VARIATION AND NATURAL SELECTION

Genetic variation – differences in individuals of the same species which is caused by

differences in their genetic make-up. These differences are inherited

Environmental variation – differences in individuals of the same species which is

caused by the influence of the environment on the phenotype of the individual.
These variations are not inherited.

Genetic variation may be continuous or discontinuous.

Continuous variation – the differences between individuals are slight and merge into
each other. This leads to a wide range of characteristics ranging from one extreme
to another. These characteristics (features) are controlled by polygenic inheritance
i.e. a number of genes interact to produce them.

E.g. height in humans, human foot size, leaf size etc.

Discontinuous variation – the differences are usually large and clear cut. There is no
merging or blending. Individuals fit exactly into one group or another.

E.g. human blood groups, tongue-rolling etc.

Importance of genetic variation

Allows organisms to adjust to and survive in changing environments. If there was no

variation then all the organisms of a particular species would die if there
environment changed significantly.

Mutations

Mutations arise from changes in the DNA of a cell. These changes may occur in the
genes (structure of the chromosome) or in the number of chromosomes in an
organism. Most mutations are harmful. If the mutation occurs in a somatic cell it will
affect only the organism. However if it occurs in a gamete then it will be passed on
to the next generation.
Mutations occur randomly and may have natural or artificial causes. They give rise
to structural, functional or behavioural alterations that reduce an individual’s
chances of surviving and reproducing.

DNA codes for the sequence of amino acids along polypeptides and ultimately the
characteristics of an organism. Each amino acid is coded for by a group of three
bases (triplet) on the DNA. E.g. TTC codes for lysine. A change in this sequence e.g.
TTA would now code for asparagine.

Neutral mutations have no effect on the body. The change in base sequence
brought about by the mutation has no effect on the protein produced or the change
is not significant to the survival of the organism. E.g. earlobe attachment.

Causes of mutations

Mutations tend to occur randomly in a very small percentage of the population.

Mutations may also be caused by mutagens. These are substances which increase
the frequency of mutation e.g. X-rays, UV rays, chemicals such as food
preservatives, caffeine, formaldehyde, tar in tobacco etc

Natural mutations are caused by natural radiation in the environment.

Types of mutation

Point or gene mutation – a change in a small section along a chromosome e.g.

addItion, deletion, or inversion these are called frameshift mutations as they cause
a shift in the triplet reading frame, altering every set of three bases that follow
them in the sequence.

Addition – a new triplet is added e.g. TTA CCG GCC ATC is changed to CCG TTA CCG
GCC ATC or only one base is added e.g. TTA CCG GCC ATC to ATT ACC GGC CAT C
(A added at the start of the sequence)

Deletion – A base or triplet is deleted from the sequence e.g. TTA CCG GCC ATC is
changed to TTA GCC ATC or TTA CCG CCA TC (G was deleted from triplet 3)

Inversion – the sequence of a triplet is reversed e.g. TTA CCG GCC ATC can be
changed to TTA CCG GCC CTA

Substitution – one base replaces another e.g. TTA CCG GCC ATC to TTA CCG GAC
ATC

Translocation – a short base sequence breaks off of one chromosome and attaches
to another

Examples of mutations:
Gene mutation – e.g. sickle cell anaemia. A mutation in a gene causes changes in
haemoglobin which causes red blood cells to become sickle shaped. The sickle
shaped red blood cell cannot carry oxygen very efficiently which is its disadvantage.

Chromosome mutation – e.g. Down’s syndrome. An extra chromosome in the

person’s cells causes the person to be retarded as well as showing specific physical
characteristics.

Natural selection

There is a constant struggle for survival among organisms. Only those that are best
suited to their environment will survive to maturity and pass on their genes to the
next generation. The advantageous characteristic that these organisms have will be
passed on to their offspring and enhance their chances of survival.

Natural selection provides the mechanism for one species to slowly change into a
new species, a process known as evolution.

Key features:

• Individual organisms of populations are not identical, and can vary in both
genotypes and phenotypes

• Some organisms survive in their environment other organisms die, effectively

being deleted from the gene pool

• Surviving organisms go on to breed and pass their genes to their offspring

• This increases the frequency of the advantageous genes in the population.

Selective pressure

A selective pressure is a factor which has a direct effect on the numbers of

individuals in a population. E.g in the recent drought a lack of rainfall caused the
grass to dry up. With little food many herbivores died e.g. grasshoppers. The
selective pressure is the lack of food and the effect is reduction in the number of
herbivores.

Species (brown grasshoppers) which are best adapted to this new environment
(brown grass) will survive and reproduce passing on the advantage (brown colour)
to their offspring which will then have a better chance of survival.

New genes can appear in a population as a result of mutation (note this occurs by
chance). If the new characteristic has some advantage then natural selection will
act on it selecting for organisms with that characteristic (gene). Changes in gene
frequency will eventually lead to an increase in this characteristic and organisms
being “adapted” to their environment.

E.g. Peppered moth

There is a white form and a black form of these moths in England. Before 1850 the
pale form was more prevalent because it was well camouflaged among the lichen
on the barks of the trees. The dark form was highly visible to its predators and
therefore did not survive to maturity. After the industrial revolution however,
pollution caused the barks of the trees to turn dark. This afforded greater
advantage to the dark form of the moth while the pale ones were more easily seen
and eaten. In unpolluted areas of the country the pale form remained as the
majority of the population. With recent decreases in the levels of pollution the
numbers of the pale form are again increasing.

Antibiotic resistance

When an antibiotic is used on a population of bacteria most of them will die. But
there will be a few that are naturally resistant to the antibiotic and these will
survive. The resistant bacteria will then reproduce to produce a population of
resistant bacteria. This is a growing problem due to the wide use and overuse of
antibiotics.

Types of Natural selection

Natural selection can take many forms. To make talking about this easier, we will
consider the distribution of traits across a population in graphical form. In we see
the normal bell curve of trait distribution. For example, if we were talking about
height as a trait, we would see that without any selection pressure on this trait, the
heights of individuals in a population would vary, with most individuals being of an
average height and fewer being extremely short or extremely tall. However, when
selection pressures act on a trait, this distribution can be altered.

Figure%: The standard distribution of a trait across a population

Stabilizing selection

When selective pressures select against the two extremes of a trait, the population
experiences stabilizing selection. For example, plant height might be acted on by
stabilizing selection. A plant that is too short may not be able to compete with other
plants for sunlight. However, extremely tall plants may be more susceptible to wind
damage. Combined, these two selection pressures select to maintain plants of
medium height. The number of plants of medium height will increase while the
numbers of short and tall plants will decrease.

Figure%: The effect of stabilizing selection on trait distribution

Directional selection

In directional selection, one extreme of the trait distribution experiences selection

against it. The result is that the population's trait distribution shifts toward the other
extreme. In the case of such selection, the mean of the population graph shifts.
Using the familiar example of giraffe necks, there was a selection pressure against
short necks, since individuals with short necks could not reach as many leaves on
which to feed. As a result, the distribution of neck length shifted to favor individuals
with long necks.
 Figure%: The effect of directional selection on trait distribution

Disruptive Selection

In disruptive selection, selection pressures act against individuals in the middle of

the trait distribution. The result is a bimodal, or two-peaked, curve in which the two
extremes of the curve create their own smaller curves. For example, imagine a
plant of extremely variable height that is pollinated by three different pollinators,
one that was attracted to short plants, another that preferred plants of medium
height and a third that visited only the tallest plants. If the pollinator that preferred
plants of medium height disappeared from an area, medium height plants would be
selected against and the population would tend toward both short and tall, but not
medium height plants. Such a population, in which multiple distinct forms or morphs
exist is said to be polymorphic.

Figure%: The effect of disruptive selection on trait distribution

Taken from http://img.sparknotes.com

Artificial selection
This is where humans select the organisms with characteristics useful to him for
breeding. Only those organisms with this desirable characteristic are allowed to
produce offspring. Through this process man has been able to develop varieties
with specific to his needs from wild organisms.

The aim of artificial selection is to produce plants and animals with:

High yield

Improved quality

Reduced production costs

Faster growth rates

Greater resistance to disease

E.g. selecting varieties of roses for their perfume and/or colour

Selecting fruits and vegetables with brighter colours or better flavour e.g. carrots
with brighter orange colour

Selecting cows which produce more milk or meat