
that people consider important and need to be considered by the government. The press is regarded as
‘market place’ of political thought in a democracy, for the policies and aims of government are made

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known through the channels of the press. They are then examined exhaustively by the opposition,
commentators, editors and public in general. Television and radio further publicize this interplay of
opinion through News report similar to those appearing in the newspapers, interviews and panel
discussions. Thus mass media affects our opinion on varied issues like civil rights, the economy,
immigration and welfare. Diligent editors and commentators work on the principle that all the facts in
political situation must be presented to the public. Only after considering these facts can the public
make its decisions. In fact research shows a very close relation between the importance the public gives
to particular issues and media coverage on those issues.
LINK BETWEEN GOVERNMENT AND PEOPLE
Mass media definitely acts as a link between the government and the people, thus building up the
political fabric of the Indian democracy. There are several channels through which political leaders can
express their views and rally public support for their policies. Through the mass media the government
can inform, explain and convince the public over their programs. Efforts are made by our elected
representatives to reach the voters by means of press conference, radio interview, TV panel discussions,
magazine articles and even books.
SOCIALIZATION
Another important function of mass media is to illuminate the social fabric and to influence the shape
of its pattern. Various aspects of our habits, desires and relationship, both as individual and as groups,
are examined by the media; thus it helps in shaping our social values. Getting along with the neighbours,
personal problems, and our taste in popular music, racial tensions, athletics, interior decorating, trends
in fashion and the beliefs of Religious groups are constantly the subjects of reporting and discussion by
the press, books as well as radio and television programs. Newspapers and channels always face the
problem of the type of material to be selected for printing and broadcasting, so as to use its influence
on social action, more responsibly.
These functions often overlap and interact. Each mass media event possess the potential for serving any
or all of these functions. The goal of the medium in communicating successfully is reached when both
the sender and receiver come on the same wavelength and understanding about intention of the
communication made. In order to accomplish their tasks appropriately, it is important to obtain feedback
from the receivers about the communication. This makes communication successful.

1.3 Media impact on society

Media has continuously pervaded and defined society and has advanced with technology. The
traditional forms of media propagation including television, newspapers, posters and mail remain as
efficient as before the introduction of newer methods. Email, websites, e-zines and social online media
have replaced expensive media production such as magazines and photographic paper.
Media imparts and shapes society’s opinion on the subjects of politics, business, culture and sports. It
reflects on the freedom of speech and freedom of expression within a country. The positive aspects of
free media far outweigh the negative effects that may occur. In the case of internet based media, control
is difficult. Control of the Internet has however been imposed in China.
Media has the ability to bring relief to disaster prone areas while at the same time it may be responsible
for nurturing prejudice against certain regions. For example, the perception that Africa is an extremely
underdeveloped region although it is actually bustling with megacities. In the world of social media,
gossip columns have the potential to ruin lives of individuals or boost their popularity. Advertising
through modern media has led to the rise of fortune 500 companies.

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It has been argued that media has resulted in a generation of couch potatoes who rarely engage in
outdoor activities. It has become rarer to find someone who has good handwriting since typing is now
the preferred skill. Conversely, media has brought about a positive sense of globalization and has been
a good base for education. Children of today learn languages faster thanks to media. They may however
be exposed to rated content which overall chews on the moral fibre of society. Checks and balances
therefore have to be better enforced to protect little eyes and ears.
Conventional media speaks volumes when it comes to sustainability and reduction of the carbon
footprint. People have to print less and travel less when information is promptly and conveniently
availed at their doorstep, mailbox, inbox, television or blog. Though media is ubiquitous, it has created
a demand for sensational coverage. Certain issues that headline today would not have been considered
newsworthy a century ago. Hype is created, privacy is infringed on and reality is altered regularly in
contemporary media.

Positive aspect of media:

Making people informative:
Individual become more informative about the national and international current affairs. They are
introduced to the local news and events that enlightens them and plays an important role in the
formulation of the public opinion. With the advent of electronic media, images and videos are beamed
across the world via television and the mobile gadgets. People can access information at the click of the
button.
Transparency:
Media has helped to make the working of a nation extremely transparent. According to the experts, it
is the third pillar of democracy after the government and the people. Common man can air his
grievances without any problem through the social media so that the higher authorities of the ruling
class can take action for their good. Unlike the past when decision making was masked by opacity, the
functioning of the modern government is scrutinized lock stock and barrel by the media.
Source of entertainment:
Television, cinema halls and print media are crucial in projecting the soft power of the society. They
help to make the local culture and tradition popular among the viewers. In addition, people can watch
movies, documentaries and entertaining content to feel rejuvenated as well as happy.
Social message:
Media has become a boon for the developing world as it has focused on the social ills of the society
existing in those countries. Majority of people are not aware about the practices that are detrimental to
the society. Television and social media highlights the issue in detail and keeps the people updated.
Once the government takes stock of the public opinion, it can proceed ahead and ban the practices that
are harmful to society. Issues such as poverty and child labour are effectively addressed by the media
group around the world.

Negative aspect of media:

Creating wrong impression on the teens:
Media creates a very strong influence on the young people as they tend to believe whatever is shown
on TV and social websites. As a result, they fall into the trap of bad habit and find it difficult to leave
the addiction. Excessive adult content can also cause lots of problems to young minds.
Manipulating public opinion:

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It is said that media should provide neutral news however the truth is hypothetical because all media
houses have a certain bias in their narration. Due to allegiance to different parties, people are exposed
to only one side of the truth. As a result, media has caused lots of social upheavals across the world
resulting in political turmoil.
Manipulation of the psyche of the audience is a dangerous precedent and should be discouraged by the
intellectuals. The juggernaut of media is a double edged sword because one hand if used properly it can
prove to be a boon for the society and on the other it could sound the death knell of the social fabric.

1.4 Social responsibility of media

Sociologists study that mass media has some responsibility to aware the people. It is very important
for any country to see how their mass media shapes their peoples values, beliefs, perceptions, and
behaviour.
 Mass Media Contributes to Socialization
Mass media should contributes to socialization, including gender socialization.
 Level of Awareness
It is the reasonability of mass media to increase the level of awareness. Media should contribute in
increasing the general knowledge, who is who and what is what and knowledge of current issues etc.
The programmers having media discussions, current affairs, documentaries, etc. have been
instrumental in enhancing the common man’s awareness.
 Fair Mass Media
Mass media should be fair with everyone .There should be no favourism .Mass media should have to
support everyone with equal rights
 Media ought to work for Culture
Mass Media should have to work for culture. It is the responsibility of media to support cultural
programs. Media should not play the activities which are against the culture.
 Condemn Criminal Activities
Mass media should condemn criminal activities. Media should have to make aids of punishment of
crime can reduce the crime.
 Helps in Educational Efforts
It is the responsibility of Mass Media to promote educational activities.
 Give Voice to Low level
Media should give the voice to neglected element of society. It is the responsibility of Mass Media to
raise the problems and issue of poor before the high class people.
 Give the solution of issue
Media has to do something for the solution of issues by presenting the opinion of experts.
 Development of Public Opinion
Media discussion / other programmes highlight the issues, hold cross-discussions, and identify what
are reasons of issues. Stances of different segments of society on key issues should be brought out: it
helps to make / develop public opinion on different issues.

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  Development Efforts of State
Media should have to assist in development efforts of state .Programmers like “Parah Likha Punjab”,
“Coverage of Earthquake”, have contributed in projecting efforts being made towards state
development.
 Supports to Public Issues / Affairs
Media should have to provide viewpoint of the public on public issues. Media should have to give
voice to the public.
 Supports Democracy
Media should have to support democracy by bringing out the democratic norms. Providing live
coverage of parliament proceedings, activities of politicians, programmes on democracies are few of
the examples.

1.5 Media fourth pillar of democracy

"Pen is mightier than Sword" - this old proverb seems to be true even in today's context as the media
seems to gain strength in the modern society. Media includes mass media like TV, News channels,
Newspapers, Radio, journals, magazines and most importantly internet and email. The sphere of
influence of media is increasing day by day as the coverage of a small news article is very wide these
days. And more importantly in this modern knowledge-society, media plays the role of facilitator of
development, disseminator of information, and being an agent of change. Today, media is considered
the fourth pillar of the state all over the world. More importantly this is very true in the context of a
biggest democracy like India.
The Mass Media is a unique feature of modern society. Its development has accompanied an increase
in the magnitude and complexity of societal actions and engagements, rapid social change,
technological innovation, rising personal income and standard 'of life and the decline of some traditional
forms of control and authority. There is an association between the development of mass media and
social change, although the degree and direction of this association is still debated upon even after years
of study into media influence. Many of the consequences, either detrimental or beneficial, which have
been attributed to the mass media, are almost undoubtedly due to other tendencies within the society.
Few sociologists would refuse the importance of the mass media, and mass communications as a whole,
as being a major factor in the construction and circulation of social understanding and social imagery
in modern societies. Therefore it is argued that the mass media is used as ,"an instrument", both more
powerful and more flexible than anything in previous existence, for influencing people into certain
modes of belief and understanding within society.
According to the old notion, the newspaper was responsible advisor to the public. Its first duty was to
provide the news, "uncoloured by any motive". Its second duty was to present "a certain view of public
policy" which it believed to be for the good of the state and community. It treated life as a "serious
matter". It had an antiquated respect for truth and believed in the moral governance of things. It aimed
at something and that something was guarded for the good of the society. This made Wickman Steed to
say that "the printing and the selling of news is asocial service". It is an aid administration and a
spokesman of the public. It will bridge the gulf between the public and the government and the
governed. It is a profession where so many decisions involving so great a responsibility are to be taken
at such a pace.
"Media" holds a special position because its raw material is really the public mind and it trades chiefly
in "moral values". The institution whose raw material is the public mind is a great institution. The study
of the human mind is the most interesting thing and even more interesting is to inform guide, teach and
help it in coming to a decision.

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The press is the most important, effective, extensive, popular and convenient; cheapest and the surest
method of moulding and formulating public opinion. It is the most important of the elements which
constitutes public opinion itself. Communal disharmony is a problem which attributes to various factors.
Among those factors media also gives its contribution. This media which acts disseminates of
information to the public plays vital role in promoting communal harmony.
Over the last century, India has been rocked by communal, caste, linguistic or regional violence, of this;
communal riots have assumed dangerous proportions from the beginning of eighties. The innumerable
incidents of small or big proportions have sharpened the communal intensity leading to an emotional
upsurge in the country, which added' to the communal tension. The responsibility of the media in such
situations is undeniable. Unfortunately, the Press has not always covered these events dispassionately
and objectively. Without going too far back in the time, if we analyse the situation since 90's, between
1991-92, some section of the media got carried away by the turn of the tide in this very city. Elsewhere,
the militants and terrorists were openly glorified for serving the cause of their community.
The modern media often tends to forget some of its basic social responsibilities. Instead they often
indulge in sensationalising of news.
Media is the fourth pillar of the society but sometimes tries to outsmart the other three pillars like
judiciary, executive, and legislature. This creates an imbalance in the system and ultimately fails in
doing its role. For example, in the wake of the Tamil Nadu speaker's action against journalists, many
media bosses have called for the need to codify privileges of parliament and state legislatures.
Thus they want to curb the rights of MPs and MLAs. Many times they had tried to curb the power of
the Judiciary also. For example, the press maintains that truth must be the basis of consideration in
matters of contempt of court cases. But the media does not hesitate to report untruth when it suits its
interests. There are many examples to illustrate how the media tramples truth. The media bosses try to
play one pillar of democracy against another
In the wake of recent rising conflicts among communities in the country, each and every journalist
should take the responsibilities in promoting the communal harmony. And they should follow certain
basic principles while writing about communal clashes:
1. Journalists and columnists owe a very special responsibility to their country in promoting communal
peace and amity. Their writings are not a mere reflection of their own feelings but help to large extent
in moulding the feelings and sentiments of the society at large. It is, therefore, of utmost importance
that they use their pen with circumspection and restrain.
2. News, views or comments relating to communal or religious disputes/clashes shall be published after
proper verification of facts and presented with due caution and restraint in a manner which is conducive
to the creation of an atmosphere congenial to communal harmony, amity and peace. Sensational,
provocative and alarming headlines are to be avoided. Acts of communal violence or vandalism shall
be reported in a manner and may not undermine the people’s confidence in the law and order machinery
of the state. Giving community-wise figures of the victims of communal riot, or writing about the
incident in a style which is likely to inflame passions, aggravate the tension, or accentuate the strained
relations between the communities/ religious groups concerned, or which has a potential to exacerbate
the trouble, shall be avoided.
3. The media, as a chronicle of tomorrow’s history, owes an undeniable duty to the future to record
events as simple untailored facts. The analysis of the events and opinion thereon are a different genre
altogether. The treatment of the two also to be necessarily different. In times of crisis, facts unadorned
and simply put, with due care and restraint, cannot be reasonably objected to in a democracy. However,
a heavy responsibility devolves on the opinion of the author on the articles. The author has to ensure
that not only his or her analyse is free from any personal preference, prejudices or notions, but also they
are based on verified, accurate and established facts and do not tend to foment disharmony or enmity
between castes, communities and races.

11
1.6 Media a double edged sword

Today, media impacts the lives of one and all in several different ways. It affects the way we think, our
attitude and actions too. This being the case what is the role of media in promoting communal harmony,
especially in a diverse country like India? In fact, media is one of the most powerful tools to promote
communal harmony. It can be very effective in promoting democracy, equality, tolerance and other
positive social values in several ways. But market driven media culture has eroded the credibility of its
real work – at least to a large extent.
The media should strictly adhere to proper norms and standards in reporting or commenting on matters,
which bear on communal relations. One such important norm is not to distort, or exaggerate, not to
employ intemperate, inciting and unrestrained language. The local papers particularly should strictly
adhere to this norm.
Every profession functions by certain norms of conduct evolved by years of practice with objective to
improve its standards to prevent its abuse and above all contribute to the society and social development.
There was a time when journalism was a mission. Soon it became a profession and is now run as a full-
fledged business activity like any other enterprise. Journalism has expanded in its role and its activities
and has also grown in power. Codification of its work ethics is therefore an imperative need.
The Press Council of India, in keeping with its mandate to build up a code of conduct for newspapers,
news agencies and journalists in accordance with high professional standards, has on the basis of its
adjudications of cases from time to time, built up a code of journalistic norms. Though these codes have
emerged out of cases relating to print media the fundamental principles evolved in the process are as
much relevant to radio and television.
Journalists and columnists owe a very special responsibility to their country in promoting communal
peace and amity. Their writings are not a mere reflection of their own feelings but help to large extent
in moulding the feelings and sentiments of the society at large. It is, therefore, of utmost importance
that they use their pen with circumspection and restrain.
News, views or comments relating to communal or religious disputes/clashes shall be published after
proper verification of facts and presented with due caution and restraint in a manner; which is conducive
to the creation of an atmosphere congenial to communal harmony, amity and peace. Sensational,
provocative and alarming headlines are to be avoided. Acts of communal violence or vandalism shall
be reported in a manner as may not undermine the people's confidence in the law and order machinery
of the State. Giving community-wise figures of the victims of communal riot, or writing about the
incident in a style which is likely to inflame passions, aggravate the tension, or accentuate the strained
relations between the communities/religious groups concerned, or which has a potential to exacerbate
the trouble, shall be avoided.
The media, as a chronicle of tomorrow's history, owes an undeniable duty to the future to record events
as simple untailored facts. The analysis of the events and opinion thereon are a different genre
altogether. The treatment of the two also thus has necessarily to be different. In times of crisis, facts
unadorned and simply put, with due care and restraint, cannot be reasonably objected to in a democracy.
However, a heavy responsibility devolves on the author of opinion articles. The author has to ensure
that not only his or her analysis free from any personal preference, prejudices or notions, but also they
are based on verified, accurate and established facts and do not tend to foment disharmony or enmity
between castes, communities and races.
All disorders, which acquire communal character, make news. It is axiomatic that they cause
divisiveness and hatred among the common people. It is needless to say reporting of such an event is
as sensitive, delicate and challenging as the event. The media, which enjoys the utmost freedom of
expression, has a great and vital role to play moulding public opinion on correct lines in regard to the
need of friendly and harmonious relations between various communities and religious groups and thus
promote national solidarity.

12
The role of media in such situations is to be peacemakers and not abettors, to be trouble shooters and
not troublemakers. Let the media play their noble role of promoting peace and harmony among the
people in the present crisis in Gujarat.
Any trend to disrupt the same either directly or indirectly would be an anti-national act.
The first communal carnage of the new millennium, and the first such incident after a decade's gap in
India, saw the use of new and old media as well as communication tools to spread hate and violence
and to ensure collaboration in violent attacks. In fact, the media as well as new age communication
devices played a dual role. Mobile telephone calls, SMS messages, email, websites, newspapers,
television broadcasts, private television channels and desktop printers were used to spread hate
campaign and to instigate violence in Gujarat as never before on the one hand.
On the other, large section of the media, especially the national print and electronic media, stood firmly
as one bloc, criticising the violence and exposing its perpetrators and collaborators. A few bold reporters
and amateur filmmakers used compact digital video recorders to document, broadcast or disseminate
through
CDs accounts of the targeted violence. There were also initiatives to use the media to spread messages
of peace, communal harmony and to provide life- saving information about relief. However, such
initiatives were limited.
Thus media and its role in communal peace and harmony is like a double edged sword. There should
be fair, impartial, reliable reporting and accurate news analyzation.
As far as news is concerned, media should take a very rigid stand to analyse the news, how it happens
and how it came into the existence to know the root cause of the problem. But rather going deep into
the problem, journalists are blindly accepting the truth which is formulated by the police or some social
evil elements and proliferate the same publicly. In many cases innocent people have been charged and
guilty enjoy their sins with the contentment to commit it again. Hence media should act responsibly and
in a proactive manner thereby contributing to national peace and harmony.

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2. Media and democracy
Democracy is commonly defined as a government of the people, by the people and for the people.
Freedom and democracy walk hand in hand. Democracy, in my view, is only compatible with a free
economy. Like a fish to water, democracy can only exist in an atmosphere of freedom of action; it is
completely incompatible with a system that provides for a governing authority with coercive power.
We live in society today where the media plays a pivotal role in how we see the world, and how our
opinions are formed, whether it is from what we watch on television or what we gather from
newspapers.
Media acts as an interface between the common man and the Government. It is a very powerful tool
with the ability to make and break the opinion of people. If media tells the public that this picture is
being demanded as one of the most wanted terrorists, people would regard him as one blindly. It has
the capacity to swing perceptions or evoke emotions. This is what it has gained – faith of public.
The media has helped to make our society a democracy by placing emphasis on issues that at one point
in time would have been considered strictly private such as child birth, homosexuality, child care,
domestic violence, and sexual harassment.
Transparency and accountability are a must for proper functioning of a democratic system. The nexus
between corruption and democrats intertwined by politics seems to snatch the serenity and peace of our
country. The lethal politics played by these democrats – the politicians, the bureaucrats, criminals is far
away from the peak of dextrous politics being played by the media. For their vested interest, they throw
the whole society into an inferno.

2.1 Public Sphere

Public sphere is a concept created in the 18th century and further developed by Jürgen Habermas, who
stated that the public sphere was characterized by it’s critical nature in contraposition to the
representative nature of the feudal system (Boeder, P., 2005). According to Hauser (Hauser, G., 1988),
it is a discursive place where people can interchange their opinions to create a common judgment. This
critical nature is endangered by the power of the mass media that transforms most of the society in a
passive public, the objectives of a consumer's culture. It is interesting to note however that the
possibility of reaching larger numbers of persons allow internet users to create ties that would have been
difficult to maintain without the new tool, and these ties create networks, a popular word nowadays.
But how is our society influenced by networks?
Two theorists that have studied the influence of networks are Castells and Granovetter. Castells
(Castells, M., 2004) recognizes the importance of networks stating that power doesn’t reside in
institutions, rather “it is located in the networks that structure society”. That is why to have control,
networks need to be created that counteract other networks, making it a question of “networks vs.
networks”. On the other hand, Granovetter (Granovetter, M., 1984) studies the influences of strong and
weak ties to help people be successful. Indeed both strong and weak ties are helpful, but influential in
different terms. Although it is not clear how the new media is developing them both, it is clear that it is
easier to create and maintain weak ties all over the world nowadays through the internet thanks to email,
blogs, sms, Facebook, LinkedIn, and Google + etc... But the boost of weak ties hasn't been at the
expenses of strong ties, at least nothing let us thinks so: with the same tools we can keep in contact with
our family and we probably have better relationships with them than in the 19th century.
The conclusion we can draw from both authors is that power, which has always been sourced by ties,
is being diverted to networks: the new way of creating and maintaining these ties. The issue is not trivial
as networks through new tools are much cheaper to create and expand, and therefore much more
accessible for most citizens. As an example, the Spanish EQUO President Reyes Montiel is keeping a
twitter account and a blog very actively, responding to the questions of the citizens. Some of the
questions Reyes Montiel has discussed with her colleagues are inspired by the comments on her
blogcasts and twitter casts. It is then clear that the new ways of communicating offer a higher
interactivity and a higher connectivity, both essential to the development of the public sphere.

14
But new media also offers the possibility of personalization. The “personal design” as described by
Sunstein (Sunstein, R., 2001), is the future result of the great possibilities the Internet offers for
personalizing the content we want to get, actually filtering the information that reaches us. Although
the personal advantages are clear, the consequences over the public sphere might not be so positive due
to the possible creation of compartments in society. If you only get the information you want, from the
people you chose, the exposition to other mentalities and new ideas might be greatly reduced.
To conclude, although the euphoria displayed by many new technology enthusiasts can be
disappointing, taking into account the situation of the public sphere before the emergence of the internet,
we can allow ourselves optimism.

2.2 Freedom of speech and expression

The freedom of speech is regarded as the first condition of liberty. It occupies a preferred and important
position in the hierarchy of the liberty, it is truly said about the freedom of speech that it is the mother
of all other liberties. Freedom of Speech and expression means the right to express one's own
convictions and opinions freely by words of mouth, writing, printing, pictures or any other mode. In
modern time it is widely accepted that the right to freedom of speech is the essence of free society and
it must be safeguarded at all time. The first principle of a free society is an untrammeled flow of words
in an open forum. Liberty to express opinions and ideas without hindrance, and especially without fear
of punishment plays significant role in the development of that particular society and ultimately for that
state. It is one of the most important fundamental liberties guaranteed against state suppression or
regulation.

Freedom of speech is guaranteed not only by the constitution or statutes of various states but also by
various international conventions like Universal Declaration of Human Rights, European convention
on Human Rights and fundamental freedoms, International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights etc.
These declarations expressly talk about protection of freedom of speech and expression.
Freedom of speech offers human being to express his feelings to other, but this is not the only reason;
purpose to protect the freedom of speech. There could be more reasons to protect these essential
liberties. There are four important justifications for freedom of speech –
1) For the discovery of truth by open discussion - According to it, if restrictions on speech are tolerated,
society prevents the ascertainment and publication of accurate facts and valuable opinion. That is to
say, it assists in the discovery of truth.
2) Free speech as an aspect of self- fulfillment and development – freedom of speech is an integral
aspect of each individual’s right to self-development and self-fulfillment. Restriction on what we are
allowed to say and write or to hear and read will hamper our personality and its growth. It helps an
individual to attain self-fulfillment.
3) For expressing belief and political attitudes - freedom of speech provides opportunity to express
one’s belief and show political attitudes. It ultimately results in the welfare of the society and state.
Thus, freedom of speech provides a mechanism by which it would be possible to establish a reasonable
balance between stability and social change.
4) For active participation in democracy – democracy is most important feature of today’s world.
Freedom of speech is there to protect the right of all citizens to understand political issues so that they
can participate in smooth working of democracy. That is to say, freedom of speech strengthens the
capacity of an individual in participating in decision-making.
Meaning And Scope

15
Article 19(1)(a) of Indian Constitution says that all citizens have the right to freedom of speech and
expression. Freedom of Speech and expression means the right to express one's own convictions and
opinions freely by words of mouth, writing, printing, pictures or any other mode. It thus includes the
expression of one's idea through any communicable medium or visible representation, such as gesture,
signs, and the like. This expression connotes also publication and thus the freedom of press is included
in this category. Free propagation of ideas is the necessary objective and this may be done on the
platform or through the press. This propagation of ideas is secured by freedom of circulation. Liberty
of circulation is essential to that freedom as the liberty of publication. Indeed, without circulation the
publication would be of little value. The freedom of speech and expression includes liberty to propagate
not one's views only. It also includes the right to propagate or publish the views of other people;
otherwise this freedom would not include the freedom of press.
Freedom of expression has four broad special purposes to serve:
1) It helps an individual to attain self-fulfillment.
2) It assists in the discovery of truth.
3) It strengthens the capacity of an individual in participating in decision-making.
4) It provides a mechanism by which it would be possible to establish a reasonable balance between
stability and social change.
5) All members of society would be able to form their own beliefs and communicate them freely to
others
In sum, the fundamental principle involved here is the people's right to know. Freedom of speech and
expression should, therefore, receive generous support from all those who believe in the participation
of people in the administration. It is on account of this special interest which society has in the freedom
of speech and expression that the approach of the Government should be more cautious while levying
taxes on matters of concerning newspaper industry than while levying taxes on other matters.

Thus we find that protection of freedom of speech is very much essential. Protection of freedom of
speech is important for the discovery of truth by open discussion, for self- fulfillment and development,
for expressing belief and political attitudes, and for active participation in democracy. The present study
is intended to present the provisions of the American and Indian Constitution which recognize the
freedom of speech and expression, the basic fundamental rights of human being. It is also to be
examined that what is judicial trend in interpreting the freedom of speech and expression provisions.
The study also covers the comparison between the approaches of both countries as far as freedom of
speech is concerned.
Freedom of Speech in India
Freedom of speech enjoys special position as far India is concerned. The importance of freedom of
expression and speech can be easily understand by the fact that preamble of constitution itself ensures
to all citizens inter alia, liberty of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship. The constitutional
significance of the freedom of speech consists in the Preamble of Constitution and is transformed as
fundamental and human right in Article 19(1) (a) as “freedom of speech and expression”. Explaining
the scope of freedom of speech and expression Supreme Court has said that the words "freedom of
speech and expression" must be broadly constructed to include the freedom to circulate one's views by
words of mouth or in writing or through audiovisual instrumentalities. Freedom of Speech and
expression means the right to express one's own convictions and opinions freely by words of mouth,
writing, printing, pictures or any other mode. It thus includes the expression of one's idea through any
communicable medium or visible representation, such as gesture, signs, and the like.

Moreover, it is important to note that liberty of one must not offend the liberty of others. Patanjali
Shastri,J. in A.K. Gopalan case, observed,“man as a rational being desires to do many things, but in a

16
civil society his desires will have to be controlled with the exercise of similar desires by other
individuals”. It therefore includes the right to propagate one's views through the print media or through
any other communication channel e.g. the radio and the television. Every citizen of this country
therefore has the right to air his or their views through the printing and or the electronic media subject
of course to permissible restrictions imposed under Article 19(2) of the Constitution. In sum, the
fundamental principle involved here is the people's right to know. Freedom of speech and expression
should, therefore, receive generous support from all those who believe in the participation of people in
the administration. We can see the guarantee of freedom of speech under following heads.

• Freedom of Press

Although Article 19 does not express provision for freedom of press but the fundamental right of the
freedom of press implicit in the right the freedom of speech and expression. In the famous case Express
Newspapers (Bombay) (P) Ltd. v. Union of India court observed the importance of press very aptly.
Court held in this case that “In today’s free world freedom of press is the heart of social and political
intercourse. The press has now assumed the role of the public educator making formal and non-formal
education possible in a large scale particularly in the developing world, where television and other kinds
of modern communication are not still available for all sections of society. The purpose of the press is
to advance the public interest by publishing facts and opinions without which a democratic electorate
[Government] cannot make responsible judgments. Newspapers being purveyors of news and views
having a bearing on public administration very often carry material which would not be palatable to
Governments and other authorities.”
The above statement of the Supreme Court illustrates that the freedom of press is essential for the proper
functioning of the democratic process. Democracy means Government of the people, by the people and
for the people; it is obvious that every citizen must be entitled to participate in the democratic process
and in order to enable him to intelligently exercise his right of making a choice, free and general
discussion of public matters is absolutely essential. This explains the constitutional viewpoint of the
freedom of press in India.
• Obscenity

Freedom of speech, though guaranteed, is not absolute in India. Unlike the U.S. Constitution, the text
of India's Constitution clearly sets out restrictions on free speech. The freedom of speech guarantee
under Article 19(1) (a) can be subject to reasonable state restriction in the interest of decency or
morality. Obscenity in India is defined as "offensive to modesty or decency; lewd, filthy and repulsive."
It stated that the test of obscenity is whether the publication, read as a whole, has a tendency to deprave
and corrupt those whose minds are open to such immoral influences, and therefore each work must be
examined by itself.

With respect to art and obscenity, the Court held that "the art must be so preponderating as to throw
obscenity into a shadow or the obscenity so trivial and insignificant that it can have no effect and may
be overlooked." The Court concluded that the test to adopt in India, emphasizing community mores, is
that obscenity without a preponderating social purpose or profit cannot have the constitutional
protection of free speech.
• Right to Information

Right to know, to information is other facet of freedom of speech. The right to know, to receive and to
impart information has been recognized within the right to freedom of speech and expression. A citizen
has a fundamental right to use the best means of imparting and receiving information and as such to
have an access to telecasting for the purpose. The right to know has, however, not yet extended to the
extent of invalidating Section 5 of the Official Secrets Act, 1923 which prohibits disclosure of certain

17
official documents. Even, Right to Information Act-2005, which specially talks about peoples’ right to
ask information from Government official, prohibits discloser of certain documents under u/s 8 of the
Act. These exceptions are generally the grounds of reasonable restrictions over freedom of speech and
expression under Article 19(1) of Constitution of India. One can conclude that 'right to information is
nothing but one small limb of right of speech and expression.
• Grounds of Restrictions

It is necessary to maintain and preserve freedom of speech and expression in a democracy, so also it is
necessary to place some restrictions on this freedom for the maintenance of social order, because no
freedom can be absolute or completely unrestricted. Accordingly, under Article 19(2) of the
Constitution of India, the State may make a law imposing “reasonable restrictions” on the exercise of
the right to freedom of speech and expression “in the interest of” the public on the following grounds:
Clause (2) of Article 19 of Indian constitution contains the grounds on which restrictions on the freedom
of speech and expression can be imposed:-
1) Security of State: Security of state is of vital importance and a government must have power to
impose restriction on the activity affecting it. Under Article 19(2) reasonable restrictions can be
imposed on freedom of speech and expression in the interest of security of State. However the term
“security” is very crucial one. The term "security of state" refers only to serious and aggravated forms
of public order e.g. rebellion, waging war against the State, insurrection and not ordinary breaches of
public order and public safety, e.g. unlawful assembly, riot, affray. Thus speeches or expression on the
part of an individual, which incite to or encourage the commission of violent crimes, such as, murder
are matters, which would undermine the security of State.
2) Friendly relations with foreign states: In the present global world, a country has to maintain good
and friendly relationship with other countries. Something which has potential to affect such relation
ship should be checked by government. Keeping this thing in mind, this ground was added by the
constitution (First Amendment) Act, 1951. The object behind the provision is to prohibit unrestrained
malicious propaganda against a foreign friendly state, which may jeopardize the maintenance of good
relations between India, and that state.
No similar provision is present in any other Constitution of the world. In India, the Foreign Relations
Act, (XII of 1932) provides punishment for libel by Indian citizens against foreign dignitaries. Interest
of friendly relations with foreign States, would not justify the suppression of fair criticism of foreign
policy of the Government. However it is interesting to note that member of the commonwealth including
Pakistan is not a "foreign state" for the purposes of this Constitution. The result is that freedom of
speech and expression cannot be restricted on the ground that the matter is adverse to Pakistan.

3) Public Order: Next restriction prescribed by constitution is to maintain public order. This ground was
added by the Constitution (First Amendment) Act. 'Public order' is an expression of wide connotation
and signifies "that state of tranquility which prevails among the members of political society as a result
of internal regulations enforced by the Government which they have established." Here it is pertinent
to look into meaning of the word “Public order. Public order is something more than ordinary
maintenance of law and order. 'Public order' is synonymous with public peace, safety and tranquility.
Anything that disturbs public tranquility or public peace disturbs public order. Thus communal
disturbances and strikes promoted with the sole object of accusing unrest among workmen are offences
against public order. Public order thus implies absence of violence and an orderly state of affairs in
which citizens can peacefully pursue their normal avocation of life. Public order also includes public
safety. Thus creating internal disorder or rebellion would affect public order and public safety. But mere
criticism of government does not necessarily disturb public order.
The words 'in the interest of public order' includes not only such utterances as are directly intended to
lead to disorder but also those that have the tendency to lead to disorder. Thus a law punishing utterances
made with the deliberate intention to hurt the religious feelings of any class of persons is valid because
it imposes a restriction on the right of free speech in the interest of public order since such speech or

18
writing has the tendency to create public disorder even if in some case those activities may not actually
lead to a breach of peace. But there must be reasonable and proper nexus or relationship between the
restrictions and the achievements of public order.
4) Decency or morality: The way to express something or to say something should be decent one. It
should not affect the morality of the society adversely. Our constitution has taken care of this view and
inserted decency and morality as a ground. The words 'morality or decency' are words of wide meaning.
Sections 292 to 294 of the Indian Penal Code provide instances of restrictions on the freedom of speech
and expression in the interest of decency or morality. These sections prohibit the sale or distribution or
exhibition of obscene words, etc. in public places. No fix standard is laid down till now as to what is
moral and indecent. The standard of morality varies from time to time and from place to place.
5) Contempt of Court: In a democratic country Judiciary plays very important role. In such situation it
becomes essential to respect such institution and its order. Thus, restriction on the freedom of speech
and expression can be imposed if it exceeds the reasonable and fair limit and amounts to contempt of
court. According to the Section 2 'Contempt of court' may be either 'civil contempt' or 'criminal
contempt.' But now, Indian contempt law was amended in 2006 to make “truth” a defence. However,
even after such amendment a person can be punished for the statement unless they were made in public
interest. Again in Indirect Tax Practitioners Assn. vs R.K.Jain, it was held by court that, “Truth based
on the facts should be allowed as a valid defence if courts are asked to decide contempt proceedings
relating to contempt proceeding relating to a speech or an editorial or article”. The qualification is that
such defence should not cover-up to escape from the consequences of a deliberate effort to scandalize
the court.

6) Defamation: Ones’ freedom, be it of any type, must not affect the reputation or status another person.
A person is known by his reputation more than his wealth or anything else. Constitution considers it as
ground to put restriction on freedom of speech. Basically, a statement, which injures a man's reputation,
amounts to defamation. Defamation consists in exposing a man to hatred, ridicule, or contempt. The
civil law in relating to defamation is still unmodified in India and subject to certain exceptions.
7) Incitement to an offence: This ground was also added by the constitution (First Amendment) Act,
1951. Obviously, freedom of speech and expression cannot confer a right to incite people to commit
offence. The word 'offence' is defined as any act or omission made punishable by law for the time being
in force.
8) Sovereignty and integrity of India- To maintain sovereignty and integrity of a state is prime duty of
government. Taking into it into account, freedom of speech and expression can be restricted so as not
to permit any one to challenge sovereignty or to permit any one to preach something which will result
in threat to integrity of the country.
From above analysis, it is evident that Grounds contained in Article 19(2) show that they are all
concerned with the national interest or in the interest of the society. The first set of grounds i.e. the
sovereignty and integrity of India, the security of the State, friendly relations with foreign States and
public order are all grounds referable to national interest, whereas, the second set of grounds i.e.
decency, morality, contempt of court, defamation and incitement to an offence are all concerned with
the interest of the society.
New Dimensions Of Freedom Of Speech And Expression
(*****Might be repeated****)
Government has no monopoly on electronic media: The Supreme Court widened the scope and extent
of the right to freedom of speech and expression and held that the government has no monopoly on
electronic media and a citizen has under Art. 19(1)(a) a right to telecast and broadcast to the
viewers/listeners through electronic media television and radio any important event. The government
can impose restrictions on such a right only on grounds specified in clause (2) of Art. 19 and not on any

19
other ground. A citizen has fundamental right to use the best means of imparting and receiving
communication and as such have an access to telecasting for the purpose.
Commercial Advertisements: The court held that commercial speech (advertisement) is a part of the
freedom of speech and expression. The court however made it clear that the government could regulate
the commercial advertisements, which are deceptive, unfair, misleading and untruthful. Examined from
another angle the Court said that the public at large has a right to receive the "Commercial Speech".
Art. 19(1)(a) of the constitution not only guaranteed freedom of speech and expression, it also protects
the right of an individual to listen, read, and receive the said speech.
Telephone Tapping: Invasion on right to privacy: Telephone tapping violates Art. 19(1)(a) unless it
comes within grounds of restriction under Art. 19(2). Under the guidelines laid down by the Court, the
Home Secretary of the center and state governments can only issue an order for telephone tapping. The
order is subject to review by a higher power review committee and the period for telephone tapping
cannot exceed two months unless approved by the review authority.
Freedom of Press
The fundamental right of the freedom of press implicit in the right the freedom of speech and expression,
is essential for the political liberty and proper functioning of democracy. The Indian Press Commission
says that "Democracy can thrive not only under the vigilant eye of legislature, but also under the care
and guidance of public opinion and the press is par excellence, the vehicle through which opinion can
become articulate." Unlike the American Constitution, Art. 19(1)(a) of the Indian Constitution does not
expressly mention the liberty of the press but it has been held that liberty of the press is included in the
freedom of speech and expression. The editor of a press for the manager is merely exercising the right
of the expression, and therefore, no special mention is necessary of the freedom of the press. Freedom
of press is the heart of social and political intercourse. It is the primary duty of the courts to uphold the
freedom of press and invalidate all laws or administrative actions, which interfere with it contrary to
the constitutional mandate.
Right to Information
The right to know, 'receive and impart information has been recognized within the right to freedom of
speech and expression. A citizen has a fundamental right to use the best means of imparting and
receiving information and as such to have an access to telecasting for the purpose. The right to know
has, however, not yet extended to the extent of invalidating Section 5 of the Official Secrets Act, 1923
which prohibits disclosure of certain official documents. One can conclude that 'right to information is
nothing but one small limb of right of speech and expression.
Grounds of Restrictions
Clause (2) of Article 19 contains the grounds on which restrictions on the freedom of speech and
expression can be imposed-
1) Security of State: Under Article 19(2) reasonable restrictions can be imposed on freedom of speech
and expression in the interest of security of State. The term "security of state" refers only to serious and
aggravated forms of public order e.g. rebellion, waging war against the State, insurrection and not
ordinary breaches of public order and public safety, e.g. unlawful assembly, riot, affray. Thus speeches
or expression on the part of an individual, which incite to or encourage the commission of violent
crimes, such as, murder are matters, which would undermine the security of State.
2) Friendly relations with foreign states: This ground was added by the constitution (First Amendment)
Act, 1951. The object behind the provision is to prohibit unrestrained malicious propaganda against a
foreign friendly state, which may jeopardise the maintainance of good relations between India, and that
state. No similar provision is present in any other Constitution of the world. In India, the Foreign
Relations Act, (XII of 1932) provides punishment for libel by Indian citizens against foreign dignitaries.
Interest of friendly relations with foreign States, would not justify the suppression of fair criticism of
foreign policy of the Government.

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It is to be noted that member of the commonwealth including Pakistan is not a "foreign state" for the
purposes of this Constitution. The result is that freedom of speech and expression cannot be restricted
on the ground that the matter is adverse to Pakistan.
3) Public Order: This ground was added by the Constitution (First Amendment) Act. 'Public order' is
an expression of wide connotation and signifies "that state of tranquility which prevails among the
members of political society as a result of internal regulations enforced by the Government which they
have established."
Public order is something more than ordinary maintenance of law and order. 'Public order' is
synonymous with public peace, safety and tranquility. The test for determining whether an act affects
law and order or public order is to see whether the act leads to the disturbances of the current of life of
the community so as to amount to a disturbance of the public order or whether it affects merely an
individual being the tranquility of the society undisturbed.
Anything that disturbs public tranquility or public peace disturbs public order. Thus communal
disturbances and strikes promoted with the sole object of acausing unrest among workmen are offences
against public order. Public order thus implies absence of violence and an orderly state of affairs in
which citizens can peacefully pursue their normal avocation of life. Public order also includes public
safety. Thus creating internal disorder or rebellion would affect public order and public safety. But mere
criticism of government does not necessarily disturb public order. In its external aspect 'public safety'
means protection of the country from foreign aggression. Under public order the State would be entitled
to prevent propaganda for a state of war with India.
The words 'in the interest of public order' includes not only such utterances as are directly intended to
lead to disorder but also those that have the tendency to lead to disorder. Thus a law punishing utterances
made with the deliberate intention to hurt the religious feelings of any class of persons is valid because
it imposes a restriction on the right of free speech in the interest of public order since such speech or
writing has the tendency to create public disorder even if in some case those activities may not actually
lead to a breach of peace. But there must be reasonable and proper nexus or relationship between the
restrictions and the achievements of public order.
4) Decency or morality: The words 'morality or decency' are words of wide meaning. Sections 292 to
294 of the Indian Penal Code provide instances of restrictions on the freedom of speech and expression
in the interest of decency or morality. These sections prohibit the sale or distribution or exhibition of
obscene words, etc. in public places. No fix standard is laid down till now as to what is moral and
indecent. The standard of morality varies from time to time and from place to place.
5) Contempt of Court: Restriction on the freedom of speech and expression can be imposed if it exceeds
the reasonable and fair limit and amounts to contempt of court. According to the Section 2 'Contempt
of court' may be either 'civil contempt' or 'criminal contempt.'
6) Defamation: A statement, which injures a man's reputation, amounts to defamation. Defamation
consists in exposing a man to hatred, ridicule, or contempt. The civil law in relating to defamation is
still uncodified in India and subject to certain exceptions.
7) Incitement to an offence: This ground was also added by the constitution (First Amendment) Act,
1951. Obviously, freedom of speech and expression cannot confer a right to incite people to commit
offence. The word 'offence' is defined as any act or omission made punishable by law for the time being
in force.
8) Sedition: As understood by English law, sedition embraces all those practices whether by words, or
writing which are calculated to disturb the tranquility of the State and lead ignorant person to subvert
the government. It should be noted that the sedition is not mentioned in clause (2) of Art. 19 as one of
the grounds on which restrictions on freedom of speech and expression may be imposed.
Conclusion

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From this article it can be easily concluded that right to freedom of speech and expression is one of the
most important fundamental right. It includes circulating one's views by words or in writing or through
audiovisual instrumentalities, through advertisements and through any other communication channel.
It also comprises of right to information, freedom of press etc. Thus this fundamental right has a vast
scope.
From the above case law analysis it is evident that the Court has always placed a broad interpretation
on the value and content of Article 19(1)(a), making it subjective only to the restrictions permissible
under Article 19(2). Efforts by intolerant authorities to curb or suffocate this freedom have always been
firmly repelled, more so when public authorities have betrayed autocratic tendencies.
It can also be comprehended that public order holds a lot of significance as a ground of restriction on
this fundamental right. But there should be reasonable and proper nexus or relationship between the
restriction and achievement of public order. The words 'in the interest of public order' include not only
utterances as are directly intended to lead to disorder but also those that have the tendency to lead to
disorder.
In the case of Brij Bhushan v. State of Delhi (AIR 1950 SC 129), the validity of censorship previous to
the publication of an English Weekly of Delhi, the Organiser was questioned. The court struck down
the Section 7 of the East Punjab Safety Act, 1949, which directed the editor and publisher of a
newspaper “to submit for scrutiny, in duplicate, before the publication, till the further orders , all
communal matters all the matters and news and views about Pakistan, including photographs, and
cartoons", on the ground that it was a restriction on the liberty of the press. Similarly, prohibiting
newspaper from publishing its own views or views of correspondents about a topic has been held to be
a serious encroachment on the freedom of speech and expression.
In India, the press has not been able to exercise its freedom to express the popular views. In Sakal Papers
Ltd. v. Union of India,] the Daily Newspapers (Price and Page) Order, 1960, which fixed the number
of pages and size which a newspaper could publish at a price was held to be violative of freedom of
press and not a reasonable restriction under the Article 19(2). Similarly, in Bennett Coleman and Co. v.
Union of India, the validity of the Newsprint Control Order, which fixed the maximum number of pages,
was struck down by the Court holding it to be violative of provision of Article 19(1)(a) and not to be
reasonable restriction under Article 19(2). The Court struck down the plea of the Government that it
would help small newspapers to grow.

2.3 Right to information

Article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights adopted by the United Nations states:
“Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes freedom to hold
opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through any media
and regardless of frontiers.”
The short section on media in the Plan of Action (C.9) states that “The media ….. have an essential role
in the development of the Information Society and are recognised as an important contributor to freedom
of expression and plurality of information.” In fact, mass media is the most important vehicle for
information, knowledge and communication in a democratic polity: a) They are pervasive and play a
significant role in shaping societies; they provide the public sphere of information and debate that
enables social and cultural discourse, participation and accountability.
b) They are the most accessible, cost-effective and widespread source of information and platform for
expression. Information is power. The media can play a crucial role in building an inclusive Information
Society based on knowledge power and its distribution. For media to fulfill its potential, actions are
required in three key areas:
1. To protect and extend media freedom and independence, and rights of access to information.

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2. To actively develop the potential of media to provide information, a forum for debate on topics of
public interest, cultural expression and opportunity to communicate, especially to the poor and
marginalised.
3. To strengthen the capacity of media to promote and help build an Information Society – raising
awareness, channelling civil society concerns, debating policies and holding government, private sector
and civil society accountable.
Traditional systems of information access in India have made journalists dependent on sources they
must cultivate. Whether bureaucrats or politicians, much depends on the privilege and patronage of the
individual source. Such relationships of patronage not only make journalists depend on very feudal
relationships, it often makes them use the information regardless of its veracity.
An RTI regime can enable credible, evidence-based and factual reporting on key issues of public
interest. It can enable the media to expose mal-administration, corruption and inefficiency and to
propagate stories and instances relating to accountability, transparency, effective administration and
good governance. By using the RTI Act, the media can play an important role in highlighting issues
related to public service delivery and the efficacy and accountability of public officials. Under the RTI
Act, the journalists & reporters, like citizens, can:
• Demand from the Government information pertaining to any of its departments
• Demand photocopies of Government contracts, payment, estimates, measurements of engineering
works etc.
• Demand from the Government certified samples of material used in the construction of roads, drains,
buildings etc.
• Demand to inspect any public development work that may be still under construction or completed
• Demand to inspect Government documents - construction drawings, records books, registers, quality
control reports etc.
• Demand status of requests or complaints, details of time delays, action taken on Information
Commission’s decisions etc.
The media can play a constructive role in the governance process by:-
• Catalyzing Effective Implementation of the Act: As the ‘fourth pillar of democracy’, the media not
only has an important stake in what the RTI Act purports to provide and achieve, but also in catalyzing
and entrenching the implementation and enforcement of this significant piece of legislation.
• Providing Information to the Citizens and Building Awareness on the Act: Despite the provisions that
have been made to access information, citizens resort to media like newspapers, radio, television etc.
for day to day information about public authorities and their activities. The media provides a link
between the citizens and their government. The media’s right to information or right to tell is not a
special privilege but rather, an aspect of the public’s right to know. The media should fulfill this
obligation.
• Giving Voice to the Citizens: As part of the civil society, the media has an obligation to articulate the
needs and aspirations of the people. Using the Act, the media can highlight key issues faced by the
citizens, particularly those faced by the poor and voiceless.
• Acting as a Watchdog on behalf of the Citizens: The best service that the media can provide to the
public, whether in a mature or emerging democracy, is that of a community watchdog. Journalists
should see and perform their role keeping in mind public interest. Using RTI, the media can expose
corruption and inefficiency. However, in performing a watchdog role and digging out the truth,
journalists should be careful in interpreting facts and evidence.
It is important that the media plays the role of an honest broker of information for its readers without
deliberate bias or favouritism. The media must consider its independence to be its most valuable

23
commercial, editorial and moral asset. Maintaining its independence through professional behaviour
and a code of conduct that is subscribed to by all journalists, the media can be a powerful user of the
RTI Act and an agent for the empowerment of people through an Information Society.
The objective of the Act to usher in a practical regime of right to information cannot be attained without
a proactive role played by the media. Suggested Areas for Action by the Media The following section
provides cues for the media to use the RTI Act in discharging the following roles:
• In monitoring implementation of the Act
• In reporting on the effectiveness & efficiency of public service delivery
• In highlighting corruption and fraud related issues
• In highlighting citizen grievances
In highlighting significant cases or efforts made by organisations/individuals on RTI. However, it needs
to be noted that the suggested areas are selective and are provided only to guide the media to effectively
use the RTI Act provisions. Role of Media Suggested Areas for Coverage and Reporting.

2.4 Right to Privacy (*****Notes*****)

2.5 Media as a watch dog

Watchdog journalism informs the public about goings-on in institutions and society, especially in
circumstances where a significant portion of the public would demand changes in response. This might
involve:
Fact-checking statements of public officials
Interviewing public figures and challenging them with problems or concerns
Beat reporting to gather information from meetings that members of the public might not otherwise
attend, and to observe "on the ground" in broader society
Investigative journalism, which involves information-gathering on a single story for a long period of
time
Like a literal guard dog that barks when it notices an intruder, a "watchdog" role involves alerting others
when a problem is detected. Common subjects are the government decision-making process, illegal
activity, immorality, consumer protection issues, and environmental degradation.
Watchdog journalism can be located in a variety of news media, such as radio, television, Internet,
and print media where it may be seen as "a unique strength of newspapers", and additional new media
and concepts such as weblogs and citizen journalism. Watchdog journalists also are called
"watchmen", "agents of social control", or "moral guardians".
The role of a watchdog journalist can be that of a protector or guardian. The role of a watchdog journalist
as a guardian is to supply the citizens with information they must have "to prevent the abuse of power”,
and to "warn citizens about those that are doing them harm". In order to conduct their role as a watchdog,
journalists need to have a certain distance from the powers and challenge them, as opposed to
"propagandist" journalists, who are loyal to the ruling powers and elites. Because of the power distance
and its overseeing function, watchdog journalism often officiates as the fourth estate, or is used in the
context of that term. The array of topics for watchdog journalism is wide and includes "personal
scandals, financial wrongdoing, political corruption, enrichment in public office, and other types of
wrongdoing". In order to expose wrongdoings the watchdog aims at "finding hidden evidence”. The

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aforementioned aspects are necessary for the role of the watchdog journalist to help "maintain order"
and "warn against disorder".

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3. Mass Media and Public Interest
Welfare of the general public (in contrast to the selfish interest of a person, group, or firm) in which the
whole society has a stake and which warrants recognition, promotion, and protection by the government
and its agencies. Despite the vagueness of the term, public interest is claimed generally by governments
in matters of state secrecy and confidentiality. It is approximated by comparing expected gains and
potential costs or losses associated with a decision, policy, program, or project.

3.1 A critical study of media

The types of media

The Print Media

The print media have a mechanism that depends on printing items of information. These include
newspapers, magazines, books, pamphlets and comics that carry messages to the populace by appealing
to their sense of sight.
One common thing about the print media is that they involve the pressing of ink on paper using plates
and blocks, and special machines. The print media includes books, newspapers and magazines. Books
are the oldest medium of mass communication whereas the newspapers are the first popular mass
medium. For the purpose of discourse, more emphasis would be placed on newspapers and magazines.
a. Newspaper
A newspaper in terms of format can be categorized into two:
i. Tabloid
ii. Standard size
b. Magazines
There are many types of magazines, namely:
i. General Interest Magazine
This is also known as mass magazine. It focuses on the activities of the masses. General interest
magazines contain more credible stories than fiction. The nature of such magazine is large circulation
particularly in diversified or heterogeneous society.
ii. Specialized Magazine
This is designed for specialized people, written in specialized language and directed at specialized group
of people.
iii. Literary or Class Magazine
This type of magazine is usually written in a very literary style for highly educated or sophisticated
members of the society. The content is usually on literature, arts, agriculture etc. Examples are Readers
Digest, The Economist etc.
The Electronic Media
The electronic media use devices that can transform or change sound or light waves into electrical
signals, which are reconverted to things that can be heard or seen on radio or television. The electronic
media technique can be divided into production, transmission and reception.
The electronic media include:
i. Radio and audio recordings that appeal to the sense of sound.
ii. Television, motion pictures and video recordings that appeal to both sense of sound and that of sight.

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Differences between Print and Electronic Media
Broadcast media differ from print media in the following ways:
i. Print media appeal to the eye while broadcast appeal to both the eye and ear.
ii. Print is always in written form, while broadcast is always in oral form.
iii. Broadcast news are forgotten easily and cannot be kept as reference work while the print media
serve that purpose.
iv. Print media is more detailed than broadcast media.
v. Print media is more permanent than broadcast media which is very ephemeral
Characteristics of the Mass Media
Five major characteristics of the mass media. These are:
1. The first characteristic derives from the name, mass media which implies that media is designed for,
distributed to and consumed by mass audiences. The mass audiences are very large, either in terms of
number or proportion of total population and the audience exist in large, heterogeneous societies either
industrial or transitional societies.
2. The second characteristic of the mass media is that they are big businesses, employing millions of
people and making billions in profit.
3. One other characteristic of the mass media is that they are sole disseminators of news (defined as
factual, current and verifiable information about recent events). The mass media also disseminate other
sorts of information –fictional stories, political advocacy, and strictly utilitarian information like
recipes.
4. The mass media are also characterized by speed with which they gather information and frequency
with which they distribute it. Media producing organizations are continuously gathering information
and are in instantaneous communication with their sources of information. The speed and rhythm of
this ongoing process of gathering and distributing information, especially news, sharply differentiate
mass media from other media and exert enormous influence on the character of their messages.
5. The fifth characteristic of the mass media is that they are all twentieth-century phenomena. In other
words, they all developed and attained maturity during roughly the same period, in response to the same
circumstances and in pursuit of the same purposes.
Normative Theories
The basic assumption of normative theories is that the media tend to assume the form and coloration of
the society in which it operates. The well-known four theories are, Authoritarian, Libertarian (or free
press), Soviet Communist and Social Responsibility theories. McQuail (2000) also draws attention to
two other emergent normative theories, namely, Democratic-Participant Media Theory and
Development Media Theory, thus bringing the number of normative theories recognized in the literature
to six. These will be scanned as follows:
· Authoritarian Media Theory
Dates from the 16th century, the theory describes a situation in which the mass media are subordinated
to state power. Whether the media ownership is private or public, they are expected to service the
government or its functionaries and are forbidden to criticize government or its functionaries. The
instruments of authoritarian control of the media are many and varied. They include heavy taxation,
repressive legislation and direct or subtle state control of staffing.
· Libertarian Theory (Free Press)

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The Libertarian theory or free press theory believes that an individual should be free to publish what he
or she likes to hold and express opinions freely. It is based on the concept of “free market place of
ideas” which held that good ideas would inevitably drive out bad ones if both were guaranteed free
expression. The theory does not however obliterate the laws of defamation, sedition, obscenity and
invasion of privacy. It believes that human beings including journalists are rational and have the ability
to differentiate between right and wrong. The theory exists mainly to check on governments or its
functionaries and therefore must ideally be free from government control. The clearest expression of
the libertarian principle can be found in the first amendment to the American Constitution, which
infringes on freedom of speech or of the press is a good example of the theory at work.
· Democratic Participant Theory
The main thrust of this theory as enunciated by McQuail lies on the insistence that the existing
bureaucracy and professional hegemony in media system should be done away with so as to ensure easy
access to the media by allowing potential users and consumers. Conclusively, it insists that previous
media theories have failed to deliver the expected results and therefore calls for grassroot participation
in the control of the mass media.
· Social Responsibility Theory
The social responsibility theory can be aptly described as a child of the industrial revolution. The
industrial revolution and the emerging multimedia society provided the conducive environment for the
development of a theory that is based on the assumption that while the press should be free, it must
nonetheless be responsible. This theory places emphasis on the moral and social responsibilities of
people, who, and institutions which operate the mass media. The main theme of the message therefore
is “In Public Interest”. It holds the position that one has the right to print, but he does not have the right
to libel. It admits no censorship, but depends solely on the maturity of proprietors, editors and reporters.
The main difference to the libertarian theory of the mass media lies in the demand for social
responsibility which, if need be, can be enforced on the media by other institutions when it acts contrary
to the laid down principles of social responsibility.
· Development Media Theory
Development media theory was put forward as a means of paying for the imbalance in development
and information flow of the Third World Countries and a solution to the technological problems facing
them. The Third World Countries are bedevilled by problems that make the development of mass media
system difficult. Some of these problems are the absence of communication infrastructure, the
professional skill, the production and cultural resources and the available audience.
The major tenets of Development Media Theory as enunciated by McQuail are:
· Media must accept and carry out positive development tasks in line with naturally established policy
Freedom of the media should be open to economic priorities and development needs of the society.
· Media should give priority in the content to the national culture and language.
· Journalists and other media workers have responsibilities as well as freedom in their information
gathering and dissemination tasks.
· In the interest of development, the state has a right to intervene or restrict media operation.

3.2 Analysis of Media Content (***did’t get the right info**Google it)

Regulations of media content

There is a contradiction intrinsic to the notion of regulating what are supposed to be the free means of
expression and information in a modern society. Regulation by its very nature sets limits to freedom,
which is the most basic principle of democratic societies. At the very least, this means that there have
to be clear and convincing reasons for regulation, and although we can give general justifications for

28
regulation that help to reconcile it with principles of freedom and democracy, we cannot escape from
this underlying tension.
There is no single or simple answer to the question `why regulate?' and often the surface reasons given
conceal other purposes (especially the interests of the state). Even so, six general reasons for media
regulation can be proposed, as follows:
The management of what is arguably the key economic resource in the emerging `information society',
with a very high dependence on all forms of communication.
The protection of public order and support for instruments of government and justice.
The protection of individual and sectional rights and interests that might be harmed by unrestricted use
of public means of communication.
The promotion of the efficiency and development of the communication system, by way of technical
standardization, innovation, connectivity and universal provision.
The promotion of access, freedom to communicate, diversity and universal provision as well as securing
communicative and cultural ends chosen by the people for themselves.
Maintaining conditions for effective operation of free markets in media services, especially competition
and access, protection of consumers, stimulating innovation and expansion.

3.3 Media’s role in serving public and marginal groups

Although perceived as a pivotal tool for the upward mobility of human civilization, the role played
presently by the media to serve the public interest or the concerns of the common men, has started to
receive volley of questions. With the utmost appreciation for all the good contributions media have
made for the human society, time has come to retrospect and introspect on what went wrong in media’s
role in bridging the gap between the rulers and the ruled, and those in the power centre and the periphery
to bring about a matured and participatory democracy based on liberty, equality and justice.
Now, media have to redefine its role and responsibilities to construct a new paradigm of outlook to
better serve the common men and challenge the hurdles on its way to deconstruct the image of a loyal
opportunist.
Our media have to empower the common men with its magic bullets of development oriented
information, awareness and sensitization. No powerful force on earth will be able to withstand against
the combined force of media and media activated common men. If the people’s pillar, representing
people’s voice is weak, democracy will be in despair. If it has to be made a real watchdog of democracy,
it can’t be inferior at no point to the other three pillars of democracy and it is badly needed get energized
to take on any eventuality, but not in an unruly and undemocratic manner.
Public Interest : Reality vs Perception : The conceptualization of Public interest grew up in the 60s and
70s with the exposure of companies and of politicians and was seen as something moving from the
bottom up rather from the top down. The idea of the public interest, when put into practice, is one of
judgment and it is open to great variation of interpretation.
Newsmen in media organizations do not necessarily operate from sets of principles, but from the
opportunities presented by a broad concept – the public interest – that can be exploited sometimes. It is
hard to define the term public interest with any immense clarity.
Generally, the issues of human resource, public health, national security, peace and social harmony,
infrastructural development and good governance with competence in public office leading to a
conducive atmosphere for healthy social environment are all included in the domain of public interest.
The interest involved is inevitably bigger than any individual, that it affects a group of people, possibly
in a dangerous way, in a threatening way, or it affects a group of people in an alarming way.

29
Being a part of the Solution: What we are experiencing at present in India and particularly in Manipur
may also be taken a syndrome of a transition stage in a democracy, from a non-participatory to a
participatory one, which is also observed in other developing countries around the globe. Moreover,
finding solutions to such a critical juncture is not as easy as putting blame to one or the other for all the
misdeeds. However, if one sees on the cause and effect of the system failure, the onus lies upon every
individual, who are unavoidable building blocks of such a rotten system. So, change is required,
reformation is demanded in every front, in every walk of the social spectrum. And, the most powerful
changing agent is media.
In a holistic approach to bring about an overhauling mechanism to streamline the paralyzed system, the
media has to groom good citizenry; clean and committed leaders with vision and who will act with a
missionary zeal. Political and economic changes can’t be expected without a social overhauling, as all
the unbecoming products we are having in every front is our own creation. Media has to venture towards
deconstructing the vicious circle of manufacturing ruling power through unfair means by political
businessmen and the electorates complying the system, overtly or covertly. When it is not sold, no rich
man on earth will be able to buy us and our rights. The strength of democracy depends on informed
citizens making educated decisions. Media enhanced public debate and promote public good by
amplifying information through different channels.
The fourth estate of democracy crusades against aberrations of imperfections in polity. Media ensured
good governance, inclusive growth and all-round development of the nation. The Constitution of India
guarantees freedom and protection to media and media persons under Article 19(1)(a). Media, however,
must distinguish the difference between- in public interest and the interest to public to flush out yellow
journalism and insignificant issues from the pressing ones.
The theme of the National Press Day, 2013 chosen by the Press Council of India is very timely
and significant in view of the present state of affairs in the fourth estate of democracy. It is high time
for media persons to introspect into the defined roles and responsibilities of media as enshrined in a
democratic institution.
Media need to highlight issues of poverty, unemployment, illiteracy, lack of healthcare facilities
and other developmental infrastructures instead of focusing on sensational and insignificant issues or
making beeline after those in the power centre or celebrities or those who can offer them freebies and
junkets.
The presence of an active and diverged media sector in terms of ownership and content is a pre-requisite
of any modern democratic and information society. Diversity of ownership is critically important
because it allows representation of dissimilar and contradictory views, which are vital for public debate
in a democracy as well as in media. Diverged content is required to serve the inclusive masses with full
spectrum of views, serving different age groups, economic classes, different regions, etc. prevalent in
the country.
It is harmful to democratic health to have too few voices; and second, that there is demonstrable
evidence of harm to journalism from an overly concentrated media landscape. The first is premised on
the theoretical need for sustaining a diversity of voices in a democracy and has underpinned government
policy in most developed nations for several decades.
In the United Kingdom, it was articulated clearly in 1995 by the then Conservative Government’s White
Paper on media ownership:
A free and diverse media are an indispensable part of the democratic process. They provide the
multiplicity of voices and opinions that informs the public, influences opinion, and engenders political
debate. They promote the culture of dissent which any healthy democracy must have… if one voice
becomes too powerful, this process is placed in jeopardy and democracy is damaged.
The subsequent Labour government, in its own consultation six years later, also emphasized the role of
the media for fostering public debate in a democratic society. “We want a plurality of voices, giving the
citizen access to a variety of views … A healthy democracy depends on a culture of dissent and

30
argument, which would inevitably, be diminished if there were only a limited number of providers of
news.”
The fourth estate cannot do justice to its role and responsibility by obeying the powerful and the
rulers. Instead, media should be proactive to the very concerns of the ruled. Independent media serve
the public interest better than the controlled media. It is in this line that even the national governments
are giving autonomy to its media agencies like what we have in India as the Prasar Bharati with All
India Radio and Doordarshan as its two wings of broadcast media while the country is still having one
of the most vibrant independent print and electronic media in the world.
Editorial integrity is all that matters in Journalist’s relationship with the people. Trust is an asset
that cannot be sold out to any powerful person with a self serving agenda. Independence is vital for
media credibility and long term viability. Media have to set its platform to serve the public need for
relevant, accurate and fair-minded journalism well into the future.
In the words of former President of the country Dr. APJ Abdul Kalam, “It is very important for the
media to be partner in national mission. They should highlight the positive aspects and provide solutions
to difficult aspects through nationwide consultations”. By highlighting the needs and aspirations of the
grass root level of the society the media can truly contribute to the creation of a vibrant and developing
India where every citizen would be equal.

With orientation for Bahujana Hitaya and Bahujana Sukhaya, (welfare of many and happiness of many)
the media must relentlessly strive to remove the paradox of vulgar affluence of a few and abject poverty
of many in today’s polity so that the nation marches forward in real sense. We should keep in mind that
in the forward leap of a nation, those who are left behind will pull back others. Inclusive economic order
is well accepted goal.

If the Press is to function effectively as the watchdog of public interest, it must have a secure freedom
of expression, unfettered and unhindered by any authority, organized bodies or individuals. But, this
claim to press freedom has legitimacy only if it is exercised with a due sense of responsibility. The
Press must, therefore, scrupulously adhere to accepted norms of journalistic ethics and maintain high
standards of professional conduct.

Manipur Perspective: In a state like Manipur, where about 70 percent of the potent youth population
remains unemployed; where water, electricity and road remains a pressing problem, where it is
embarrassing to claim that our public distribution system is not bad, our education system is doing well
and our public healthcare system is sensitive; the fourth pillar of democracy has to play a larger role
than the present one to streamline the full spectrum of socially important issues.
Our media has to prepare to take on the stronger than the strongest in its fight against corruption
and favouritism with brainstorming ideas of awakening the masses.
In Manipur, what we are seeing in the print media scenario is medium and small newspapers. Such
newspapers enjoy the potential to bridge the gap between the rulers and the ruled. They have the
potential to serve as a conduit between the public and the local authorities by bringing to the notice of
the authorities, the sufferings, difficulties and the needs of the people, simultaneously carrying to the
people the type of information they need from the authorities. They speak the language of the locals
and are thus capable of influencing their opinion. The medium and small newspapers are the best vehicle
for promoting unity and communal harmony among the people and thereby strengthening the roots of
democracy and the process of development.
However, the medium and small newspapers must realize the changes taking fast in the society and
should come forward as catalyst of change of social, economic as well as political situation and extend
constructive co-operation in the development of the country and rooting out the malaise of corruption

31
and moral degradation. Media in Manipur with its responsibility and commitment to the democratic
process will ultimately contribute to the nation building in public interest.

3.4 Role of media in social movements (***Notes***)

Social movements that are long lived and effectively institutionalised within society, tend not to
challenge the status quo directly, and so consequently are less dependent on media coverage for their
survival.
However, media coverage may be crucial for other, less well known social movements who’s often
transitional and adversarial nature tends to weaken their ability to secure public legitimacy. Their
outsider status – that is, their marginalisation from central political decision-making processes – along
with their often resource-poor nature, means that traditional avenues of publicity are not easily
accessible which forces them to rely on alternative methods to obtain media access. Traditionally, this
involves some form of public spectacle – like a protest – to attract media attention.
Typical protest actions include sit-ins, pickets, street theatre, strikes, rallies, mass demonstrations and
their more recent relative, reclaim the street parties. These activities have become accepted as
mechanisms by which social problems are communicated in the public sphere, alongside public opinion
polls and elections and they act as vital means by which citizens can signal their discontent.
Consequently, the way that such protest activities are reported in the media is fundamental to the
effectiveness of the feedback loop between the public and their politicians.
Media coverage of social movement ideas and organizations is legitimizing because it indicates to the
broader public that a movement represents credible claims. A publication of a book can have a similar
affect. Ralph Nader's book, Unsafe at Any Speed, exposed the reluctance of car manufacturers to spend
money on safety features (such as seat belts) and supported Nader's efforts to mobilize a consumer
rights movement. Mass media offer frameworks for understanding the causes of and solutions to
political problems. Social movements, then, that garner media attention have an opportunity to shape
public perceptions of political problems and affect broader debate. Mass media can also mobilize a
broader population to action. Social movement frameworks disseminated via mass media identify
motivations for and targets of collective action.

3.5 Role of media in political-cultural movements

The media have a unique power in any political system. This power stems both from their role as key
sources of information about cultures, people, and events on a regular basis and their multiple functions
in politics. As studies of media effects have demonstrated, the media wield an enormous influence on
the audiences’ attitudes, opinions, and behaviours. With the complexity of societies, speed of events,
and enormous diversity of information and news, as well as the limited ability of audiences to follow
up on information, the media have the power to formulate our understanding of the world and affect
our behaviours. The media help correlate our response to the challenges and opportunities in society to
reach consensus on actions and to transmit the culture of our society to new members. Also, the media’s
power relies on the relationship between media and policymakers. The influence of the media is much
more pervasive now than it was some decades ago, and their role in politics has become a major topic
of discussion and controversy in recent years. The characteristics and values of a particular political
system are usually reflected in its media practices and contents; the state usually plays a vital role in
affecting these contents. In some cases, governments can define the amount and nature of the news that
may be rejected or accepted for dissemination. In others, the media contents are direct responses to
government policies and practices. While these are only examples of how the media-politics
relationship can affect the media contents, numerous scenarios exist as a result of the interactive media-
politics relationship that differs according to the various media systems (liberal, authoritarian,
developmental, etc.) and political environments (democratic, dictatorship, communist, etc.).
The impact of mass mediain india is very significant impact and this is clearly apprent throgh the rising
number of advertisements who are capitalising on these media channels to spread their messages.It is

32
the people & their character that the masses of india seem to indetify with regards to their dressing &
personifications of themselves,mass media has affected the lives of people in many ways.It is need to
examine is the intangible cost involved in the burgeoning of mass media culture.This presentation aims
to answer the question which is put on change of mass media & culture. Culture & preservation matters
: Culture and its preservation matters a great deal to Indians, at least in rhectoric. The Government of
India has even formulated a “Cultural Policy” which lays out three major objectives as preserving the
cultural heritage of India, inculcating Indian art consciousness amongst Indians and promoting high
standards in creative and performing arts. Unfortunately, it seems the advent of mass media has made
the cultural policy redundant as performing arts seem to have virtually disappeared for the masses of
India. India is made up of several dozen ethnic groups, speaking their own languages and dialects, as a
result, folk music plays an essential role in uniting people of the same dialect group who may be far
apart geographically. An example is the folk music of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, Bhojpuri music. It serves
as a means of communication as the lyrics of the songs often cover recent cultural changes and events;
as well as religious content. Television & drama: The television and print revolutions have granted
access to these forms of media to the masses across india. Villages often have their own newspapers
and access to television is readily available to the majority. Bollywood cinema is not restricted to the
urban community and is in fact highly popular with the rural masses. Changes in social structure: The
people of India belong to thousands of castes and caste like groups--hierarchically ordered, named
groups into which members are born. Caste members are expected to marry within the group and follow
caste rules pertaining to diet, avoidance of ritual pollution, and many other aspects of life. Indian norms:
- Other than changing the social structure and norm, the media revolution has also contributed to the
disintegration of so-called 'Indian norms'. Movies such as Monsoon Weddings; are an ideal
demonstration of the culture shock faced by many young Indians today. There is a chasm between
traditional values of chastity and dressing conservatively and the TV values of stylish and often skimpy
dressing and more liberal values, including dating before marriage and other 'western norms'. Culture,
mass media and elites the dominant social paradigm and culture. A fruitful way to start the discussion
of the significance of culture and its relationship to the mass media would be to define carefully our
terms. This would help to avoid the confusion, which is not rare in discussions on the matter. Culture
is frequently defined as the integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief, and behaviour. However, in
what follows, I am not going to deal with all these aspects of culture unless they are related to what I
call the dominant social paradigm. By this I mean the system of beliefs, ideas and the corresponding
values which are dominant in a particular society at a particular moment of its history
Differences between culture and the dominant social paradigm :- Culture, exactly because of its greater
scope, may express values and ideas, which are not necessarily consistent with the dominant
institutions. In fact, this is usually the case characterising the arts and literature of a market economy,
where, artists and writers have been given a significant degree of freedom to express their own views.
Other than dress; many other aspects of culture have been sacrificed in favour of western influences.
Folk music and travelling singers have given way to cassettes and compact discs; nautanki shows have
dissolved under the pressure and competition brought forth by television and cinema. The traditions of
storytelling has also taken a back seat due to casette playbacks of discourses and the ease with which
printed material is cheaply available.

3.6 Role of media in National Integrity

Media exposed the true face of British imperialism and colonialism, and helped in creating awareness
and consequent unity among Indians to fight the British. After independence, the Indian media
developed rapidly, including the radio, and then the television. Any occurrence in any corner of the
country immediately spreads all over through the media. The spreading of news is not just the
conveyance of information, but it also acts as a catalyst in creating identification with the nation, its
people, culture, and thoughts. In earlier days, not everyone was able to know what exactly happened
and the whole picture used to become clear after a much delay but with the wide reach of media via
Television and Internet, everyone gets the news instantly and easily evaluates the situation by various
means. In this paper discuss here are some aspects of life which have a develop The National integration
in India by direct media.

33
National Integration for binding the people in sentiment of oneness i.e. in the bond of nationalism or
what we call National Integration, it is necessary to all to eliminate and evaporate the feeling of
regionalism, communalism, Linguisim etc.etc. among themselves. Now days in a society Media plays
a very important role. Without Media, people in societies would be isolated, not only from the rest of
world but from the Government, Law and Orders, neighboring National Integration remains a crucial
issue in India not withstanding the fact that we boast of a civilization, which is nearly 5,000 years old.
Truly, some of these diverse factors may be inherent in the history geography and culture of our country,
but there are also forces that accentuate these factors. Religious fundamentalism is one such force while
linguistics diversities constitute another. There are people in this country who hold an exclusive view
of religion which drives them into sectarian frenzy that does not admit tolerance of other. Despite a
shared culture of so many years, linguistics diversities and communalism have often generated tensions
and conflicts among different communities threatening the fabric of national unity. The same holds
good for regionalism exacerbated no doubt by inequitable development amongst different region of this
country.
All the above forces and factors do pose a challenge to India’s unity and integrity and therefore
conscious efforts will have to be made by media to preserve same.
Challenges in National Integration
National Integration remains a crucial issue in India not withstanding the fact that we boast of a
civilization, which is nearly 5,000 years old. True, some of these diverse factors may be inherent in the
history geography and culture of our country, but there are also forces that accentuate these factors.
Religious fundamentalism is one such force while linguistics diversities constitute another. There are
people in this country who hold an exclusive view of religion which drives them into sectarian frenzy
that does not admit tolerance of other. Despite a shared culture of so many years, linguistics diversities
have often generated tensions and conflicts among different communities threatening the fabric of
national unity. The same holds good for regionalism exacerbated no doubt by inequitable development
amongst different region of this country. All the above forces and factors do pose a challenge to India’s
unity and integrity and therefore conscious efforts will have to be made by all concerned to preserve
the same.
Growth of Nationalism by Media
Newspapers, radio, television and movies reach all the people in India. The same things are thus seen
and read all over the country, and this helps in the growth of similar mentality and thoughts. This can
also be seen as the growth of consciousness of belonging to one nation. This is the growth of
Nationalism. Now, people all over the country have easy access to information and latest news; they
also have various platforms to share their views and learn more about the subject. It helps by bringing
the people together and spread information instantly all over the country.
Nationalism in itself contains the seed of unity and the national integration. The same values that get
conveyed through media, directly or indirectly, help sustain nationalism and thus, national integration.
Role of Media in Enhancing National Integration
Talking about the ‘Role of Media in National Integration’ claiming the depth of the subject of media’s
role in integrating this nation – India, We need to know what Nation is and why it is important. We also
need to understand why ‘Internationalism’ one that is being propounded by the Capitalists, Communists
and Wahhabi Islamists hasn’t hold good for the past, present and the future.
In the current context many people in our country hold the view that any venture that we undertake
should be based on a grand world-thought capable of rendering good to the whole of humanity
eschewing all narrow limitations of the country, community and religion. In support of this view, some
proclaim that in this age of missiles, rockets and internet distance has vanished, boundaries of countries
have become meaningless and the whole world has shrunk. They, therefore, feel that the very concept
of country nation, etc., has become outdated, that the spirit of world unity alone should inspire all our
activities. They conclude that the modern ‘isms’ which have taken up ‘internationalism’ as their
watchword can alone lead us to that cherished goal.

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At the very outset, let it be made clear that it is not the modern thinkers who are the first in the field to
think in terms of world unity and universal welfare. Long, long ago, in fact, long before so-called
modern age had set in, the seers and savants of this land had delved deep into this vital question. The
ideal of human unity, of a world free from all traces of conflict and misery, has stirred our hearts since
times immemorial. Our one constant prayer all thought the ages has been:
Media has a constructive role to play for the society. Today News Channels and even some Newspapers
are mouthpiece of some social issues, which helps us to estimate the realities of lives. It is the fact that
in most of the eras, media were not being given free and fair chances to explore the issues of society
more openly than it is being given now; but we can't deny this fact that the issues were always raised in
order to provide justice to the people.
The role of media in education and health sector is far more important Learning, nowadays, is not
limited anymore in terms of space, time, and medium as the use of media, especially internet, has
contributed a lot towards education than its role in the election campaigns. It's the job of the media to
show the true picture of the society. The growth of communications and education under the British,
in the 19th century, helped bringing the people of India together. The struggle for independence
generated a spirit of unity and nationalism amongst the people and a large contribution to this came
from the media, i.e. the newspapers. Media exposed the true face of British imperialism and colonialism,
and helped in creating awareness and consequent unity among Indians to fight the British. After
independence, the Indian media developed rapidly, including the radio, and then the television. Any
occurrence in any corner of the country immediately spreads all over through the media. The spreading
of news is not just the conveyance of information, but it also acts as a catalyst in creating identification
with the nation, its people, culture, and thoughts. In earlier days, not everyone was able to know what
exactly happened and the whole picture used to become clear after a much delay but with the wide reach
of media via Television and Internet, everyone gets the news instantly and easily evaluates the situation
by various means. It is unfortunate the most of the press is biased. They are projecting what they want
instead of projecting the reality. Access to people demands a very responsible behavior. Their role
should be to spread love instead of cultivating hatred, which is of no use. They have to play crucial rule
in educating the people and to provide them clear picture of what's going on in the world because
ignorance is a major problem. They should not over proportionate. Factual reporting is the essence of
journalism and if the press starts reporting facts there would be a lot of betterment in the society. These
are the major drawback that has to be tackled for the media to be active participants in the National
Integration process. Should we fail we might just see that same India which exist when the British East
India Company step in this land.
Conclusion
Journalists, as well as Media should be committed and self-dependable. They should express social
responsibilities that would invariably sustain the growth of micro ethno system in the nation, aid the
political terrain, and eliminate friction in human relationships and other sectors of the country. As the
watch dog of society, they are responsible to the people and can also help in the elimination of social
vices confronting humanity and National Integrity.

3.7 Role of media in Communal Harmony

Media has a responsible role in strengthening communal harmony
'The media is the most powerful entity on the earth. They have the power to make the innocent guilty
and to make the guilty innocent, and that's power. Events do not travel Reports do. And through this
they are able to influence the minds of the masses".
In the present times, with the advances in technology, the reach of all forms of media (print & electronic)
has become all-pervasive, wide and deep.

35
The mass media has become the single most potent medium to shape public opinion. It can vulgarize
or brutalize the society. Or it can help lift the society onto a higher level. A good and responsible media
is a nation talking to itself.
In a diverse country like ours, which has different hues and shades of cultures and diversities, the role
of media becomes all the more important.
The importance and need of communal harmony
Geography and history seem to have vied with each other in assigning
India the role of a crucible of cultural, linguist and religion interaction, and the
Indian people too have shown a proclivity for absorbing alien influences and giving them local colour
from ancient times. The traces of such cultural, linguistic and religious overlaps have been so
inextricably woven into the fabric of everyday life, that it is impossible to separate the strands of what
was once imported, from what is indigenous. The history of the land has always shown the adaptability
of the people to new elements, with no loss of the vital
Indian essence. The ideas, beliefs and institutions thus imported, have neither been accepted nor rejected
in their totality, but they have been assimilated with an ambience, which makes its culture, composite
in character. Communal harmony and national integration are the heart and soul of India.
In the current era, when India is marching ahead on the path of economic development and acquiring a
glorious place on the world stage, the need of the hour is, to preserve, promote and defend the secular,
pluralistic socialist and democratic values of our Constitution.
Media as a potent tool to promote Communal Harmony
To maintain and strengthen communal harmony, the society has to use different channels and mediums.
Media is one of the most potent and effective medium given its wide reach, effective delivery
mechanism and ability to mobilize public opinion.
Communal disharmony and conflicts are fuelled by fear, suspicion and hatred. The different channels
of media are the transmission channels through which fear, suspicion and hatred spread. Similarly, the
confidence, trust and sense of security also get transmitted through the same channels. Whatever be the
form, insecurity is perhaps the major cause of individual and social dissensions. We have not till now
had many instances, of societies or communities that are fully integrated and therefore fearless. The
societies and individuals must rise above fear, jealousy and hate. When such individuals combine
themselves into a community, the problem of communal jealousy and discord will disappear. The
positive assertive role of media to alley the fear, hatred end-suspicion is essential to generate communal
harmony.
The need for mobilizing like-minded people at the national level and creating among them an awareness
of the dangers involved in communal hatred and conflicts and of the need for joining hands and
protesting against such divisive and destructive forces is now strongly felt. This process needs to be
hastened by, finding ways and means to change the mindset of people from narrow religious, linguistic
and regional identity or allegiance to a broader identity of Indian ness. The biggest challenge is to merge
the religious, linguistic and regional identity into a national identity, while maintaining the other
identities and cultures. Media has the potential to play a very important role in bringing this change.
Media reporting in times of conflict
The reporting by the Media in times of conflict acquires all the more importance since events do not
travel. Reports do. It is the account or the image of an event that arouses passions among millions of
readers and TV watchers. The event is witnessed hardly by a score of persons. What form the image or
the report acquires is in the hands of the reporter.
Media reporting in times of harmony

36
Media being a channel having wide reach and penetration with high retention value and immense
potential to influence public opinion, the reporting in times of peace is a long term investment in keeping
intact the communal fabric of the country. During the harmony and tranquillity, the media owes the
responsibility of reporting the instances, endeavours and experiences of communal harmony with the
same fervour as they do in case of conflict.
This would go a long way in forging a sense of security, trust, comfort and belongingness among the
masses. This would be an invaluable investment in strengthening the communal harmony in the society.
The media should prominently carry reports, articles, documentaries, serials, films showcasing the
success stories in forging communal harmony.
What media should do
In the present time, when there is a deluge of 24 hour news channels, numerous newspapers, radio
channels, magazines etc, the journalists are vying with each other to churn out saleable news stories in
fiercely competitive market. Sometimes in pursuit of increasing the TRPs or readership, they tend to
sensationalize the news and lace the news with spice to attract more eyeballs.
Here the media construction of reality is far from truth and is detrimental to the fabric of communal
harmony. The media should refrain from doing this and strictly adhere to the principle of social
responsibility.

The regional media (regional news channels, newspapers and magazines) have to understand that they
have a big responsibility towards strengthening the communal harmony in the country. They should
strive to align the reporting of regional interests under the overall domain of the main stream national
interest because in addition to being their ethical responsibility their own long term interest lies in this
approach.
In this competitive era, every news channel and newspaper suffers from cover-it-all' syndrome. It so
happens that many news stories are constructed in the editors' room without really delving deep into the
facts and figures. This spells danger to the communal harmony and has the potential of raising the
tempers and hurting the feelings of people. They also tend to make stories out of nothing and nowhere
which do not have any news value. Newspapers are unable, seemingly, to discriminate between a
bicycle accident and the collapse of civilization. - George Bernard Shaw There should be a well-defined
set of rules and principles to report communally sensitive events and issues for the media which should
be strictly adhered to. Press Council of India already has a set of rules like glorification/ encouragement
of social evils to be eschewed, violence not to be glorified, and norms to be followed during covering
communal disputes/clashes, headings not to be sensational/provocative and must justify the matter
printed under them and norms regarding references Caste, religion or community. But the ambit of such
set of rules should be broadened and strict adherence to the same should be ensured. A similar set of
rules should be made for electronic media also.

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4. Ownership of Media, Content-Control
Who owns the mass media in India? That is a rather difficult question to answer. There are many media
organisations in the country that are owned and controlled by a wide variety of entities including
corporate bodies, societies and trusts, and individuals. Information about such organisations and people
is scattered, incomplete, and dated, thereby making it rather difficult to collate such information leave
alone analyse it. Nevertheless, a few salient aspects about media ownership stand out from the
inadequate information that is available.
The sheer number of media organisations and outlets often conceals the fact there is dominance over
specific markets and market segments by a few players – in other words, the markets are often
oligopolistic in character.
The absence of restrictions on cross-media ownership implies that particular companies or groups or
conglomerates dominate markets both vertically (that is, across different media such as print, radio,
television and the internet) as well as horizontally (namely, in particular geographical regions).
Political parties and persons with political affiliation own/control increasing sections of the media in
India.
The promoters and controllers of media groups have traditionally held interests in many other business
interests and continue to do so, often using their media outlets to further these. There are a few instances
of promoters who have used the profits from their media operations to diversify into other (unrelated)
businesses.
The growing corporatization of the Indian media is manifest in the manner in which large industrial
conglomerates are acquiring direct and indirect interest in media groups. There is also a growing
convergence between creators/producers of media content and those who distribute/disseminate the
content.
These trends can be perceived as instances of consolidation in a sector in which big players have been
steeped in debt and strapped for cash over the past few years. The shake-out also signifies growing
concentration of ownership in an oligopolistic market that could lead to loss of heterogeneity and
plurality. The emergence of cartels and oligarchies could be symptomatic of an increasingly globalised
but homogenized communication landscape, despite the growth of internet technology bringing about
a semblance of democratization by allowing for more user-generated content by “prosumers” (producer-
consumers). While the growth of the internet has led to a collapse of geo-spatial boundaries and lower
levels of gate-keeping in checking information flows, the perceived increase in diversity of opinion has
been simultaneously accompanied – paradoxically – by a shrinking in the number of traditional media
operations in television and print.

Understand the structure and ownership of the media sector

1) TYPES OF OWNERSHIP: PRIVATE OWNERSHIP
Advantages and Disadvantages of Private Ownership
An advantage of Private Ownership is that because the company is owned by you entirely, you receive
all the money that is earned.
A disadvantage of Private Ownership is that it isn’t better funded as a company funded by Public
Service, as Private Ownership doesn’t receive money from the public.
Example: SKY
2) TYPES OF OWNERSHIP: PUBLIC SERVICE
Advantages and Disadvantages of Public Service

38
An advantage of Public Service is that the public are funding the company meaning there is money to
fall back on.
A disadvantage of Public Service is that there is a responsibility to please the public by having what
they want, meaning the company doesn’t have much of a say.
Example: BBC
3) TYPES OF OWNERSHIP: MULTINATIONAL
Advantages and Disadvantages of Multinational Ownership
An advantage is that they increase the investment level and also the income and employment in the
host country.
A disadvantage is that taxes or tariffs imposed on imports from other countries.
Example: Disney the Walt Disney Company
4) TYPES OF OWNERSHIP: INDEPENDENT
Advantages and Disadvantages of Independent Ownership
An advantage is that there are no restrictions on who, how or where an entrepreneur should set up
his/her business. The freedom to do what one wants to do is the biggest advantage in this form of
business. It can be extremely fulfilling.
Because of the ease and flexibility of getting started, there can be a lot of competition in a particular
area for a certain type of customer. Every business decision rests on the owner(s). There is no branding,
no present guidelines and a great deal of risk in this business model.
Example: ITV is a commercial TV network in the United Kingdom. Launched in 1955 as Independent
Television under the auspices of the Independent Television Authority. ITV is a network of television
channels that operate regional television services as well as sharing programmes between each other to
be displayed on the entire network

5) TYPES OF OWNERSHIP: CONGLOMERATE

Advantages and Disadvantages of Conglomerate Ownership
An advantage is that a conglomerate creates an internal capital market if the external one is not
developed enough. Through the internal market, different parts of conglomerate allocate capital more
effectively.
A disadvantage is that there can be a lack of focus, and inability to manage unrelated businesses equally
well.
Example: A media conglomerate, media group or media institution is a company that owns large
numbers of companies in various mass media such as television, radio, publishing, movies, and
the Internet. An example of a Conglomerate is the BBC.
6) TYPES OF COMPANIES: HORIZONTAL INTEGRATION
Advantages and Disadvantages of Horizontal Integration
An advantages is that employees may attain greater satisfaction in a horizontal structure due to greater
freedom and autonomy.
A disadvantages is that the decentralized structure could lead to a "loose ship," as the team and project
leaders have high levels of responsibility for achieving results but little real authority over their team
members.

39
Example: The X Factor is a British television music competition to find new singing talent, contested
by aspiring singers drawn from public auditions.
7) TYPES OF COMPANIES: VERTICAL INTEGRATION
Advantages and Disadvantages of Vertical Integration
An advantage is that vertical organizations provide clear lines of authority and a tight span of control,
which can lead to high operating efficiency.
A disadvantage is that employees at the bottom of a vertical structure may feel less valued than those
higher up in the chain. Some employees may not relish the accompanying culture of politics, which
places heavy emphasis on pleasing the boss.
Example: Apple Inc. is an American multinational corporation headquartered in Cupertino, California,
that designs, develops, and sells consumer electronics, computer software, online services, and personal
computers. Its best-known hardware products are the Mac line of computers, the iPod, the iPhone, and
the iPad tablet. A vertical organization typically consists of a president or chief executive officer at the
top and a series of vice presidents who oversee specific functional areas such as marketing, finance and
manufacturing. As you move down the chain in each functional area, the level of authority and
responsibility decreases accordingly.
8) CROSS MEDIA DIVERGENCE
commonly defined as a drawing apart, as of lines extending from a common centre, the acquisition of
dissimilar characteristics by related organisms in unlike environments and a deviation from a course or
a standard. Similarly to the concept of convergence, divergence is frequently used within several
academic fields such as mathematics, optics, and biology.
9) SYNERGY
Is the term used to describe a situation where different entities cooperate advantageously for a final
outcome? Simply defined, it means that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. In media
economics, synergy is the promotion and sale of a product (and all its versions) throughout the various
subsidiaries of a media conglomerate e.g. films, soundtracks or video games.
****Note: Media content- control is the same as the theories of press****

4.1 Internal and external threats

Due to the enormous differences in the nature, the variety and the numbers of media; due to the
predominantly private, independent status of the ownership of hundreds of media and the news and
opinions they project; due to the scope for differing interpretations - --which could be equally sincere
even if they are at variance with official views --- of the actual internal and external threats, the role of
media in this context is variable and volatile, not singular and similar.

Unlike coverage of sports, music, drama and mundane, day-to-day events, the coverage of aspects of
internal and external threats requires a comprehensive appreciation of multiple factors. These include
the inter-dependency of some or all of such multiple factors, a recognition of historical determinants,
contemporary cross-currents, national, regional and global dimensions of these threats.
Unlike the pre-occupation of the news media with the immediate, the visible and the audible, the
approach to confronting internal and external threats has to identify what is truly important, what is not
necessarily fully or partially visible, or even audible, or indeed silent. These attributes of threats
qualities do not normally attract the relatively narrow focus of event-centric news media.

Non-news media such as cinema feature films, educative special interest media that focus on subjects
such as Nature, science, history and entertainment, are also relevant. Subtly, by degrees, or even openly
and explicitly, without being restricted by the immediacy of news events, such general media can

40
integrate into their content facets of threats that deserve the attention of their respective audiences either
on a permanent, long-term basis or periodically Such general media do project material related to
threats.

When we consider the private and independently-owned nature of media and along with this, the content
of such media conveyed by either their own full-time staff or by freelance contributors, the first feature
that requires note is whether the media in question are owned by individuals or organizations that are
exclusively dependent on media alone for their livelihoods. Or whether the elements that own one mass
medium e.g. newspapers also own TV channels, FM radio stations, etc. If they do so then their cross-
media ownership interests have an impact on the content of the different media within the same group.
For instance, the newspaper of a multi-media group will rarely, or never ever, make a critical or adverse
comment about the content of a TV channel owned by the same group. Indeed, the same newspaper
will publish every single day, sizeable advertisements promoting the programmes of the TV channel or
FM radio stations owned by the same.

4.2 Pressure on media

Journalists are professional people, trying to work within a code of professional ethics. As we saw in
the last chapter, this includes the need to be fair to all parties involved in any news story. However,
journalists cannot operate in a vacuum, doing what they think is right without pressures being put on
them. Journalists face pressure from a variety of sources, all trying to make the journalist behave in a
way which is not the way the journalist would choose. It is important that you try to resist all these
forms of pressure, as far as possible.
Employer
The employer pays salary to the media personal. In return, they expect to be the head behind how they
have the media persons lead their job. This may lead to unethical practices. If it is a government-owned
news organisation, then the government will be employer. This could make it very difficult for the
publishers to report critically on things which the government is doing. Ministers will often put pressure
on public service journalists to report things which are favourable to the government and not to report
things which are unfavourable to the government. They can enforce public service discipline, to make
journalists do as the government wants. This is especially difficult to resist in small developing
countries, where there may be little or no alternative employment. It is not only government-owned
media where such pressure exists, though.
Commercial media are paid for by a mixture of advertising and sales. To increase sales, newspapers,
radio and television stations sometimes sponsor sporting or cultural events, and then publicise them.
The employer may demand more coverage for the event than it is worth, in order to promote the event
as much as possible. Advertisers can also bring pressure to bear upon owners and editors. A big
advertiser may threaten to stop advertising unless you run a news report of something good which the
advertiser has just done; or, much worse, it may threaten to stop advertising unless the media house
ignores a news event which is unfavourable to the advertiser. Ideally, any news organisation should
dismiss such threats, and judge each story only on its news merits.
Threats
Many people think they can avoid bad publicity by threatening journalists with violence, or with legal
action. Such threats should always be resisted. If the threat was a threat of violence, then the editor
should seriously consider informing the police. It is usually a criminal offence to threaten violence
against somebody, and journalists are protected by such a law as much as anybody else.
If the threat is of legal action, then the editor's response will depend upon the facts of the case. The
editor should know the law well enough to judge whether or not to take the threat seriously. If he
suspects that there may be grounds for legal action, he should consult a lawyer. Then, if he finds that
he or his reporter is in the wrong, of course he should immediately set things right. If, however, he finds
that there is no basis for legal action, then he and his reporter can happily ignore the empty threat.

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Bribes
Columnists do not usually earn big money. They may therefore be vulnerable to bribery - somebody
offering money in return for a favourable story being written, or an unfavourable story being ignored.
To accept a bribe is dishonest. Media personal who are offered bribes will usually be offered them in
private. This is so that the person attempting the bribe can later deny that it ever happened.
Codes of ethics
In many countries media personal try to work within a professional code of ethics. This usually lays
down in simple, straightforward terms the kind of things they should and should not do. Typically such
codes contain rules about issues such as honesty, fairness, independence and respect for the rights of
other people such as interviewees, victims and readers or listeners.
In most free press democracies, the press codes of ethics are usually voluntary, perhaps monitored by a
professional association or journalist union. In such cases, the only real sanctions against publishers
who breach the codes are criticism from colleagues and perhaps loss of membership of the association
or union. In some cases media employers might use the journalist code of ethics to set standards for
journalists they employ, in which case breaches of the codes might lead to discipline or even sacking.
In some countries where the media are suppressed, the government may try to control what is written
or broadcast by imposing a code of ethics backed by law and policed by the authorities. These are like
any other laws in such countries; breaking them may lead to punishment, so it is up to journalists
themselves to decide whether to obey oppressive codes or follow the higher principles of journalistic
ethics and risk the consequences.
Tradition
In societies which are in rapid change from traditional to modern Western ways, there is often a clash
between the way in which things were done in the past and the way in which the profession says they
should be done now. For example, freedom of speech may itself be a recent imported concept.
Traditionally, it may be that only men of a certain rank had the right to express their views; or that
certain clans had the right to express their views on certain subjects; and it may have been the case that
very few people had the right to question a chief. All this is very different to a Western-style free Press,
in which everybody is encouraged to speak on every subject, and journalists, however junior, are
encouraged to cross-examine leaders, however senior.
Tradition will often be used as a weapon to pressure journalists into patterns of behaviour which go
against their professional ethics. Junior journalists and reporters should always report such instances to
their editor, and seek guidance.
The way forward will require careful thought. The professional ethics of journalists in your country
may still be developing. They will be influenced by professional journalists' ethics in other countries,
where journalism is more established; but they will also be influenced by the traditions of your society.
Out of a clash of cultures, a new culture may develop, suitable for your society in the modern world.
Only you, and other journalists in your society, can form these new ethical standards for your society;
and you must be prepared both to listen carefully to other points of view and to act according to your
judgment, while these new standards are emerging.
Personal conviction
Journalists may come under pressure from their own strong beliefs.
For example, a journalist who is deeply opposed to capital punishment may be writing a story about
crime. In the course of gathering the information, they may interview somebody who calls for the death
penalty as the answer to increasing crime. The journalist may be tempted not to report these comments,
and to leave the question of capital punishment out of the story. This would clearly be unethical.

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It is as bad to censor the news to suit your own views as it is to censor the news to please your family,
or clan, or tribe. This is contrary to the most fundamental principle of free speech - which we may
disagree with what somebody says, but that we must fight to defend their right to say it.
It is not only the things you really believe in which may cause problems. Some journalists accept
contracts to advertise products, as a way of earning some extra money. You must think carefully before
you do this.
If you are seen by your readers or listeners to be in favour of a particular product, they will not believe
that you are impartial if you later report a story about that or any rival products.
It is important for journalists to be impartial. You may know that you have no special liking for the
product which you advertised - you only did it for the money - but your readers or listeners will not
know that.

4.3 Media Regulations

Almost everyone relies on the media (sometimes known as the public watchdog) to learn about news
and hear debates. The media therefore has a central role to play in the freedom of information and
freedom of expression. Governments often dislike influential alternative or critical voices. Article 19
works to stop governments using regulation to capture, limit or control the media.
Press Regulation
The press or print media is one of the oldest and most widespread sources of information and debate.
While nothing can operate in a legal vacuum, Article 19 challenges oppressive governments which
consistently attempt to over-regulate the free press and undermine its independence, reliability and
diversity.
Broadcasting Regulation
Television and radio broadcasters are the greatest source of information, particularly for the poor.
Broadcasting spectrums (available wavelengths that can carry signals) are limited, unlike the printed
press, and they therefore need detailed regulation. Article 19 checks that governments do not use
regulation to their own advantage at the expense of the broadcast media’s independence, reliability and
diversity.
Licensing
In many countries, licences are required for publishing in print or for broadcasting, and journalists can
be required to get a licence to write. Article 19 confronts oppressive governments that use licensing
schemes to suppress alternative, critical or diverse opinions and ideas.
Broadcasting spectrums (available wavelengths that can carry signals) are limited and require licensing
to ensure the public can see and hear from a diverse range of broadcasters. Article 19 keeps a check on
governments that view licensing as an opportunity to further their own agenda at the expense of
independence, reliability and diversity.
Some governments require individuals to get a licence before working in the media, using the
justification that this will ensure their integrity. In most cases such licensing is used as a political tool
for governments to suppress alternative, critical or diverse voices.
Protection of Sources
The media depends on the protection of sources to ensure the anonymity of people who come forward
with information in the public interest. Article 19 confronts powerful forces such as oppressive
governments and organised criminals who will go to great lengths to stop such information coming out.
Concentration, Financial Regulation and Advertising

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In most countries, the media works in a commercial market and should be regulated like other
companies. However, Article 19 understands that commercial issues such as ownership, taxes, and
advertising revenue can all seriously undermine media independence and diversity.
Concentration: Individuals, companies and governments can form anti-competitive media monopolies
by purchasing a large proportion of the media in a country. Article 19 monitors situations where a
concentration of ownership will result in less diverse opinions or, worse, block the publication of
information that is in the public interest.
Financial regulation: The media, like any other company, should be held accountable by financial
regulation. Article 19 stops more oppressive governments using financial regulation to single out and
over-burden the media in order to undermine their independence.
Advertising: Advertising is a commercial part of the media which is affected by consumer and other
laws. Some governments attempt to restrict advertising or have large state-sponsored advertising.
Article 19 advocates that commercial information can sometimes be in the public interest and should
impart a range of opinions.

4.4 Media and issue of social class

(***I don’t think it’s the right answer (better than nothing) **)
People are shown throughout the media to have stereotypes attributed to them. These stereotypes can
then be broken up into different sectors. One of these is class, for example the class system: Lower
Class, Working Class, Middle Class, and Upper Class
Throughout the media, they are rarely seen to focus on the class structure to cause problems within
society, as some people believe. Some people think that most problems in society are caused by the
conflict inflicted by the class system. Some people think that the class system underpins society. This
is rarely shown through the mass media.
Monarchy (Nairn 1988) Nairn noted in 1988 that throughout the media, the monarchy (the highest class
within the system) are always shown positively. They are always given good media coverage in a
positive light. They cover most aspects of their life, and they ensure that they are adding a sense of
glamour, in order to provide the positive impression. They are also making people more interested in
them by not giving all information. This can also be seen as giving a sense of national identity, someone
for the country to look up to as their leader. Because of this the coverage of events including royalty,
become national events.
Representations of the Upper Class and Wealthy People sometimes argue that these people are shown
as at the top of the hierarchy within the media. They are shown to be deserving of their wealth and
status, for example they are celebrities or connected to royalty. They are rarely seen in a critical light,
and they are not seen to draw any reasoning for the inequalities between them and the public.
Newman (2006) Newman believed that the media focuses positively on wealthy people and the upper
class. He thinks that they focus too much on the consumer goods they have and things that are not
realistically in reach for the general public. They are things that they cannot afford. He also thinks that
they are over covered by the media, especially these areas.
Representations of the middle classes you can make four broad observations of the middle class: They
are over-represented on the media .Some forms of media are targeted solely at middle class, e.g. daily
mail. The media assumes that middle class people are worried about the lack of moral standards within
society, and they are proud of being British. This is why newspapers such as the Daily Mail focus on
these issues and news stories. Most of the creative workers in this media are middle class, they possess
the authority.
Representations of the working class Newman says that when the news is focusing on the working
class, they are trying to identify them as the problem, for example welfare cheats, drug addicts or
criminals. Groups such as mods or skinheads normally cause moral panics and other issues such as

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unemployment are the cause of individuals rather than the government policies. The media portrays
unreasonable workers instead of employers.
Curran and Seaton (2003) Newspapers that are aimed at the working class assume that the people who
read them are not interested in the more intellectual news, they are more interested in gossip, rather than
the news about the economy, markets, etc. When discussing political debates they simplify it, assuming
people of this class cannot understand it in the same way. They provide information to this class such
as gossip, celebrities and sport.

4.5 Media and poverty, development and public health(***Refer Class notes***)

Media a representation of poverty

“It can be argued that poverty is the most widespread and serious problem confronting the modern
world” . The number of people in the world who do not have basic human necessities such as food,
water and shelter is in the billions. These people do not have access to good education or healthcare;
services that add to one’s quality of life.
If billions of people are living in poverty and so many other people are spending most of their day using
mass media, isn’t is possible that mass media could play a significant role in the awareness and
resolution of worldwide poverty?
Poverty is a subject that has not been completely overlooked by the media. However, this does not mean
that the mass media industry has done all that it can to either help alleviate poverty or bring awareness
to the masses.
It is clear that mass media influence our values, attitude, culture, etc... With this kind of power, has the
mass media industry lived up to its full potential as a responsible and vital entity in the war against
poverty in respect to the global village.
Media for development

Be strategic about which outlets you target: As with all media, in development media it's important to
identify strategic insertion points for information and knowledge rather than simply broadcasting
everything to everyone in the hope that some of it 'sticks'. There are many media platforms available to
NGOs, academics and other development groups, and there is much to learn about how to make optimal
use of each – not just in terms of reaching a lot of people but reaching the right people.
Development media should not alienate those who aren't experts: Subsidy to public interest content,
such as development media, is becoming more important. The danger comes when the debate is limited
to people who share similar assumptions and language, and becomes alien to the public at large. One
of the key things media can do is crystallise and refresh development issues in ways that challenge
assumptions and existing language.
Media training is only useful in a healthy media environment: Often people who take media courses in
developing countries can't apply the skills they learn because the media environment doesn't exist for
them to do so. At BBC Media Action we have since changed our approach to focus more on co-
productions to help address this, but we need more support programmes for independent media.
Let developing communities speak for themselves: Addressing who actually does the talking in
communication for development should be at the core of this debate. More often than not what you see
is that voices of people directly affected by development issues in local communities get reduced to
testimonies or sources, and are lost in reports from foreign groups.
Media's potential to convey development issues well depends on a discerning audience
Journalists should address and overcome the limits to their reporting: Of course there are a bunch of
things to try to avoid in development coverage in the media, like dehumanising, over-simplifying and
so on. But a far more interesting and important question is "what are the factors which shape what I am

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able to report in the first place, and what can I do about them (if anything)?". There is no point being
aware of the pitfalls if you work in a context that doesn't allow you to avoid them.
Journalists should treat NGOs like any other news source: Journalists rarely show the same degree of
scepticism when using NGO sources as they would from other large institutions. More specifically,
journalists are often likely to report favourably on NGOs that house them, feed them and drive them
around on trips. This skews the coverage NGOs tend to have in the media in their favour, but doesn't
necessarily help in holding them to account for the work they do.
Media sponsorship works well so long as it doesn't influence content: The more awareness of
development issues the better, so sponsorship support to media platforms can be really valuable. But
it's crucial that debates about aid are not hijacked by powerful institutions that have a particular agenda.
Journalists must not suspend their critical faculties, and should continue to ask the right questions
irrespective of sponsorship ties.
NGOs could do a lot more to create media output than they do: Many NGOs produce their own material
but they only reflect on side of the story: their side. They must understand the potential of creating their
own media output to promote their work, the work of others and tell the stories that rarely appear in the
mainstream media. It's up to them, really, and there are many journalists who would be willing to help.
Both media groups and NGOs should question their assumptions more: Media exists to question not to
serve any interest, even if that interest is on the side of good. NGOs could do more to encourage the
media to support more challenging and nuanced stories about their work, even at the risk of looking
less than perfect. Before criticising the aid industry, journalists could do well to look at the pressures
NGOs face from major donors and ask some hard questions about how and why the aid industry is
increasingly politicised by governments.
Support local journalists to cater for local audiences: Local journalists in developing countries often
can't or won't report on things like aid distribution, because it's often tied up with local corrupt politics
and puts them at risk. NGOs could do more to engage with and help local reporters get to the bottom of
some good stories in their own patch, but they don't because they want global not local coverage. In
short, they want donors to be aware of their work above and beyond local audiences.
Media platforms should make complex development issues accessible to the public: An important role
of the media is to simplify development information but also to handle academic research without
underplaying its complexity. A good example of this being done well is this Guardian network, which
unites people from different parts of the world from multiple development perspectives, and stimulates
discussions.
Media and public health
The local and international media play a vital role as the link between health workers and the larger
public. Health authorities educate and entrust the media with essential health information, which is then
relayed to the public in readily accessible formats through a variety of media channels. For instance,
in order to disseminate information about the avian influenza to the wider public, the U.S. Government
tasked the Academy for Educational Development with the responsibility of developing a training
program to help the local media understand the complexity of this disease so that they would be able to
report about it effectively
The mass media helps health workers expand their audience reach, which is crucial considering the fact
that face-to-face channels of communication often require too many human resources and reach only a
small number of people in large, underserved rural areas. The mass media provides an important link
between the rural residents and vital health information.
The mass media, in the form of the radio and television, are an effective way to persuade target
audiences to adopt new behaviors, or to remind them of critical information. Besides informing the
public about new diseases and where to seek help, they can also keep the public updated about
immunization campaigns. The mass media can “empower rural populations to fight major causes of
infant mortality such as diarrheal dehydration and diseases which can be prevented through vaccination,

46
inform large numbers of people of seasonal or daily variations for such activities as an immunization
campaign or availability of a new product or service, teach new health skills such as how to mix oral
rehydration solution, promote new health behaviors such as taking ivermectin once a year, motivate ad
hoc or organized listening groups, and increase community acceptance of health workers.”
In places where radios are still popular, they can be used, with great success, as health communication
tools. Not only are they cheaper and more readily available in rural areas, their programs can also be
adapted to suit local needs in terms of language, culture and values. In Africa, radio spots or
advertisements are used to combat malaria.
As Internet access continues to expand, it will increasingly serve as a rich health resource in
environments that lack health expertise. Regardless of location, the Internet allows people to gain access
to a wide array of health-related information from worldwide at a mouse click. The local cyber café
may even begin to serve as a health information hub.Since the Internet transcends geographical barriers,
there is plenty of potential for websites to provide a valuable source of health information, thus
enhancing health and wellbeing for people in developing countries.
However, there is one important caution. As the amount of information grows at an unprecedented rate,
so does the amount of false, and potentially harmful information. Misinformation, either due to
inaccurate information, misleading information or misinterpretation of health information, can have
potentially dire consequences, triggering mass panics, misleading uninformed policy-makers etc.
The distribution of pamphlets and leaflets created by specialized health bodies can disseminate vital
health information reliably.
The decision to use a particular medium should be based on audience research rather than on
assumptions about its utility and audience reach.

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5. Media Credibility

Credibility refers to the objective and subjective components of the believability of a source or message.
Traditionally, modern, credibility, reliability has two key components: trustworthiness and expertise,
which both have objective and subjective components.
Every day people encounter more information than they can possibly use. Friends, colleagues, books,
newspapers, television, and Web sites are just a few of the resources and media contributing to the flow
of information. But all information is not necessarily of equal value. In many cases, certain information
appears to be superior, or more dependable than other information. The challenge that most people then
face is to judge which information is the more credible. Credibility is defined as judgments made by a
perceiver concerning the believability of a communicator. But others believe that this definition should
also include institutions as well as persons as communicators. This concept of credibility has been
dominant for the past 2,500 years. Aristotle advanced ethos, the Greek expression for source credibility,
as one of the three major ways by which speakers persuade audience members-ethos, logos, and pathos.

5.1 Factors effecting credibility of media

The credibility of the mass media is affected by three factors:

 Type of media: electronic media has sounds and images. It has broader contacts so there is
much stronger government supervision. It content is short, attractive and clean. This gives it
an edge over newspapers.
 Sensationalism and violence in content: accuracy, fair content and original in-depth opinion
will be much respected.
 Political stance
Despite massive growth in the Indian media industry, the lack of quality and diversity shows an
increasing disconnect with the real lives of people in the country and the most important issues they
face.
The media in India has grown into an economic giant, with a business turnover which exceeds one
percent of the country’s gross domestic product (GDP) and matches the economic size of many
individual industries in India. It is considered the world’s most dynamic media industry and one of the
fastest growing anywhere. The media’s worth is equivalent to half the value of India’s famously
successful computer software exports.
Prospering economically and growing influence in the public and political domain
For the past two decades, the Indian media business has clocked double-digit growth annually, which
clearly outpaces India’s GDP growth rate, which has itself risen from about 5 percent to almost 9 percent
a year. A recent report by the consultancy firm KPMG and the Federation of the Indian Chambers of
Commerce and Industry forecasts a growth rate for the media of 13-14 percent a year for the next five
years. Amazingly, India’s print media bucked a worldwide trend and has been growing at 10 percent-
plus a year. Last year, it grew by an estimated 26 percent.
This is a very different scenario from the state of the media in much of the world. In most developed
countries, the media has reached saturation point. The Western print media is especially badly off, with
falling revenues. It is shrinking as major newspapers lose money and circulation and cut staff and
coverage.
The media in India has played a disproportionate role in shaping public perceptions of politics, electoral
outcomes and the way power is exercised. As recent disclosures in the Radia tapes show, media
personalities increasingly rub shoulders with top-level politicians, industrialists and corporate lobbyists
and collude in making key government appointments and influencing policy decisions.

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In sharp contrast to the immense financial power and political clout of the Indian media stands its
indifferent—and generally declining—quality, reliability and authenticity, loss of diversity and
pluralism, shallowness in reporting and comment on serious issues, and systematic violation of
elementary norms of responsible journalism.
In recent years, the media has lowered the quality of India’s public discourse. Media expansion has led
to a shrinking of the public sphere, and spread of elitist and socially retrograde values. This is producing
a growing, and potentially grave, crisis of credibility. The low and falling quality of Indian journalism
is evident in a number of ways.
First, this country of 1.2 billion cannot claim to have a single magazine of ideas or literary journal of
international standards. Nor does it publish a significant number of influential newspapers which are
independent of corporate cartels. There is very little diversity in the range of social and political views
expressed in the mainstream media.
Second, the media no longer adequately performs the primary functions it is meant to, which give it
public legitimacy: namely, informing the public, telling the truth, analysing complex social, economic
and political processes, providing a platform for public debate, and acting as the people’s watchdog or
conscience.
Tunnelvision
Third, despite rapid globalisation and the opening up of Indian society and culture to international
influences, the Indian media remains extremely insular. There is remarkably paltry coverage of
international issues, events, institutions and processes. There is an unhealthy obsession with the United
States, and very little space for major emerging countries like China, Brazil and South Africa.
Thus, only about half-a-dozen newspapers, all of them in English, have correspondents in any of the
major capitals of the world. Only one, The Hindu, has full-time correspondents in Washington, Beijing,
Moscow, London and Paris. The rest depend on news agencies, or at best, part-time stringers. Even
when a major event occurs—the Iraq war, the Egyptian “revolution” or the Fukushima disaster—Indian
newspapers and TV channels (despite their huge budgets) do not bother to send reporters to cover it. At
best, there may be desultory, cursory coverage for a couple of days.
The coverage of the South Asian region—in which India is located in a larger-than-life way, with which
it shares so much, and on which its own social climate and security depends—is abysmally shoddy.
Within this coverage, there is a pathological preoccupation with Pakistan. This has less to do with
understanding the complex social and political processes under way there than with gloating over
Pakistan’s problems and its difficult relationships with the US, Afghanistan and Iran. At any rate, there
are only two full-time Indian reporters in Pakistan. Once, there were five.
No Indian newspaper has full-time correspondents in all the major regional countries—Pakistan,
Bangladesh, Afghanistan, Nepal and Sri Lanka. The Hindu scores better than other papers here too, but
it still has no correspondent in Afghanistan, which is a cauldron of conflict and war, and also a crucible
where world history is being made.
This is galling because there is at least one highly experienced and respected freelance journalist based
in Kabul, who is an Indian. (At one time, there were three, writing mainly for Western papers). By
contrast, The New York Times has three reporters covering Afghanistan. Other major Western dailies
have one or more reporters based there.
Many Indian newspapers are immeasurably richer than The New York Times, which has run into losses.
But they are just not interested in the war and political developments in Afghanistan and the complex
relationships emerging between the US, the Karzai government, various Taliban groups, the Pakistani
state, Iran and India. These relationships will determine the future of how the West views “radical” and
“moderate” Islam and conducts the “war on terror”.
Loss of diversity and quality

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Fourth, the Indian media on the face of it has tremendous diversity, with the world’s second-largest
press (print) market, some 1,500 TV channels (the fourth largest number in the world), of which 250 or
so are news channels (probably the highest number anywhere), 80-85 million Internet users, and a
growing number of radio stations.
The press is printed in 123 languages and dialects. The highest number of newspapers and magazines
are issued in Hindi—24,927; the second place is taken by the English-language press—9,064. The state
with most print media is Uttar Pradesh—with 9,885 newspapers. The largest-circulated Indian daily is
Dainik Jagran, with 55.7 million readers, probably the largest in the world. Second in rank is Dainik
Bhaskar with 44.9 million readers. These papers are among the lowest-quality publications anywhere,
with minimal news value.
However, in recent years, the print media has witnessed loss of diversity, a process of concentration,
mergers and acquisitions, and emergence of huge conglomerates, especially in Indian languages, with
20, 30, even 43 editions. This is squeezing out small independent papers both through competition for
advertising revenue and through predatory pricing. The average issue price of Indian newspapers is
remarkably low: a national average of Rs 2.30 on weekdays and Rs 3 on Sundays. The actual recovery
from sales, after deducting commissions for distribution, is well under Rs 2 per copy.
However, it costs Rs 6 to 10 to produce a newspaper of between 14 and 24 broadsheet pages (excluding
supplements, etc.). Since circulation revenues can only meet a fraction of this cost, newspapers become
dependent on advertising to make up the bulk of the expenses necessary for survival. This has
dangerously unhealthy consequences for media independence and diversity. Growing dependence on
advertising means less and less autonomy from the corporate interests which buy advertising space or
time.
This is only one malady that afflicts the Indian media. Other serious disorders lie in the conscious
dumbing down of news coverage; trivialisation of important social processes and events; warped
priorities in reporting national and world affairs; downgrading and contraction of space for serious
analysis, interpretation and comment; an unhealthy obsession with celebrities; growing sensationalism
(ubiquitous in television, but now rapidly spreading in print); and reliance on hearsay and unverified
reports.
Even worse is the mainstream media’s self-assigned role as the outriders of “free market” or neoliberal
policies—as if the immediate post-Soviet era had not ended, and under-regulated capitalism had not run
into a grave financial crisis and the Great Recession since 2008. Editors are now appointed less for their
journalistic talent, erudition or news sense than for their “contacts” in high places and ability to “fix”
deals.
Bias, censorship and selective exclusion
This is, admittedly, a pretty damning list of flaws. But no less disturbing are: editorialising in the news
pages; heavy slanting of headlines and photo captions; censorship of views critical of ruling orthodoxies
and of stories written from the standpoint of the underprivileged and the vulnerable; and blacking out
of the coverage of unconventional, radical or non-mainstream movements and organisations (including
campaigns for peace, human rights, global justice, or sexual equality).
Even more unconscionable is the blatantly partisan support in large sections of the media for ultra-
Right-wing and religious-exclusivist political grouping like the Bharatiya Janata Party, marginalisation
of readers’ opinion columns, and a systematic refusal to admit, and correct, errors of fact.
The media, as it exists and is evolving today, is simply not designed or meant to report on the existing
reality of Indian society or inform the public on the economic and political processes at work in it,
including shifts in social values and in the balance of power between different groups, and new forms
of political competition—leave alone promote a comprehension of the complex social dynamics that
are shaping decision-making structures and India’s changing relations with the rest of the world.
Perhaps the most telling comment on the Indian media lies not in the stories it has done, but in the
stories it has missed or killed. These include the death of 8,000 schoolchildren in Maharashtra, the

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millions of girls who go missing thanks to the spreading practice of female foeticide, and the suicides
of two lakh farmers over the past 12 years.
To be fair, it is not that the media never carried these stories. It did—reluctantly, belatedly, half-
heartedly, sloppily, following many entreaties by the concerned investigators, or after the issue had
already figured in the national or state legislature. It did not originate them, as it should have. These
important facts, which speak of dysfunctions in the deepest interstices of Indian society, were unearthed,
noted, discovered, compiled, collated and disseminated by others.
Disconnect
The mainstream journalistic paradigm in the Indian print media (with a few honourable exceptions) is
shockingly insensitive to the real concerns of flesh-and-blood people, especially the vast majority of
Indians who are poor and underprivileged. Its principal—and matter-of-factly stated—aim is to promote
the “feel-good” factor and “pump sunshine” into the life of the consumerist elite.
Headlines in most papers show strong biases: e.g. telecom is “liberated” (i.e. recklessly privatised, with
harmful consequences, as in the 2G scam), and imports of 1,400 items are “freed” (to promote
unregulated imports which could ruin millions of farmers).
What takes the cake is the memorable headline: “India, Beauty Superpower of the world, wins the Miss
Universe crown”. This is when Indian women have worse malnutrition levels than women in sub-
Saharan Africa—after two decades of agrarian distress, economic collapse, ethnic conflict, civil war
and famine in that continent. What matters is not the truth, but the “feel-good” factor, the daily dose of
steroids the Indian elite so desperately needs—and gets—through the media.
These trends highlight the Indian media’s increasingly conservative and retrograde character in a period
which demands a radical review of conservative approaches, and exploration and examination of
alternative options to policies that are failing, ideologies that are proving bankrupt, and mindsets that
are patently sterile.
The Indian media now faces a serious crisis of credibility. If it does not reform itself, it will find its
greatest asset getting rapidly devalued and eventually vanishing. Robbed of authenticity, reliability and
credibility, the media will cease to matter to large numbers of people except as a source of cheap
entertainment and titillation. Journalism will then cease to be all that makes it worthy and socially
relevant: an honest, investigative, analytical, public-oriented and ethical pursuit.
That would be a grave tragedy and a terrible disservice both to democracy and to the causes of
enlightening and empowering the public

5.2 Media Performance (**just the definition**)

The main purpose of Media Performance is to "set out and examine the record of a particular, though
very broad, tradition of enquiry into the working of the mass media in their potential `public interest'
capacity" (p. 11). Denis McQuail takes on the task of reviewing how media performance has been
assessed in the past, and how it could be assessed in the future, using revised "public interest" criteria.
The "main principles at stake" in media performance, according to McQuail, coincide with the core
values of Western societies: freedom, equality, and order. The "public interest" is best served when
freedom, equality, and order are maximized. Media Performance reviews past research about such
issues, and suggests lines of future research. McQuail also discusses methods of performance research,
noting that different questions require different methods. Since so much of media performance is
contextual, McQuail favours in-depth case studies as a research method. He questions the ability of the
more quantitative methods of content analysis and surveys to produce important information.

5.3 More info on credibility

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Curiosity is a human nature and hence people turn to different sources of information to satisfy their
hunger. As the centuries pass by, more and more information is being available, whether through word
of mouth, traditional media, or through mainstream digital media. Open data is the new source of
information that provides people with the opportunity to have access to a wide network of knowledge,
which they can use to their advantage. Having easy access to all this knowledge empowers citizens to
be aware of their surroundings, be critical thinkers and civic developers, and be able to make sound and
clever decisions about their life and community. In terms of civic engagement, open data helps highlight
issues and problems which matter to the people of a community and brings them into the public light
for consideration. It also facilitates finding solutions to these problems by being creative, critical
developers and applying innovative thinking to already existing data.
However this is not the case all the time. First and foremost, data is not always available in its filtered
form and most data out there is raw. Not all information is credible and originates from a reliable source.
Hence, people fall into the trap of being mislead, which prevents them from making critical analysis
and finding solutions to their community‟s problems. People are not always protected from the fake
information and usually rely on it without verifying it.
Other times, there is too much information out there that people do not know which information to take
and which to discard. An example of this would be the case of Wikileaks, where a vast amount of
governmental information that was considered private, was leaked for the public. (Wikileaks,
2010) People and media were exposed to this vast amount in a short time and they had no idea how to
process it. In order to evaluate such raw data and information, people need to be more media literate.
Credibility of media and the information it releases, poses a major question to the people when there is
an open data of information out there. To what extent is the information out there true? To what extent
do media illiterate people get affected by false information out there? With this fast digital moving age
and with the time constraints that are present on getting the information out, people are turning towards
the broadcast media outlets and depending on them for their news information and for their daily
updates about their communities and their world around them. If this information has the potential of
being false, then imagine all the decisions taken on the basis of this and the effect on these people. News
media is considered one of the most reliable sources of information, especially when it comes to the
events that affect the life of an individual. Political events, economic events, and social events often
shape a person‟s life, hence it is important to have access to the most accurate and true information.
Since their advent, news agencies and publishing houses around the world have been trying to provide
a factual account of the events that happen in a community and that have the power to affect a citizen‟s
life. With the initiation of internet as a tool to reach a bigger group of people, by the news outlets, an
effort was being made to bring the same level of accuracy to this new medium.
However, as the speed and spread of internet increased, so did the consumption of news by the public.
Social media became another tool to dispense and consume this valuable information to and by the
general population. Hence, the regulation of the information that was being made public and that was
accessible to a large group of people became weak. As citizens became journalists, the practice of
verifying each and every fact that goes online, lost its importance. Twitter, Facebook, Reddit and blogs
became sources of information, not only for the public but also for the mainstream media. Mainstream
media and social media can often be seen interacting with each other to dispel all this information
around the world in real time.
With all this information presented, it leads us to question the credibility of the information and news
presented to us by the media. If a disaster happens or a crisis breakouts and information is flowing from
different directions continuously and un- relentlessly, it is hard to monitor the truthfulness of
information and hence its credibility is jeopardized. As a result, this false information is internalized by
the citizens and taken as the truth which might lead to unintended reactions.

5.4 Paid news

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Paid news or paid content are those articles in newspapers, magazines and the electronic media, which
indicate favourable conditions for the institution that has paid for it. The news is much like
an advertisement but without the ad tag. This kind of news has been considered a serious malpractice
since it deceives the citizens, not letting them know that the news is, in fact, an advertisement. Secondly,
the payment modes usually violate tax laws and election spending laws. More seriously, it has raised
electoral concerns because the media has a direct influence on voters.
Paid news is a complex phenomenon and has acquired different forms over the last six decades. It ranges
from accepting gifts on various occasions, foreign and domestic junkets, various monetary and non-
monetary benefits, besides direct payment of money. Another form of paid news that has been brought
to the notice of the Press Council of India by the Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI is in
the form of “private treaties” between media companies and corporate entities. Private treaty is a formal
agreement between the media company and another non-media company in which the latter transfers
certain shares of the company to the former in lieu of advertisement space and favourably coverage.
Since the phenomenon of paid news is old, complex and deep rooted in the system and seems to be
spreading its cancerous roots rapidly as observed after the 2009 elections, the Drafting Committee feels
that the Press Council of India should initially focus only on the paid news observed during the last Lok
Sabha elections (2009). This decision stems from the decision of the Press Council as conveyed by the
Secretary to the Council members.
Election-time paid news
The election-time paid news phenomenon has three dimensions. One, the reader or the viewer does not
get a correct picture of the personality or performance of the candidate in whose favour or against he
decides to cast his vote. This destroys the very essence of the democracy. Two, contesting candidates
perhaps do not show it in their election expense account thereby violating the Conduct of Election
Rules, 1961 framed by the Election Commission of India under the Representation of the People Act,
1951. Third, those newspapers and television channels which received money in cash but did not
disclose it in their official statements of accounts, have violated the Companies Act 1956 as well as the
Income Tax Act 1961 besides other laws. The payment and receipt of election-time paid news is a
clandestine operation and has become widespread and organised as advertising agencies, public
relations firms, politicians, journalists, managers and owners of some media companies are believed to
be involved in it. It, therefore, is not easy to find clinching evidence that pins responsibility on
individuals, parties and organisations. However, a number of persons including members of the Sub-
Committee setup by the Council have collected a large volume of circumstantial evidence that is with
the Press Council, which indicates that monetary consideration was exchanged for favourable coverage,
reporting and telecasting.
Separating Management from Editorial
Going through the observations of persons with whom the Sub-Committee interacted and the evidence
provided by them and the discussions in the Press Council it is felt that election-time paid news deals
are done between the candidates or political parties or their agents and media. It was felt that there
should be a clear distinction drawn between the managements and editorial staff in media companies
and that the independence of the editor should be maintained and safeguarded.
Role of Press Council
The Press Council of India was set up by Parliament as a statutory, quasi judicial body “for the purpose
of preserving the freedom of the Press and of maintaining and improving the standards of newspapers
and news agencies in India.” However, it has been entrusted with only limited powers to admonish,
reprimand and pass strictures. It cannot penalise the errant or those found guilty of malpractices.
Besides, the Council’s mandate does not extend beyond the print medium.

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