Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
r should
t I Festival:Definition and Morphology
rrea and AlessandroFalassi
:rlooked
I'hey are
r articles
articles
rold van
Mesnil,
pproach
I social
esult in
hed and
;orously
Tls may
eries of
emerg-
shed in
rts.
for the
retoric,
are pi-
. mean-
a given
;uch as
I
utlook,
rrelim- Festivalis an event, a social phenomenon,encounteredin virtually all human cultures.
The colorful variety and dramatic intensity of its dynamic choreographicand aesthetic
classic aspects, the signs of deep meaning underlying them, its historical roots and the
nd and involvement of the o'natives"have always attracted the attention of casual visitors,
central have consumed travelers and men of letters alike. Since the last century, scholars
but the from disciplines such as comparative religion, anthropology, sociology, and folklore
n. have concernedthemselveswith the description, the analysis, and, more recently, the
:holars interpretationoffestivities. Yet little explicit theoretical effort has been devoted to the
ge the nomenclatureof festive events orto the definition of the wmfestiual. As a result, the
rching meaning of festiual in the social sciences is simply taken from common language,
Marin, where the term covers a constellation of very different events, sacred and profane,
At the private and public, sanctioning tradition and introducing innovation, proposing nos-
arbara talgic revivals, providing the expressive means for the survival of the most archaic
r book folk customs, and celebrating the highly speculative and experimental avant-gardes
of the elite fine arts.
Etymologically the term festiual derives ultimately from the Latin festum. But
2 I AL[ssANt)lto
]Al.ASSr
originalll' l,!tirr had two terms for festive events: ,.public joy,
festum, for merriment,
rt'vt'frv." .od.fi'ria, meaning"abstinencef.om work in honor
of th" goir.l, Both terms
nrrrt' trntttlirr the plu-*I, festa and
feriae, which indicates that at that time festivals
rllrr:atlylastedmany days and included many eveltts. In classical
Latin, the two terms
tt'rrrl.dto becomesynonyms,as the two typr:s'f ev.rrts te.ded
to merge.r
l'rom festa derived the Italian
/i:srn (pl. festel, rhe l.rench F*"tpl. f6tes) and
festiual(udj.),theSpanish
fiesta(pl. jusuol",tlrc I'ortuguese
festa,irr"niiaai" rrigri"l,
feste,feste d,ai,festial thenfestittal, at fir*r an adj,:t,tive events and then a
noun denotingthem. "onooting
Feria (pl'
"f"'fu! had a r*'nrnntit:inplication rf lack, intermission,and absencethat
remainedin the origirral.rnetninr of the ltalianferia(abstinence
from work in honor of a
saint),.ferie(l irne away.fnxn worl), andgiorni (days
feriali of absence of ."ligiou"
m<rnies) nr well ns ilt tlte m*dieval/eriae (truce), ""..-
feriae"matricularurn (festii.,r*utio.,
for llniverxity*lutlente]'rrndthe Spanish/'as (daylf rest in honor
of a saint).The meaning
of "etnPtv"{rrlrit'h coukl l* taken to indicate that festival is
the resoundingcage of cul-
lyre) r+ueInt*r joinal nnd o-vershadowed by the festive events that progressivelyfilled such
doy* rrf"re*l fnrm.""l'husferiabecame the term for market
and expositionof commercial
;rnxluce,sur:hasin the Portuguesefeira,the Spanishrfe ria, thehalianfera,the old French
.fi:ire, thurfoire, and the Old Englishfaire, thenfair.
Other secondarymeaningsof thesetwo baslc terms indicate
in different languages
fnrms of festive behavior or segmentsof festivals, such
asrfeas t andfestinefor an abun-
dant formal meal, the Sp anish
ftesta for public combat or krright" to show their ability and
valor, the Latinfesta fo-rsacredofferings,the Rumani
unprTo ior..prank,,,or the Italian
festa and the Frenchpe for "birrhday celebrarion,,or:i;;t ..warm
welcome.,,2
In contemporaryEnglish, festival means (a) a sacred
o.'p.of".r. time of celebra-
tion, marked by special observances;(b) the annual
celebration of a notable person
or event, or the harvestof an important product; (c)
a cultural event consi.ti"g of,
series of performancesof works in the fine arts, often
devoted to a single artfst or
genre; (d) a fair; (e) generic gaiet!, conviviality,
cheerfulness.3Similar common-
languageuses are to be feiunrJin all Romanc" lrnguagru.
As for the social sc:ienceg,the clefinition that cai' be
inferred from the works of
scholarswho have deelt with festival while ntudying
social una .itu"t eventsfrom the
viewpoint 'f various disciplines euch as
religion, anthropology, social
psychology,folklore, and so<:i'logyindicates "u.pu.utiu,
tirat festival clmmonly ^i^rJo'p"rroa_
ically recurre.nt, social occasionii which, through o
^utupi;rrty of forms and, a series
of coordinated euenr.s,participate d,irectly or lndirectty
ind, to aarious d,egrees,all
membersof a whoLecommunity, united by ethnic, linguistic,
religious, historical bond,s,
and sharing a worlduiew. Both the social function "u'd
th" rl-mri" meaning oi irr"
festival are closely related to a series of overt values
that the community recognizes
as essentialto its ideologyand worldview, to its_social
identity, its historical contiiruity,
and to its physical survival, which is ultimately what
f""tiuui celebrates.a
II
Scholars have defined various types of festival, relying
mainly on the sacred/
secular dichotomy first discussed by burkheim. This
is more a theoretical than a
practicaldistinction, since each type usually includes
elements of the other, even if
Festiual:Definition and Morphology | 3
'riment, secondaryand subordinate. Religious festivals have evident secular implications, and
h terms secular ones almost invariably resort to metaphysics to gain solemnity and sanction
'estivals
for their eventsor for their sponsors.Another basic typological distinction that is often
o terms made draws upon the setting of the festival, opposing rural to urban festivals. Rural
festivals are supposedly older, agrarian, centered on fertility rites and cosmogony
es) and myths, while the more recent, urban festivals celebrate prosperity in less archaic
English forms and may be tied to foundation legends and historical events and feats. Another
then a typology can be based on power, class structure, and social roles, distinguishing
amongfestivals given by the people for the people, those given by the establishment
rce that for itself, and those held by the people for the establishment, by the establishment
nor of a for the people, and by the people against the establishment.s
rs cere- Festivebehaviorhas also been studied as a whole complex with one basic symbolic
acation characteristic. While some scholars have indicated as most important the symbolic
reaning inversion, the topsy-turvy aspect apparent in festivals such as the Roman Saturnalia
of cul- or the Feastof Fools, others have insisted on the similarities betweendaily and festive
:d such behavior, stressingthat the latter parallels the former but with a more stylized form
nercial
and with greatly increased semantic meaning'
French
The two approachesare not mutually exclusive. If we consider that the primary
and most generalfunction of the festival is to renounce and then to announce culture,
guages
to renew periodically the lifestream of a community by creating ne\{ energy, and to
r abun-
give sanctionto its institutions, the symbolic means to achieve it is to representthe
ity and
primordial chaos before creation, or a historical disorder before the establishment of
Italian
the culture, society, or regime where the festival happens to take place.
Such representationcannot be properly accomplished by reversal behavior or by
:lebra-
rites of intensification alone, but only by the simultaneous presence in the same
person
festival of all the basic behavioral modalities of daily social life, all modified-by
rgofa
distortion, inversion, stylization, or disguise-in such a way that they take on an
tist or
especiallymeaningful symbolic character. Consequently,both symbolic inversion and
1lmon-
intensificationmust be present in the festival, and in addition there will be the element
rrks of of symbolic abstinence-for instance from work, from play, from studn from religious
rm the observances.In sum, festival presentsa completerange of behavioral modalities, each
social one relatedto the modalities of normal daily life. At festival times, people do something
rcriod- they normally do not; they abstain from somethingthey normally do; they carry to the
', series extremebehaviorsthat are usually regulated by measure;they invert patterns of daily
zs, all social life. Reversal, intensification, trespassing,and abstinence are the four cardinal
bonds, points of festive behavior.6
of the
gnizes III
inuity,
A morphology of festivals must indicate their minimal units and their possible
sequences.Such a theoretical operation, analogousto what Vladimir Propp did for
the constituentparts of the folktale, may aim at an archetypeaccountingfor all festivals,
or more accurately at "oicotypes" accounting for a class of festivals of the same kind
rcred/ or from the same cultural area.7Studies have indicated that several constituent parts
han a seemto be quantitatively ever-recurrent and qualitatively important in festive events.
ven i{ These units, building blocks of festivals, can all be considered ritual acts, "rites,"
4 I ALESSANI)Ho
t.At.ASsl
neaning sacred meal of Communion, the Greek tradition that Zeus is invisibly present at the
ritual banquetsof the Olympic Games, or the practice of the TsembangaMaring people
'eligious of New Guinea, who raise, slaughter, and eat pigs for and with the ancestors. In far
ion and less frequent cases, as in the potlatch, objects with special material and symbolic
area is value are ritually consumed,wasted, or destroyed.Ia
.es.B Ritual dramas are usually staged at festival sites, as rites have a strong tie to
rt intro- myths. Their subject matter is often a creation myth, a foundation or migratory legend,
tivities.
,rceived
i
i
i F
a::
or a military successparticularly relevant in the mythical or historical memory of the
community staging the festival. By means of the drama, the community members are
; within reminded of their Golden Age, the trials and tribulations of their founding fathers in
musical .F; reachingthe presentlocation of the community, the miracles of a saint, or the periodic
limited visit of a deity to whom the festival is dedicated. When the sacred story is not directly
means staged, it is very often hinted at or referred to in some segments or events of the
apegoat festival.rs
se rites Ritesof exchangeexpressthe abstract equality of the community members, their
.ry rites theoretical status as equally relevant members of a oocornmunitas,"a community of
se rites equals under certain shared laws of reciprocity. At the fair, money and goods are
objects exchangedat an economic level. At more abstract and symbolic levels, information,
) renew ritual gifts, or visits may be exchanged;public acts of pacification, symbolic remissio
ries.ro debitum, or thanksgiving for a grace received may take place in various forms of
rn from redistribution, sponsoredby the community or a privileged individual, who thus repays
rrt of a the community or the gods for what he has received in excess.r6
dhood, Festivaltypically includes rites of competition,which often constitute its cathartic
ICCUP€T- moment in the form of games. Even if games are commonly defined as competitions
regulated by special rules and with uncertain outcome (as opposed to ritual, the
tability outcome of which is known in advance), the logic of festival is concerned with the
ition in competitionand the awards for the winner; the rules of the game are canonic, and its
le with paradigm is ritual. The parts or roles are assignedat the beginning to the personae
nasters as equals and undifferentiated "contestants,"'ohopefuls,""candidates." Then the de-
velopmentand the result of the game create amongthem a oofinal"hierarchical order-
of the either binary (winners and losers) or by rank (from first to last). Games show how
rnction equality may be turned into hierarchy.r7Besides games in the strict sense, festival
played competitionsinclude various forms of contest and prize giving, from the election of
; of the the beauty queen to the selection of the best musician, player, singer, or dancer,
iecular individual or group, to awards to a new improvised narrative or work of art of any
ifically kind or to the best festive decorations. By singling out its outstanding members and
ments, giving them prizes, the group implicitly reaffirms some of its most important values.
nunity Athletic or competitive sporting events include individual or collective games of
:epers, luck, strength, or ability. These have been considered a "corruption" of older plays
:.
13 of ritual combatswith fixed routine and obligatory ending, such as the fight between
.e pre- Light and Darknessrepresenting cosmogony,then progressively historicized and ter-
y con- ritorialized into combats between, for example, the Christians and the Moors, or
at the representativeindividuals, the champions (literally "the sample") carrying the colors
)quent of the whole group.IB
nt and In their functional aspects,such gamesmay be seenas display and encouragement
nicate of skills such as strength, endurance, and precision, required in daily work and
in the military occupations;such was for instance the rationale of medieval mock battles.re
6 I TAIASSI
ALESSANDRO
IV
NOTES
I corre- l. For the meaning of festiual in Latin see ual (Washin6on: SmithsonianInstitution Press,
t all the The Oxford Latin Dictionary, ed. P. G. Clare l9B2), especially pp. lI-30, and also his
;carcely (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1982), pp. 686, "Liminal to Liminoid, in Play, Flow and Rit-
69 4-9 5 ; L ex icon TotiusL atinit at is, ed. E gidi o ual," Rice Uniuersity Studies 60 (1974), pp.
omplete
Forcellini (Padua: Typis Seminarii, 1940), 53-92; Robert J. Smith, "Festivals and Cel-
e actual 2:452-53,468; Charles Du Cange, Glossar- ebrations," in Richard Dorson, ed., Folklore
uted all ium Medio,eet Inf.mae Lainita.tis (Niort: Favre, and Folklife (Chicagoand London: University
Llization lBB4), 3:436 -38, 462-63. of Chicago Press, 1972), pp. 159-72, and
secular 2. For the meaning of festiaal in the Ro- his The Art of the Festiual (Lawrence: Uni-
,llective mance languages, see the Vocabolariodegli versity of Kansas Press, 1975); Carla Bianco
tn more Accademicidella Crusca, 5th ed. (Florence: and Maurizio del Ninno, eds., Festa. Antro-
Tipografia Galileiana, Iffi6), 5:757-SB, Bl4- pologia e Semiotica, Acts of the International
, tightly
20; Dictionnaire de l'Acaddmie Frangaise, Bth Congressof l97B in Montecatini (Florence:
eople.22 ed. (Paris:Hachette, 1932),I:537, 554; Real Nuova Guaraldi, 1981); Roger Caillois,
media, Acadernia Espaflola, Diccionario d,e la Len- "Theorie de la F€te," Notnelle Reotn Fran-
r as the gua Espaftola, I9th ed. (Madrid: Espasa- qai"se27 (1939): 863-82; 28 (1940): 49-59;
estivals Calpe, 1970); Jos6 Pedro Machado, Dbbn' Beverly Stoeltje, "Festival in America," in
:ntation ario Etirnol6gico d,a Lingua Portugu,esa, 3d Richard Dorson, ed., Hand,booltof American
ng, the ed. (Lisbon: Horizonte, 1977),3:38, 40. Folklore (Bloomington: Indiana University
3. For the meaning of festiaal in English, Press, 1983), pp. 239-46; John J. Mac-
ght and
see for instance the Middle English Diction- Aloon, "Cultural Performances,Culture The-
of July ary, ed. H. Kurath and S. M. Kuhn (Ann ory" in his (ed.) Rite, Drama, Festiual,Spectodc
Ioween. Arbor: University of Michigan Pressand Lon- (Philadelphia:ISHI Press, l9B4), pp. I-I5;
;'. Even don: Oxford University Press, 1952), 3:451, Jean Duvignaud, F€tes et Ciailizations (Paris
be, in 529; The Shorter Engli^shDictionary, ed. C. and Geneva:Weber, 1973); Marianne Mesnil,
the In- T. Onions, 3d ed. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, "The Masked Festival: Disguise or Affirma-
ndency 1973), pp. 742-43; Webster'sThird New In- tion?" Cultures 3 (1976) no. 2:11-29. For
ternational Dictionary, ed. P. Babcock Gove festive events as symbolic representationsof
; in the (Springfield,Mass.:Merriam Co., 1976), pp. worldview, see Alan Dundes and Alessandro
lse are
Bts, B4l. Falassi, La Terra in Piazza: An Interpretation
e, such 4. For the meaning of festiual in the social of the Palio of Siena (Berkeley and Los An-
:ntine's sciences, seeDictionary of Folklore, Mythol- geles: University of California Press, 1975).
rternity ogy and Legend.,ed. Maria Leach (New York: Compare Clifford Geerlz, "Deep Play: Notes
dential Funk and Wagnalls, 1949), I:376; Dictionary on Balinese Cockfight,"D aed,alw 101 (1972):
; of the of Myhology Folhlore and Symbols, ed. Ger- t-37.
trude Jobes (New York: Scarecrow Press, 5. For the sacred/profane dichotomy and
Mister,
196l), l:563; The Encyclopaedia of Social semantic pair, see Emile Durkheim, The El-
rts that
Scierrces,ed. Edwin R. A. Seligman (New ernentaryForms of the Religious Life (London:
hrough York: Macmillan, 1937), 6:198-2OI; Ency- Allen and Unwin/New York: Macmillan, 1915);
county clopaedia of Religion and Ethics (New York: Mircea Eliade, The Sacred and the Profane
Scribner's, 196I), 5:835-94. For general (New York: Harper Torchbooks, 196I). Com-
events discussionsof festive events. see Victor Tumer. pare Sally F. Moore and Barbara G. Myerhoff,
space, ed., Celebration: Stu.diesin Festiaity and Rit- eds.. Secular Ritual (Amsterdam: Van Gor-
I I ALESSANDRo
llt,Asst
're (Co- llhardway, Hindu Places of Pilgrim'age in In- 1972), pp. 135-62; Richard Schechner,
l8), pp. dia (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of "Ramlila of Ramnagar and America's Ober-
Califomia Press, 19?3); Victor Turner and ammergau:Two Celebratory Ritual Dramas,"
for in- Edith Turner, Image and Pilgrimage in Chris- in Victor Turner, Celebration, pp. 89-106;
iompar- tian Cuhure: Anthropobgiral Perspectiaes(New Paul Radin, "The Ritual Drama" in his Prim-
I Ward, York: Columbia University Press, 1978); and itiue Religion (New York: Dover, f957)' pp.
and the Victor Turner, Process,Performanceand Pil- 289-306.
grimage: A Study in Comparatioe Symbology 16. On ritual exchange see the classic
Claude Marcel Mauss, The Gi.ft (New York: Norton,
lNew Delhi: Concept, 1979). Forparades and
rd (New processions,see, for instance, Sydney!qlo, f967). On pp. 40-41 Mauss discusses the
l5-I6. Spectacle,Pageantry, and Early Tudar Policy three obligations to give, to receive, and to
us and (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1969); Albert D' reciprocate. See also Raymond Firth, "Sym-
" in his Mackie, ScottkhPageantry (London: Hutch- bolism in Giving and Getting," in his Symbols
A.thlone inson, 1967); Leroy F. Vaughn, Parade and Public and Priuate (Ithaca: Cornell University
Eliade, Float Guid'e (Minneapolis: Denison, 1956); Press, 1973), pp. 368-402. Forethnographic
-95.
David Colin Dunlop, Processiow:A Disser- data, see for instance G' A. M. Bus, "The
'Te'Festival or Gift Exchange in Enga (Cen-
feguard tation, Together With Pranical Suggestions
,e Gogo (London: Oxford University Press, 1932). tral Highlands of New Guinea)," Anthropos
r Social 14. For classic rites of conspicuous con- 46 (195I): Bl3-24. On economic aspectssee
:h, ed., sumptionand ritual offerings, see H. G' Bar- Roger Abrahams, "The Language of Festi-
rbridge: nette, "The Nature of the Potlatch," Arnerican vals: Celebrating the Economy," in Victor
r. 153- Anthropologi.sl40(1983): 349-58. For an in- Turner, Celebration, pP. 16\-77.
rr (Lon- terpretive essay, see Alan Dundes, "Heads I?. On games, play, and ludic elements
'6). or Tails: A PsychoanalyticStudy of Potlatch," in festival see the seminal Johann Huizinga,
classic JournaL of Psychological Anthropology 2 Homa Lud.crw:A Stud'y of the Play Element in
Dassage Culture (Boston: Beacon Press, 1955) and
(1979): 395-424; Roy A. Rappaport, Plgs
re60); af a Roger Caillois, Man, Play and Games(Clen-
for the Arrcestors:Rittnl in the Ecology
Process New Guinea People (New Haven: Yale Uni- coe: Free Press, 1961). Context is discussed
tration, versity Press, 1968); Evon Z. Yogt, TortiLlas in John M. Roberts, Malcom J. Arth, and
tites de Zinacan- Robert R. Bush, "Games in Culture,".Amer-
'itual for the Gods:A Symbolic Analysis of
of teco Rituals (Cambridge: Harvard University ican Anthropologist 6f (1959): 587-605.
chester Press, 1976); Henri Hubert and Marcel Mauss, Communitas and hierarchy are terms of a se-
ior dis- mantic pair introduced and discussedby Vic-
Sacrifice:Its Nature and Function (Chicago:
rmpara- Univlrsity of Chicago Press, 1964); n' 5' tor Turner in The Ritual Process- Structure
tiation Drower, "The Ritual Meal," Folk-Lore 48 and Anti-structure (Chicago: Aldine, 1969)'
f Stanrs (193?): 226-44; Sula Benet, Festiaal Meruu pp.94-204.
vlerrill, 'round
the World (New York: Abelard-Schu- lB. These concepts are discussed in Mir-
Worton, man, 1957). cea Eliade, Patternsin ComparatiueReligion,
es (New 15. On the relationship between ritual pp. 319-21, 431-34. See also Herbert Jen-
t Cross- drama and festival see, for instance, Tristram nings Rose, "suggested Explanation of Ritual
Rites," P. Coffin and Hennig Cohen, "Folk Drama Combats," Folk-Lore 36 (1925): 322-31.
37-53. and Folk Festival," in their Folklore inArner- 19. For medieval mimic battles see, for
ra Bab- ico (New York: Doubleday, 1966), pp' 195- instance, William Heywood, Palio and Ponte
rld, pp. 225;Yictor Turner, "social Dramas and Rit- (London: Methuen. 1904).
rd icon- ual Metaphors" in his (ed.) Dramas, Fields, 20. See notes B and 9.
ruseppe and Metaphors. Symbolic Action in Hurnan 21. A classic extensive study of a com-
rin: Ei- Society (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, plete festival cycle in Arnold van Cennep,
n of the '"Dramaand Marurcl de Folklore Franqak Contemporain,
19741.pp. 23-59:Abner Cohen,
ersals," Politics in the Developmentof a London Car- 9 vols. (Paris: Picard, I93B-58). Compara-
Axioms naval,"Man 15 (1980): 65-87;Alfonso Ortiz, tive data are in E. O. James, SeasonalFeasts
' of Cal- and Festiuals(New York: Barnes and Noble,
"Ritual Drama and Pueblo Worldview" in his
(ed.) lVeraPerspectiueson the Pu.eblos(Albu- 1963). For the festive cycle of a single reli-
Mohan querque: University of New Mexico Press, gious group, see, for instance, M. M. Un-
l0 / nmsserunRoFALASST
derhill, The Hind,u Religiotu Year (Oxford: City: Doubleday, 1976); Ron Dorson, fhe lndy
Odord University Press, 1921), and San- 500: An American Institution Under Fire
gendi MahalingaNatesaSastri, Hindu Feasts, (Newport Beach: Bond-Parkjurst Books, 1974).
Fasts,and Ceremonies(Madras: M. E. Pub- For individual festivities, see, for instance,
lishing House, 1903). John E. Baur, Christma.s on the Am.erican
22. A discussionof contemporary history Fronti,er 1800-1900 (Caldwell, Idaho: Cax-
politics, and festivals is in GeorgeMosse, TAe ton, 196l); Howard Sickel, Thanlrgiaing: Its
Nationalization of the Masses(New York: Fer- Source, Philosophy and History (Philadel-
tig, 1975). For historical evolution and change phia: Intemational Printing Company, 1940);
of meaning in festival, see Marianne Mesnil, William H. Cohn, "A National Celebration:
Trois Essaissurla F€te (Brussels: Editions de The Fourth of July in American History" Cul-
I'Universit6, 1974). For a specific case study tures 3 (1976), no. 2: 14I-56; Ralph Linton
see Victor Barnouwl "The Changing Char- and Adelin Linton, Hahl,outeenThrough Twerty
acter of a Hindu Festival.".AmerbanAnthro- Centuries (New York: Shuman, 1950); Jack
pologist 56 (195a): 74-86.
Santino, "Halloween in America: Contem-
23. For festivals in the United States see
porary Customs and Performances," Western
the thoroughintroduction in Beverly Stoeltje,
Folklore 42 (1983): l-20. General notes are
"Festival in America." For a general study
in Ian Brunvand, "Customs and Festivals" in
see W. Lloyd Warner, The Liuing and the
The Stud,y of American Folklore (New York:
Dead,: A Stu.dy of th,e Symbolic Life of the
Norton, 1968), pp. I97-210i John A. Gu-
Am,erbarc(New Haven: Yale University Press,
towski, "The Protofestival: Local Guide to
1959). For the festive cycle seeJane M. Hatch,
American Folk Behavior," Journal of the
The Am.erican Book of Days, 3d. ed. (New
Folklore lrctitute 15 (1978): I 13-30; Mary T.
York: Wilson, l97B). For festivals of ethnic
Douglas, ed., Food in the Social Order: Stud-
groups, see for instance, Melwin Wade,
ies of Food,and Festiaities in Three American
"'Shining in Borrowed Plumage': Affirmation
of Community in the Black Coronation Fes- Communities (New York: Russell Sage Foun-
tivals of New England (c. 1750-<. lB50)," dation, f9B4); W. Lloyd Wamer, "An Amer-
WesternFolklore 40 (IgBf), no. 3: 21I-31; ican SacredCeremony"(Memorial Day) in his
Evon Z. Vogt, "A Study of the Southwestern Am,ericanLife: Dream and Reality (Chicago:
Fiesta Systemas Exemplified by the Laguna University of Chicago Press, 1953), pp. 1-
Fiesta,'oAmericqn Anthropologrsr57 (1955): 26. For the actual organization of festivals,
820-39. For individual eventsn see, for in- eee Joe Wilson and Lee Udall, Folk Festiaals.
stance, Jack Barry Ludwig, TIw Greu Amcr- A Handbook for Organizatbn and Manage-
ban Spectorulars: The Kenturky Derby, Mordi rnenr(Knoxville: University of Gnnessee Press,
Gras, and, Other Days of Celnbratinn (Garden 1982).